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Beyond NIMBY: the Emergence of Environmental Activism and Policy Change in Two Chinese Cities

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Beyond NIMBY: the Emergence of Environmental Activism and Policy Change in Two Chinese Cities Beyond NIMBY: The Emergence of Environmental Activism and Policy Change in Two Chinese Cities Wai Man Natalie Wong Doctor of Philosophy University of York Politics September 2014 Abstract The present research article focuses on public participation in the environmental policy-making process in post-Mao China. It is a well-known fact that public administration in socialist China is highly centralised, and that public policies are initiated at the center and then locally administered under the one-party rule. In this monist political system, main stakeholders in the policy process are mainly Chinese Communist Party cadres, together with the ‘authorised’ groups of societies; so far participation from autonomous interest groups and society has been limited at best. In general, the ‘western model’ of civil society, which is characterised by a plurality of interest groups participating in public policymaking, implementation and evaluation, has – so far – been absent in China. This study aims to use environmental protection as a platform to examine the transformations that have been taking place in the environmental policy process and use it as a piece of references to revisit the current academic literature on China. Specifically this article will compare two anti-incinerator protests in Guangzhou (Canton) and Beijing, to illustrate the dynamics surrounding the emergence of public participation in China’s environmental policy process. This study plans to analyse why Guangzhou and Beijing Municipal governments have had different responses and attitudes to address citizens’ grievances. Furthermore, the research will dwell on the establishment up of a Public Consultative and Supervision Committee for Urban Waste Management in Guangzhou City, a public consultative mechanism on waste management, which certainly represents a major novelty and a breakthrough for the policy making process of China. This research project demonstrates how policy adjustment is not determined solely by protests’ outcomes but is also greatly affected by the response of local governments and the development of civil society. Consequently, the discussion is expected to give a new interpretation on environmental management of China. ii Table of Contents Abstract ii Table of Contents iii Acknowledgement v Author’s Declaration vi Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 6 1.2 Anti-incinerator Protests in Beijing and Guangzhou 9 1.3 Research Strategies and Significances 11 1.4 Organisation and Anticipated problems of the Research 12 Chapter 2 Big Picture: Political-Economic Development in Post-Mao’s China 14 2.1 Political-economic Development in Post-Mao’s China 15 2.2 Public Participation in Post-Mao’s China 17 Chapter Conclusion 19 Chapter 3 Development of Environmental Management and the Rise of 21 Environmental State 3.1 Environmental Crisis in Post-Mao’s Era 24 3.2 The Rise of the Environmental State in Fragmented, Authoritarian China 24 3.3 Integrated Environmental Management in China? 32 3.3.1 Economic Actors in the Environmental Management of China 32 3.3.2 The Rise of Civil Society and “Embedded Activism” in the Environmental 34 Sphere 3.3.3 Mass Media Coverage of Environmental Issues in China 38 3.4 The Emergence of Environmental Protests and Anti-Incinerator Activism in 41 China 3.4.1 The Mass Environmental Resistance in Post-Mao’s China 41 3.4.2 The Rise of Anti-Incinerator Activism in China 42 3.4.3 Anti-Incinerator Activism and Policy Change 45 Chapter Conclusion 46 Chapter 4 Literature Review: Advocacy Coalition Framework and Policy Change 49 4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Taking Stock of the Advocacy Coalition Framework 50 4.3 Merits and Limitations of Advocacy Coalition Framework 53 4.4 The Application of Advocacy Coalition Framework in the Chinese Context 55 Chapter Conclusion 60 Chapter 5 Research Methodology 5.1 Newspaper Articles and Government Archives 64 5.2 Online Discussion Forum 65 iii 5.3 In-depth Interviews 66 5.3.1 Interview Questions 66 5.3.2 Selection of interviewees 67 5.4 Research Limitations 69 Chapter 6 Case Study: The Anti-incinerator Protest in Liulitun, Beijing 72 6.1 Background 72 6.2 The Power of Citizens: The Anti-incinerator Protest in Liulitun, Beijing 73 6.3 Post-activism: What is Going on in Liulitun? 