"This she-camel of God is a sign to you" Dimensions ofAnimals in Islamic Tradition and Muslim Culture

RICHARD FOLTZ

It is frequently claimed that one position or an­ Muslims ofdiverse cultural backgrounds would other represents "true" Islam. Nevertheless, show both similarities and differences. This in­ there exists no unified Islamic or Muslim view deed turns out to be the case. ofnonhuman animals. It is also important to ac­ knowledge that, while the terms are often dif­ ficult to disentangle for those both within and Nonhuman Animals in Islamic Texts without the tradition, "Islamic" and "Muslim" are certainly not synonymous, since attitudes Islam (literally, "submission"), as an ideal is un­ held by individuals or collectives who happen to derstood by believers as the state God wills for be "Muslim" may not be "Islamic." 1 His creation (khalq). This is apprehended by the There are currently about 1.2 billion Mus­ Sunni majority through the revealed scripture lims, and they can be found in nearly every of the Qur'an, the life example of the Prophet country. The vast majority-about 85 percent MulJ.ammad (the sunna, as attested in lJ.adtth -are not Arab but belong to other ethnic and repofts), and the shari 'a, a comprehensive code linguistic groups. The largest concentration of of life as articulated in the legal texts of the Muslims, 33 percent. can be found in South so-called Classical period (eighth to tenth cen­ Asia. The nations with the largest Muslim popu­ turies CE). ShI'ttes also follow the teachings of lations are Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and their Imams, and Sufis (who can be Sunni or India. By contrast the Middle East contains 25 ShtI) defer to the authority of their spiritual percent ofthe world's Muslim population. Since guides (shaykhs, orpirs). The actual practices and Muslim identities and worldviews are in all cases attitudes of Muslims have always been shaped made up of multiple sources, one would predict by Islamic sources in combination with extra­ that attitudes toward nonhuman animals among Islamic cultural ones. Islamic sources tend to be RICHARD FOLTZ embodied in authoritative texts, while cultural in atonement for transgressions committed dur­ in them when y sources often are not. ing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). Also surviv­ nings and wher Much ofIslam's textual tradition is originally ing are beliefs in metamorphosis (maskh), sev­ in the morning: 8 in Arabic, which for many centuries played a eral examples of which occur in the Qur'an. [many] a place 1 role analogous to the scholarly lingua franca in Some heterodox Muslim groups retained a be­ unable to reach Christian Europe. The Arabic word used in the lief in metempsychosis (tanasukh). Six chapters selves. And [it Classical texts to refer to animals, including hu­ of the Qur'an are named for animals: the Cow mules and asse~ mans, is hayawiin (pI. hayawiiniit).2 This term (2), the Cattle (6), the Bee (16), the Ant (28), [their] beauty: : appears only once in the Qur'an, however, where the Spider (29), and the Elephant (105). which [today] y it refers rather to the "true" existence of the Islam is what contemporary ecologists would afterlife.3 For nonhuman animals the Qur'an in­ probably call a strongly anthropocentric reli­ Yet despite th stead uses the term dabba (pI. dawiibb).4 gion, although Muslims might prefer to see their scribed as similar Human beings are often described in Ara­ worldview as "theocentric." Within the hier­ most all respects. 1 bic texts as "the speaking animal" (hayawiin al­ archy of Creation, Muslims see humans as occu­ nonhuman anim~ niitiq), although the Qur'an itself acknowledges pying a special and privileged status. The Qur'an (nafi). Some Mm that nonhuman animals also have speech: says, "Hast thou not seen how Allah has sub­ nonhuman anim jected (sakhkhara) to you all that is in the with humans on And [in this insight] Solomon was [truly] Da­ earth?" 9 The term khalifa (lit., "successor"), Qur'an states tha

vid's heir; and he would say: "0 you people! We which in the Qur'an is applied to humans, is if this praise is I have been taught the speech of birds, and have generally defined by contemporary Muslims as guage.15 The QUI been given [in abundance] of all [good] things: "vice-regent," as in the verses that state "I am not an animal in this, behold, is indeed a manifest favor [from setting on the earth a vice-regent (khalifa)," and on two wings, bUl God]!"5 "It is He who has made you his vice-regent on sg. umma) like u earth." 10 According to this view, while non­ Classical period, Arabs in pre-Islamic times practiced animal human Creation is subjugated to human needs, mised from this v cults, various meat taboos, sympathetic magic the proper human role is that of conscientious where states tha' (istimtar) and possibly totemism. Some tribes steward and not exploiter,u The earth was not nity (umma) wit! had animal names, such as the Quraysh created for humans alone: ''And the earth has He having lived amo ("shark"), which was the tribe of the Prophet spread out for all living beings (aniim)." 12 Every­ human 'animals: Mu\:lammad, and the Asad ("lion").6 Certain thing in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (d. 1062) denied animals, including camels, horses, bees, and (aya), inviting Muslims to contemplate the Cre­ Allah are only al others, were believed to carry blessing (baraka), ator. Nonhuman animals fall into this category, the ability to spe~ while others, such as dogs and cats, were asso­ as in the following verse: but his rebuttal ciated with the evil eye. Genies (jinn) were be­ explicitly states t lieved sometimes to take animal form. . .. This she-camel of God is a sign to you; so their own langua The Qur'an proscribed many pre-Islamic leave her to graze in God's earth, and let her come The Qur'an e practices related to animals,? which neverthe­ to no harm, or you shall be seized with a griev­ of the needs of less survived in some cases. Also notable is the ous punishment.13 moving creature persistence of blood sacrifices, such as that per­ for its sustenanc formed on the Feast of Sacrifice (Eid al-Adha) Nevertheless, the Qur'an specifies that cer­ mans alone: '~ which commemorates the prophet Abraham's tain animals were created for the benefit of hu­ all living creatur willingness to sacrifice his son (Isma'il, not Isaac, mans: even receive div in Islamic tradition). Many Muslims also make which states: ''A blood sacrifices in fulfillment of vows (nazr), And He has created cattle for you: you derive bee, saying: 'mal seven days after the birth of a child (aqiqa), or warmth from them, and [various] other uses; and in the trees, an( on the tenth day of the month of Dhu'l-hijja from them you obtain food; and you find beauty has thus been all 151 "THIS SHE-CAMEL OF GOD IS A SIGN TO YOU mmitted dur­ in them when you drive them home in the eve­ tators that humans are unique only in that they '. Also surviv­ nings and when you take them out to pasture possess volition (taqwa), and are thus respon­ (maskh), sev­ in the mornings. And they carry your loads to sible for their actionsP 8 the Qur'an. [many] a place which [Otherwise] you would be etained a be­ unable to reach without great hardship to your­ . Six chapters selves. And [it is He who horses and Meat-Eating and Slaughter lais: the Cow mules and asses for you to ride, as well as for the Ant (28), [their] beauty: and He will yet create things of Islamic dietary laws are derived both from the (105). 4 which [today] you have no knowledge.l Qur'an and from the Classical legal tradition. ,logists would The overwhelming majority of Muslims eat ocentric reli­ Yet despite this hierarchy, hwnans are de­ meat; indeed, meat-eating is mentioned in the :er to see their scribed as similar to nonhuman animals in al­ Qur'an as one of the pleasures of heaven.23 The :lin the hier­ most all respects. Unlike in Christianity, in Islam Qur'an explicitly allows the eating of animal nans as occu­ nonhuman animals are considered to have souls flesh, with certain exceptions: s. The Qur'an (nafs). Some Muslim scholars have opined that lIah has sub­ nonhuman animals will be resurrected along o you who have arrained to faith! Be true to your lat is in' the with humans on the Day of Judgment. The covenants! Lawful to you is [the flesh of] every "successor") , Qur'an states that all creation praises God, even beast that feeds on plants, save what is men­ o humans, is jf this praise is not expressed in human lan­ tioned to you [hereinafter]: but you are not al­ 'f Muslims as 15 guage. The Qur'an further says that "There is lowed to hunt while you are in a state ofpilgrim­ t state "1 am not an animal in the earth, nor a flying creature age. Behold, God ordains in accordance with his khalifa)," and on two wings, but they are communities (umiim, will.24 ice-regent on sg. umma) like unto you." l6 A jurist from the , while non­ Classical period, Ahmad ibn Habit, even sur­ On the other hand the Qur'an prohibits the lUman needs, mised from this verse that since the Qur'an else­ eating of animals that have not been ritually :onscientious where states that "there never was a commu­ slaughtered, as well as the eating of blood, and ~arrh was not nity (umma) without a warner [i.e., a prophet] pIgS: :eatth has He having lived among them," 17 then perhaps non­ 'm)."12 Every­ human animals also have prophets. Ibn Hazm sign of God (d. I062) denied this, arguing that "the laws of Forbidden to you is carrion, and blood, and the flesh of swine, and that over which any name )late the Cre­ Allah are only applicable to those who possess other than God's has been invoked, and the ani­ this category, the ability to speak and can understand them," 18 mal that has been strangled, or beaten to death, but his rebuttal lacks weight since the Qur'an explicitly states that animals do speak, albeit in or killed by a fall, or gored to death, or savaged by ign to you; so their own languages. a beast ofprey, save that which you [yourselves] Id let her come The Qur'an emphasizes that God takes care may have slaughtered while it was still alive; and 1with a griev­ of the needs of all living things: "There is no [forbidden to youl is all that has been slaugh­ 25 moving creature on earth, but Allah provides tered on idolatrous altars. for its sustenance." 19 The world is not for hu­ fies that cer­ mans alone: "And the earth: He has assigned to A similar verse, however, adds an exemption )enefit of hu- all living creatures." 20 Nonhuman animals can in case of dire need: even receive divine revelation, as in the verse which states: "And your Lord revealed to the ... but if one is driven [to it] by necessuy IU: you derive bee, saying: 'make hives in the mountains, and neither coveting it nor exceeding his immedi­ >ther uses; and in the trees, and in (human] habitations."21 It ate need-verily, God is much-forgiving, a dis­ :}U find beauty has thus been argued by some Islamic commen­ penser of grace.26 RICHARD FOLTZ