88 6.4 Municipal Waste Management in Beijing after the Activism 89 Chapter conclusion 90 Chapter 7 Case Study: The Anti-incinerator Movement in Guangzhou: From 96 Activism to a Consultative Committee 7.1 Background of activism 96 7.2 The Rise of Activism in Panyu 99 7.3 Incinerator Returns in Panyu District 103 7.4 The Rise of Eco-Canton: From Activism to a Consultative Committee 106 7.5 Public Participation in Public Affairs: A Trial 109 7.6 Municipal Waste Management in the Post-Activism Era 111 Chapter conclusion 112 Chapter 8 Discussion 118 8.1 Using Advocacy Coalition Framework to Compare Anti-incinerator Activism 119 in Beijing and Guangzhou 8.1.1 Coalitions and Policy Beliefs 119 8.1.2 Resources Mobilisation and Strategies of Each Coalition in the Activism 120 8.1.3 Policy Change 124 8.2 Limitations of Applying Advocacy Coalition Framework in the Chinese 128 Context 8.3 How Policy Adjustments Have Changed Local Government and Civil Society 129 Relations? Chapter conclusion 132 Chapter 9 Conclusion 134 Appendices A. Map of China 142 B. Map of Beijing City and Location of Liulitun 143 C. Map of Guangzhou City and Location of Panyu 144 D. Timeline of anti-incinerator activism in Beijing Liulitun 145 E. Timeline of anti-incinerator activism in Guangzhou Panyu 152 F. Interviewees’ Demographics 157 G. Interview Questions 161 Bibliography 162 iv Acknowledgements I received help from many people during the process of writing this dissertation. First of all, I would like to thank the people who has shared with me their experiences and insights on China’s environmental challenges and social activism, without which this dissertation would be only in vain. Also, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Neil Carter and Professor Martin Smith, whose expertise, understanding, and patience, added considerably to my doctoral study. They have never hesitated to give me intellectual support and encouragement, and they are patient readers of my manuscripts and to offer comments and suggestions. I also acknowledge the valuable input from my whole Dissertation Committee to bring about the final product. I need to thank the External Examiner of this dissertation, Professor Arthur P.J. Mol of Wageningen University, the Netherlands, for his insightful comments and recommendations on my work. Of course, I will not forget the inspiring suggestions from my Internal Examiner, Dr. Jim Buller of University of York. I am grateful to Mr. Zhang Boju, the Chief Executive Officer of Friends of Nature, and those anonymous interviewees for providing me valuable information and helping me contact some protesters in the conducting fieldwork in China. Without them, the completion of this dissertation would not have been possible. I also like to extend my acknowledgement to several persons who inspired me to complete this dissertation. Ever since I became interested in environmental politics in China, I have benefited from, Dr. Fengshi Wu, Dr. Simona Grano, Dr. Lin Peng and Dr. Lawrence Ho for their friendship and intellectual supports in my dissertation writing. I also do not forget the excellent proof reading services from Ms Rachel Davis. She spotted my presentation problems and effectively facilitates my communication to the potential readers of my work. Finally, this dissertation is dedicated to my parents for their love and support throughout my study. v Declaration I declare that this thesis is a presentation of original work and I am the sole author. This work has not previously been presented for an award at this, or any other, University. All sources are acknowledged as References. vi Chapter 1. Introduction Beijing and Guangzhou have experienced considerable controversy over the construction of incinerators in 2006 and 2009, respectively. In 2006, the citizens of Beijing launched several demonstrations against the plan to build an incinerator in Liulitun district. Three years later, the citizens of Panyu district in Guangzhou protested against plans to construct an incinerator near their homes. The protesters in both cases expressed concerns about the environmental and health effects of incinerators, in addition to voicing their dissatisfaction with being excluded from the decision-making process. They protested, contacted the media and sought help from experts – all to influence the government. Eventually, both municipal governments suspended the plans and relocated the incinerators, marking victories for the protesters while revealing the increasing influence of citizens’ involvement in the Chinese environmental policy process. Through comparing two anti-incinerator protests in Guangzhou and Beijing, this thesis examines the linkage between environmental activism and the change of environmental policy at local level of China. More broadly, the governments’ responses to these protests have changed gradually, making an understanding of the recent developments in civil society and social activism particularly important in China. Since the economic reforms of the late 1970s, Chinese society has experienced unprecedented economic growth, becoming one of the largest economies in the twenty-first century. The crackdown following the Tiananmen Uprising leading up to the 4 June 1989 Massacre did not interrupt the country’s overall
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