Muslim jurists later expanded these restric­ a dog dying of thirst.33 In the interpretation of • He should tions, categorizing all animals in terms of G. H. Bousquet, Islam thus "condemns to hell sight. whether eating them is lawful (halan, discour­ those who mistreat animals, and ... more impor­ • He should aged (makriih), or forbidden (hariim). Classifi­ tantly, accords extraordinary grace to those who ters and w cations differed somewhat from one school to do them good." 34 cleaned reg the next, but among the animals forbidden by The killing of some animals for any reason is • Heshould the jurists are dogs, donkeys, frogs, peacocks, forbidden on the basis of certain ~adIths. Ani­ place durir storks, beetles, crustaceans, and many kinds mals that Muslims are never to kill include • He should of insects (although locusts are popular among hoopoes and magpies, frogs, ants and bees. On that break Bedouins). Some prohibitions arise from the the other hand, Mu~ammad ordered the kill­ eating.35 animal's behavior, such as scavenging or eat­ ing of certain other animals, including mottled ing other forbidden animals, from the unpleas­ crows, dogs, mice, and scorpions. Muslims are The legal ca ant flavor of their meat, or merely because they not allowed to kill any living thing while in a animals throug are considered "disgusting." The eating ofcarni­ state of ritual purity, for example while pray­ (haqq al-shurb) vores, monkeys, or reptiles is mostly forbidden, ing or on pilgrimage. Animal skins may be used in the verse, " although the Maliki school permits the flesh as prayer rugs, but only if the animal has been let her drink!" of jackals, birds of prey, monkeys, and most ritually slaughtered. Hunting for sport is forbid­ irony that Cia reptiles. den on the basis of numerous ~adlths, as are human animal Ritual (haliii) slaughter is said to follow the animal fights and other such entertainment, al­ the "modern" J principle of compassion for the animal being though Muslims have often not abided by these However, a killed. According to the ~adlth literature, Mu­ prohibitions. animals are gt hammad said, "If you kill, kill well, and if their interests you slaughter, slaughter well. Let each of you those of huma sharpen his blade and let him spare suffering to Animal Rights in the Islamic Legal the animal he slaughters."27 Tradition The unbelie Apart from condoned slaughter for purposes of an anima of human survival, Muf?,ammad frequently re­ The thirteenth-century legal scholar 'Izz ai-din interest of tJ minded his companions to take the interests ibn 'Abd ai-salam, in his Qawa'id al-ahkam doing he giv of nonhuman animals into consideration. The fi masaLih al-anam (RuLes for 1udgment in the mil over a h ~adlths report him as saying, "For [charity Cases ofLiving Beings), has the following to say shown to] each creature which has a wet heart about a person's obligations toward his domes­ The tenth-I [i.e., is alive], there is a reward."28 In another tic animals: came a vegan ~adlth, Mu~ammad is said to have reprimanded leading theolo some men who were sitting idly on their camels • He should spend [time, money or effort] on it, more compas: in the marketplace, saying "Either ride them or even if the animal is aged or diseased in such spite the right; leave them alone." 29 He is also reported to have a way that no benefit is expected from it. His in Islamic law, said, "There is no man who kills [even] a spar­ spending should be equal to that on a similar losophers wou row or anything smaller, without its deserving animal useful to him. does not simF it, but Allah will question him about it [on the • He should not overburden it. would label a Day ofJudgment]," 30 and "Whoever is kind to • He should not place with it anything that quires them. the creatures of God, is kind to himself." 31 The migh t cause it harm, whether ofthe same kind ~adlths mention two contrasting stories with or a different species. particular relevance to the treatment ofanimals. • He should kill it properly and with consider­ In one, a woman is condemned to hell because ation; he should not cut their skin or bones she has mistreated a in another, a sinner is until their bodies have become cold and their saved by the grace ofAllah he gives water to life has passed fully away. 153 THIS SHE-CAMEL OF GOD IS A SIGN TO YOU

interpretation of He should not kill their young within their Nonhuman Animals in Islamic Philosophy condemns to hell sight. and Mysticism d ... more impor­ He should give them different resting shel­ race to those who ters and watering places which should all be Islamic philosophers and mystics have often cleaned regularly. used nonhuman animals in their writings. Al­ , for any reason is • He should put the male and female in the same most invariably, however, animal figures are em­ ain ~adlths. Ani­ place during their mating season. ployed as symbols for particular human traits, r to kill include He should not hunt a wild animal with a rool or are entirely anthropomorphized actors in ms and bees. On that breaks bones, rendering it unlawful for human-type dramas. In other words, even where ordered the kill­ eating. 35 nonhuman animals appear, the real message is lCluding mottled about humans. The philosophical treatise of the )ns. Muslims are The legal category of water rights extends to so-called "Pure Brethren" (Ikhwan al-saJa) of thing while in a animals through the law of "the right of thirst" Basra, The Case ofthe Animals versus Man Be­ nple while pray­ (haqq al-shurb). A Qur'anic basis can be found fore the King of the jinn, and the epic poem >:ins may be used in the verse, "It is the she-camel of Allah, so of Farid ad-Din Attar, Conference of the Birds animal has been let her drink!"36 It has been noted with some (Mantiq al-tayr) are rwo examples. Both works )r sport is"forbid­ irony that Classical Islamic law accords non­ are treated in this volume in the rwo essays that , ~adlths, as are human animals greater access to water than do follow this one, by Zayn Kassam and Ali Asani, ltertainment, al­ the "modern" laws of the United States.37 respectively. t abided by these However, although the rights of nonhuman Islamic philosophy (folsafo) in the early cen­ animals are guaranteed in the legal tradition, turies derives primarily from the Hellenistic tra­ their interests are ultimately subordinate to dition. Aristotle's Historia animalium was trans­ those of humans. As ibn 'Abd al-salam writes: lated into Arabic in the eighth or ninth century, ~al and Muslim mystics (Sufis) associated the "ani­ The unbeliever who prohibits the slaughtering mal soul" of the philosophers with the "lower of an animal (for no reason bur] to achieve the self" (nafs), that is, the baser instincts which the holar 'Izz aI-din interest of the animal is incorrect because in so spiritual seeker must strive to overcome. wa'id al-ahkam doing he gives preference to a lower, khasis, ani­ In addition to Attar's Conference ofthe Birds, rudgment in the mal over a higher, nafis, animal,38 many other Sufi treatises also contain animal following to say stories and characters. Jalal ad-Din Rumi's vard his domes­ The tenth-century poet al-Ma'arri, who be­ thirteenth-century Mathnawi al-ma'anawi, came a vegan late in life, was accused by a which some Muslims have called "the Qur'an in leading theologian of the time of "trying to be Persian," is one ofthe best-known. In most cases ~yor effort] on it, more compassionate than God." 39 Thus, de­ animal characters are used to represent human diseased in such spite the rights accorded to nonhuman animals traits, such as a donkey for stubbornness. Else­ :ted from it. His in Islamic law, contemporary animal rights phi­ where, however, they serve as a contrast for hu­ that on a similar losophers would probably conclude that Islam man weaknesses, as when Rumi emphasizes the does not simply condone attitudes which they exemplary faith of nonhuman animals in their would label as "speciesist," 40 but actually re­ Creator: it anything that quires them. of the same kind The dove on the tree is uttering thanks to God, though her food is not yet ready. i with consider­ The nightingale is singing glory to God, ir skin or bones saying, "I rely on Thee for my daily Ie cold and their bread, 0 Thou who answerest prayer. 154 RICHARD FOLTZ

You may take every animal from the gnat Rabi'a had gone up on a mountain. Wild goats humans. Among t to the elephant: they have all become and galelles gathered around, gazing upon her. Muslim societies, I God's dependents ... Suddenly, Hasan Basri [another well-known al-Muqaffa's ninth [While] these griefs within our breasts arise early Muslim mystic] appeared. All the animals and Dimna, a cot from the vapor and dust of our existence shied away. When Hasan saw that, he was per­ litical in nature, wI and vain desire.41 plexed and said, "Rabi'a, why do they shy away from India.50 Oth, from me when they were so intimate with you?" include Warawini'

According to Rumi, nonhuman animals even Rabi'a said, "What did you eat today?" the Border-keeper I excel humans in some qualities, particularly that "Soup." shabi's fourteenth of loving devotion to which Sufis aspire: "You ate their lard. How would they not shy nama). The Thous. away from you?" 45 wa layla) stories Wolf and bear and lion know what love is: he characters. that is blind to love is inferior to a dog! If the :Abd aI-Karim aI-Qushayri (d. 1074 CE) tells The tradition 0 dog had not a vein of love, how should the dog a similar story about the early Sufi Ibrahim ibn (as opposed to "I: of the Cave have sought to win the heart of the Adham, who, it is said, liked to go hunting. One which is nonrepre Seven Sleepers? 42 day, as he was pursuing an antelope, he heard highly developed i You have not smelt the heart in your own a voice asking him, "0 Ibrahim, is it for this to India and Turke kind: how should you smell the heart in wolf and that We have created you?" Immediately he got especially ilIustrati sheep?43 down from his horse, gave his fine clothes to a Dimna) and royal shepherd in exchange for a wool tunic, and as­ books, carpets, IT On the other hand, Rumi's vision ofthe mys­ sumed the life of a wandering dervish.46 engravings. Lion I tic quest follows Aristotle's "great chain of be­ A number of Sufism's well-known historical nian tradition witl ing," in which the soul travels upward from an figures have been vegetarian. An early female public buildings, inorganic state to vegetable to animal to that of Sufi, Zaynab, is said to have been persecuted case ofSamarkand a human, before ultimately becoming lost in its for her refusal to eat meat.47 Most stories about ones. Creator: Sufi vegetarians originate in South Asia, suggest­ Works of Ml ing possible Hindu or Buddhist influence.48 On should also be IT I died to the inorganic state and became en­ the other hand, a few vegetarian anecdotes also best known is the 1 dowed with growth, and [then] I died to [vege­ occur among the Sufis of North Africa and the (Kitab al-hayawiir. table] growth and attained the animal. Ottoman world.49 Generally speaking, however, As in the fable lit I died from animality and became Adam among the Sufis vegetarianism is seen as a form mals is instrument [man]: why then should I fear? When have I be­ ofspiritual discipline intended to benefit the one prehensive zoolog come less for dying? 44 who practices it, rather than out of interest for aims primarily at the animals who are spared. cence of God thl So it would seem that even if nonhuman beings. The later animals possess laudable qualities, the value of Hayatal-hayawiin these lies mainly in their instructive potential Nonhuman Animals in Muslim Literature tary on and expan for humans, who are nevertheless a stage above andArt them in the cosmic hierarchy. Other Sufi stories offer lessons about com­ Nonhuman animals appear throughout the lit­ Contemporary Mu. passion and renunciation, using the theme of erary and artistic production of Muslims. As in and Animal Testin. abstention from killing animals for meat. One the philosophical and mystical texts, in poetry such story, from a hagiography compiled by Fa­ and prose literature they are most often used as In recent years in rid ai-din :Attar, features the eighth-century fe­ embodiments of specific human traits and for attention to ani! male Muslim mystic Rabi'a of Basra: purposes of teaching moral lessons relevant to Within this em( 155 THIS SHE-CAMEL OF GOD IS A SIGN TO YOU" main. Wild goats humans. Among the animal stories popular in Islamic (mainly Western) influences are clearly gazing upon her. Muslim societies, perhaps the best-known is Ibn present. Growing numbers of Muslim vegetari­ ther well-known al-Muqaffa's ninth-century translation ofKalila ans and animal righ ts activists appear in most LAll the animals and Dimna, a collection of fables, mainly po­ cases first to have been converted to the cause, that, he was per­ litical in nature, which came to pre-Islamic Iran then sought support and justification for it do they shy away from India.50 Other works that feature animals within their Islamic tradition. Some radical re­ imare with you?" include Warawini's thirteenth-century Book of interpretations have been put forth as a result, eat today?" the Border-keeper (Marzban-nama) and Nakh­ although that preoccupation with the rights of shabi's fourteenth-century Parrot Book (Tutf­ nonhuman animals remains firmly outside of mJd rhey nor shy nama). The Thousand and One Nights (Alf layla the mainstream in Muslim societies around the wa layla) stories also contain many animal world today. characters. Perhaps the most prominent contemporary :t. 1074 CE) tells The tradition of Muslim representational art voice in articulating Islamic concern for non­ ufi Ibrahim ibn (as opposed to "Islamic art" strictly speaking, human animals is the late Basheer Ahmad Masri ;0 hunting. One which is nonrepresentational), which was most (1914-1993), a native of India who spent twenty elope, he heard highly developed in Iran and spread from there years as an educator in Africa before moving to n, is it for this to India and Turkey, is rich with animal themes, England in 1961, where he became imam of the lediately he got especially illustrated stories (such as Kalila and Shah Jehan mosque in Woking. Masri's stated ine clothes to a Dimna) and royal hunting scenes, whether in worldview, that "life on this earth is so inter­ I tunic, and as­ books, carpets, metalwork, ceramics, or rock twined as an homogeneous unit that it cannot be ervish.46 engravings. Lion figures, associated in the Ira­ disentangled for the melioration of one species [lown historical nian tradition with monarchy, appear on many at the expense of the other," S3 sounds as much ill early female public buildings, even sometimes (as in the deep ecological as Islamic. een persecuted case ofSamarkand's Shir-dar seminary) religious At first glance, Masri's views on factory farm­ ,st stories about ones. ing and animal testing are not incompatible with hAsia, suggest­ Works of Muslim scientists on zoology those of today's animal rights activists. He :nHuence.48 On should also be mentioned. Among these the writes, for example, that anecdotes also best known is the seven-volume Book ofAnimals Africa and the (Kitab al-hayawan) of al-Jahiz (d. 868/9 CE).51 to kill animals to satisf)r the human thirst for in­ tking, however, As in the fable literature, al-Jahiz's use of ani­ essentials is a contradiction in terms within the : seen as a form mals is instrumental; although ostensibly a com­ Islamic tradition. Think of the millions of ani­ benefit the one prehensive zoological catalogue, al-Jahiz's opus mals killed, in the name of commercial enter­ of interest for aims primarily at demonstrating the magnifi­ prises, in order to supply a complacent public cence of God through a study of his created with trinkets and products they do not really beings. The later work of al-Damiri (d. 14°5), need. And why? Because we are roo lazy or too Hayat al-hayawan al-kubra, is largely a commen­ self-indulgent to find substitUtes.54 iterature tary on and expansion of al-Jahiz.52 Yet Masri does not argue against animal test­ ing as such, only that it should not result in pain .Ighout the Iit­ Contemporary Muslim Views on Vegetarianism or disfigurement to the animal,55 Masri is care­ v1uslims. As in and Animal Testing ful to couch his arguments in Islamic language, ~xrs, in poetry and ultimately, he leaves the traditional Islamic t often used as In recent years individual Muslims have given notion of human exceptionalism unchallenged. trairs and for attention to animal issues as never before. The late Turkish Sufi master Bediuzzaman Ins relevant to Within this emerging consciousness, exrra- Said Nursi (1877-1960) is heralded by his fol­ RICHARD FOLTZ lowers as a model animal lover. As a result of sense of justice, if you were born as a true hu­ means that Mus time spent in prison, where he witnessed indis­ man being, you would think about this. God is their meat is trul, criminate spraying of insecticides, Nursi wrote looking at me and you. Tomorrow his truth and pig remains are ( an entire treatise on the importance of flies. 56 his jusricewill inquire into this. You must realize For these and or] He also claimed to be able, like Solomon, to this.58 mal rights societi understand animal languages, as in the follow­ the Muslim wor ing passage: Still, it must be acknowledged that such per­ cropping up in s spectives remain well outside of the Muslim ... one day I looked at the cats; all they were mainstream. In pushing the limits of Islamic tra­ doing was earing, playing, and sleeping. I won­ dition, Masri, Nursi, and the Bawa all go further Reassessing Tradi. dered, how is it these little monsters which per­ than any of today's numerous self-proclaimed form no duties are known as blessed? Later, I Islamic environmentalists who have written on One area of intt lay down to sleep for the night. I looked; one of the rights of nonhuman animals. Mawil lzzi ditional Muslim the cats had come. It lay against my pillow and Dien, in his recent groundbreaking book The those in Western put its mouth against my ear, and murmuring: Environmental Dimensions of Islam, takes due as pets. In mos "0 Most Compassionate One! 0 Most Com­ note of the rights accorded to nonhuman ani­ are classified as passionate One!" in the most clear manner, as mals in Islamic law. Elsewhere, however, Izzi means, among 0 though refuting in the name of its species the Dien makes his speciesist preferences clear, as not pray after be objection and insult which had occurred to me, when he offers the following justification of a joke about a p throwing it in my face. Then this occurred to meat-eating: mosque after he; me; I wonder if this recitation is particular to this raining, and a s cat, or is it general among cats? And is it only an According to Islamic Law there are no grounds splashes him. Re unfair objector like me who hears it, or if any­ upon which one can argue that animals should home and chan~ one listens carefully, can they hear it? The next not be killed for food. The Islamic legal opinion and says, "God' morning I listened to the other cats; it was not so on this issue is based on clear Qur'anic verses. Even Muslin clear, but to varying degrees they were repeating Muslims are not only prohibited from eating farmers who use the same invocation. At first, "0 Most Compas­ certain food, but also may nor choose to pro­ erally will not tl sionate!" was discernible following their purring. hibit themselves food that is allowed by Islam. formal head of Then gradually their purrings and meowings be­ Accordingly vegetarianism is not permitted un­ lah Ali Khamem came the same "0 Most Merciful!" It became less on grounds such as unavailability or medi­ walking and eve an unarticulated, eloquent and sorrowful recita­ cal necessity. Vegetarianism is not allowed under fensive to the se tion. They would close their mouths and utter the pretext of giving priority to the interest a fine "0 Most Compassionate!" I related the of animals because such decisions are God's story to the brothers who visited me, and they prerogative.59 listened carefully as well, and said that they heard it to an extent.57 While to date no Muslim legal scholar has 1. See the dis. argued (in print at least) that the permissi­ The Venture of h Another contemporary Sufi teacher, the Sri bility of meat-eating should be reconsidered,60 World Civilizatioi Lankan M. R. Bawa Muhaiyadeen (d.I986), en­ increasing numbers of Muslim vegetarians are (Chicago: Univel joined his followers to practice vegetarianism, making their views known, especially over the 57-60. saying: internet. A number of postings suggest that 2. The notion the Prophet Mu~ammad, though an occasional sessing life, haya( All your life you have been drinking the blood eater ofmeat, kept mainly to a vegetarian diet.61 3. For the life and eating the flesh ofanimals without realizing Muslim doctors are recognizing the benefits ing but a passing what you have been doing. You love flesh and of a vegetarian diet for human health.62 The hold, the realm ( enjoy murder. If you had any conscience or any worldwide spread offactory farming techniques life (al-hayawiin). 157 THIS SHE. CAME.L OF GOD IS A SIGN TO YOU

:n as a true hu­ means that Muslims often cannot be sure that When one of the most significant living legal Dut this. God is their meat is truly haliil, especially now that even thinkers in the Islamic world, Kuwaiti-born ,w his truth and pig remains are often mixed into livestock feed. Khaled Abou EI-Fadl, recently admitted that {ou must realize For these and other reasons, vegetarian and ani­ he is a devoted dog lover and began combing mal rights societies have begun to appear all over through the Classical law books to see whether the Muslim world.63 Vegetarian restaurants are Muslim anti-dog views were supported by the that such per­ cropping up in some Muslim countries. texts, reaction from conservative Muslims was f the Muslim extreme, even amounting to death threats.65 of Islamic tra­ Nevertheless, as a result ofhis research, Abou El­ aall go further Reassessing Traditional Views ofDogs Fadl determined that the l.Iadiths used to justifY :If-proclaimed aversion to dogs were highly questionable and lve written on One area of interspecies relations in which tra­ perhaps spurious.66 s. Mavvil Izzi ditional Muslim attitudes differ markedly from ing book The those in Western societies is the keeping ofdogs 1m, takes due as pets. In most schools of Islamic law dogs Conclusion mhuman ani­ are classified as ritually unclean (najis), which however; Izzi means, among other things, that a Muslim may It can be said today that although traditional at­ ~nces clear, as not pray after being touched by a dog.64 There is titudes among Muslims toward nonhuman ani­ lscification of a joke about a pious man who is rushing to the mals remain unchanged in most cases, new in­ mosque after hearing the prayer call. It has been fluences and emerging global concerns may raining, and a stray dog steps in a puddle and bring about large-scale shifts in the years to Ire no grounds splashes him. Realizing he has no time to return come, especially as environmental protection mimals should home and change, the man looks the other way movements raise awareness of human depen­ c legal opinion and says, "God willing, it's a goat." dence on nonhuman actors within the earth's ~ur'anic verses. Even Muslims who do own dogs, such as complex ecosystems. While the number of Mus­ d from eating farmers who use them as guards or herders, gen­ lims who think in such terms today is small, it :hoose to pro­ erally will not touch them. In June 2002 Iran's is growing; and ways ofconceptualizing human ,wed by Islam. formal head of state, Supreme Leader Ayatol­ relations with nonhuman animals are emerging permitted un­ lah Ali Khamene'i, decreed a ban on public dog­ which are both new and relevant to contempo­ )ility or medi­ walking and even the sale of dogs, as being "of­ rary needs, yet succeed in keeping within the allowed under fensive to the sensitivities of Muslims." established framework of Islamic thought. o the interest ms are God's NOTES

1 scholat has I. See the discussion by Marshal! Hodgson in 4· Qur'an, 2:159, 164: 24:44-45: 31:9-ro; 42:29; he permissi­ The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a 43:ll-I2; 45:3-4: and 51:49 (Muhammad Asad considered,60 World Civilization, vol. I: the Classical Age of Islam version). getarians are (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), pp. 5. Ibid., 27: 16. lally over the 57-60. 6. Ch. Pellat, "Hayawan," Encyclopedia ofIslam, suggest that 2. The notion appears to derive from that ofpos­ new edition (Leiden: Brill, 3 :305. U1 occasional sessing life, ha.ya(~) (cf. Hebrew chayah). 7. For example, 5:ro2-103; 6:139. :tarian diet.61 3. For the life (al-hayawiit) ofthis world is noth­ 8. Qur'an, 5:65: 2:61, 65. the benefits ing but a passing delight and a play-whereas, be­ 9. Ibid., 22:65· 62 ealth. The hold, the realm of the hereafter is indeed the only ro. Ibid., 2:30; 6:165. g techniques life (al-hayawiin). (29:64) II. But see the critique ofthe stewardship defini- J RICHARD FOLTZ

tion in Jafar Sheikh Idris, "Is Man the Viceregent of 37. James L., Wescoat, Jr., "The 'Right of Thirst' 55· AI-Hafiz B.A. 1 God?" Journal ofIslamic Studies I, nO.l (199 0 ): 99­ for Animals in Islamic Law: A Comparative Ap­ tion: The Muslim Viev

no. proach," Environment and Planning D: Society and Religious Perspectives 01 12. Qur'an, 55: 10. Space 13 (1995): 638. ence, ed. Tom Regan (P 13· Ibid., 7:n 38. Qawii'id al-ahkiim ft masiilih al aniim, cited sity Press, 1986), p. 192 14. Ibid., 16: 5-8. I have slightly corrected Asad's in Izzi Dien, Environmental Dimensions, p. 146. 56. Bediiizzaman S translation. 39. Geert Jan van Gelder, Of Dishes and Dis­(Istanbul: Sozler Yayjn 15. Ibid., 17:44; 22:18; 24:41. course: Classical Arabic Interpretations ofFood (Rich­ trans. in The Flashes Col 16. Ibid., 6:38. mond: Curzon, 2000), p. 88. I am grateful to Jona­ lications, 1995), pp. 339­

17· Ibid., 35:24. than Benthall for suggesting this reference. Ozdemir for alerting IT 18. Ibn Hazm, Al FisiilIt l-Miliil wa l-Ahwa'wa 40. Peter Singer defines speciesism as "a preju­ reference. n-Nihiil, 5 vols., (Cairo: Yutlab min Muhammad Ali dice or attitude of bias toward the interests of mem­ 57· Nursi, The Flash Subayh, 1964), 1:69. bers ofone's own species and against those ofmem­ 58. M.R. BawaMul 19. Qur'an, n: 6. bers of other species." (Peter Singer, Animal Lib­Garden: Sufi Tales ofW; 20. Ibid., 55:10. eration: A New Ethics for Our Treatment ofAnimals ship Press, 1985), p. 26. 21. Ibid., 16: 68. (New York: Random House, 1975), p. 7. 59. Izzi Dien, Envin 22. AI-Hafiz B. A. Masri, Islamic Concernfor Ani­41. Jalal ad-din Rumi, Mathnawi al-ma'anawi, 60. I have suggested mals (Petersfield, UK: The Athene Trust, 1987), p. 4. trans. R.A. Nicholson, The Mathnawi ofJalalu'ddin light of the many deme

23. Qur'an, 52:22, 56:21. Rumi, 5 vols. (London: Luzac, 1925-40), 1:2291-6. humans ofproducing IT 24. Ibid., 5:1; see also 6:145; 16:5,66; 40:79; and 42. The reference is to Qur'an, 18 :17-21. not only human health ~ elsewhere. 43. Rumi, Mathnawi al-ma'anawi, 5:2008-n. efficiencyofmeat versus 25. Ibid., 5:3; see also 2:173 and 6:145. 44. Ibid., 3:3901-2. ries available for human 26. Ibid., 16:n5; see also 2:173 and 6:145. 45. Farid aI-din 'Attar, Tazkiratal-Awliyii, tr. Paul emphasis on social justi( 27. Sahlh Muslim, 2in, "Slaying," 10:739. Losenskyand Michael Sells, in Michael Sells, Early 28. Ibid., BukharI, 2:106. Islamic Mysticism (Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1996), 29. Musnad of Ibn Hanbal. MuJ:!ammad adds p.160. that some of these animals were better than those 46. Qushayri, cited in Emile Dermenghem, La who rode them, since they remembered God more. culte des saints dans I1slam Maghrebin (Paris: Galli­ 30. Nasa'i, 7:206, 239. mard, 1954), p. 100. 31. Cited in Masri, Islamic Concern for Animals, 47. Margaret Smith, The Wtly ofthe Mystics (New p·4· York: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 154 162. 32. Sahlh Muslim, trans. A. Siddiqi, 4 vols. (La­ 48. Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions hore: Muhammad Ashraf), 4:1215, 1381. ofIslam (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of 33. Ibid., Muslim, 4:1216. North Carolina Press, 1975), pp. 348, 358. 34. G. H. Bousquet, "Des animaux et de leur 49. Dermenghem, La culte des saints, pp. 97 101. traitment selon Ie Judaisme, Ie Christianisme et l'Is­ 50. Ramsey Wood, Kalila and Dimna (Roches­

lam," Studia Islamica 9, no. I (1958), p. 41. These ter, VT: Inner Traditions, 1986). J:!adlths are retold in a recent book for Muslim chil­ 51. Abi Uthman Arnr ibn Badr al-Jahiz, Kitiib al­ dren, Love All Creatures by M. S. Kayani (Leicester: hayawiin, 4 vols., (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-'ilmiyya, The Islamic Foundation, 1997 [1981]). 1998). 35. 'Izz al-din ibn 'Abd al salam, Qawii'id al­52. Muhammad ibn Musa al-Damiri, Al­ Ahkiim ft Masiilih al Aniim (Damascus: Dar Damiri's Hayat al-hayawiin al-kubra: A Zoological al-Tabba, 1992); cited in Mawil Izzi Dien, The Envi­Lexicon, trans. A. S. G. Jayakar (London: Luzac, ronmental Dimensions ofIslam (Cambridge: Lutter­ 1906-1908). worth, 2000), p. 46. 53. Masri, Islamic Concern for Animals, p. vii. 36. Ibid., 91:13. 54. Ibid., p. 17· 159 THIS SHE-CAMEL OF GOD IS A SIGN TO YOU

The 'Right of Thirst' 55. AI-Hafiz B.A. Masri, "Animal Experimenta­ eating that Muslims may begin ro explore in the A Comparative Ap­ tion: The Muslim Viewpoint," in Animal Sacrifices: future, perhaps through applying the principle of 'nning D: Society and Religious Perspectives on the Use ofAnimals in Sci­"the public good" (maslaha). See Richard C. Foltz, ence, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia: Temple Univer­ "Is Vegetarianism Un-Islamic?" Studies in Contem­ asiilih al aniim, cited sity Press, 1986), p. 192. porary Islam 3, no. 1 (2001): 53-54. imensions, p. 146. 56. Bediiizzaman Said Nursi, Latif Nukteler 61. The site IslamicConcern.com contains links Of Dishes and Dis­(Istanbul: Sozler YayYnevi, 1988), pp. 5-11. English ro many of these other sites. rations ofFood (Rich­ trans. in The Flashes Collection (Istanbul: Sozler Pub­ 62. Dr. Shahid Athar of Indiana University am grateful ro Jona­ lications, 1995), pp. 339-43. I am grateful ro Ibrahim Medical School, for example, writes, "There is no lis reference. Ozdemir for alerting me ro this and the following doubt that a vegetarian diet is healthier and bene­ ~ciesism as "a preju­ reference. ficial to health in lowering weight, blood pressure, -he interests ofmem­ 57. Nursi, The Flashes Collection, pp. 384-85. cholesterol, and blood sugar." (http://www.islamic ;ainst those of mem­ 58. M. R. Bawa Muhaiyadeen, Come to the Secret concern. com/comments. asp) Singer, Animal Lib­Garden: Sufi Tales ofWisdom (Philadelphia: Fellow­ 63. A list of organizations can be found at the Treatment ofAnimals ship Press, 1985), p. 26. Islamic Concern site under the "Resources" section. m),p.7. 59. lzzi Dien, Environmental Dimensions, p. 146. 64. The Hanafi school of law, more lenient than rhnawi al~ma'anawi, 60. I have suggested elsewhere, however, that in the others in many respects, does not have this re­ thnawi ofJalalu'ddin light of the many demonstrable negative effects on striction. 1925-40),1:2291-6. humans of producing meat industrially-including 65. Teresa Watanabe, "Battling Islamic Puri­ 'an, 18: 17-21. not only human health but also hunger, given the in­ tans," Los Angeles Times (January 2, 2002), p. AI. (maw/, 5:2008-II. efficiency ofmeat versus grains in making food calo­ 66. Even a millennium ago, al-Jahiz argued that ries available for human consumption-the Islamic the lpdlths about killing dogs referred ro specific ratal-Awliyii, tr. Paul emphasis on social justice has implications for meat cases and not general ones. Michael Sells, Early 'aulist Press, 1996),

e Dermenghem, La hrebin (Paris: Galli­

yofthe Mystics (New 1978), pp. 154 162. \1ystical Dimensions rolina: University of .348,358. ~s saints, pp. 97 101. 2d Dimna (Roches­ fral-Jahiz, Kitiib al­ l-kutub al-'ilmiyya, a al-Damiri, AI­ 1ubra: A Zoological (London: Luzac, rAnimals, p. vii.