Lhhre in HANDEL's OPERAS ALMIRA and JULIUS CAESAR

Home , Almira, Julius Caesar (overture), Rage aria

CHICAGO MUSICAL COLLEGE 1.:"" u.~.

AFFBKTE.~LhHRE IN HANDEL'S OPERAS ALMIRA AND JULIUS CAESAR

A DISSERTATION SUB~ITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE CHICAGO MUSICAL COLLEGE

AS PARTIAL REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE MASTER OF MUSIC • DEPARTMENT OF MUSICOLOGY

BY VIVIAN ASTON

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS JUNE, 1943

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- . -....,_ -~ - - .- ·- ~- · JUt t -A 1ssa I J TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

LIST OF ILLUS'fRAtIOl~S • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • iii Chapter

I. AFFBKTl'..NLEHilli IN THE £IGHTEENTH CENTURY • • • • • • 1

II. ANALYSIS OF ALM.IRA • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 13 Almira and Fernando

III. ANALYSIS OF JULIUS CAESAR • • • • • • • • • • • • • 51 The r.:urder of Pompey Affinity Between Caesar and Cleopatra Enmity Between Caesar and Ptolemaeus IV. STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALfoIRA AND JULIUS• GAE.SAR • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 79

BIBLIOGRAPHY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 92

ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Excerpt from Handel, Almira • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 17 2. Seven measures of Almira's "Dawn of Jealousy' aria • • • 18 3. Eight measures of Fernando's "Contemplation of Nature" aria. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 19 4. Five me a.sure s of Fernando's "Loyalty to Almira" aria. • 20 5. Nine measures of E.dilia's "Praise of Nature" aria • • • 21

6. Four measures of Edilia 1 s "Rage at Osman" aria • • • • 22 1 7. Six measures of &iilia.'s "Complaint of' Osman" aria • • 23 8. 1-,ive measures of Osman's "Rage at Edilia" aria • • • • 24 9. Four me a.sure s of Osman's "Quarrel with Ed.ilia." W'ia • • 25

10. Pattern of keys used by Almira and Fernando • • • • • • 26

11. Pattern of keys used by Osman and Ed.ilia • • • • • • • 27 12. Thirteen measures of Osman's "Appeal to Fernando 11 aria. 29

13. Four measures of Osman 1 s "Refusal of' Edilia" aria • • • 30 14. Four measures of Osman's "Fury at Fernandon aria • • • 31

15. Three measures of Fernando's "Farewell to Love" aria. • 32 16. Four measures of Fernando's !'Ridicule of Osman" aria. • 33 17. Seven measures of Almira's "Refusal of Osman" aria • • 34 18. Ten measures of Almira's "Confession of Love" aria • • 35 19. Six measures of Almira's "Defense of Fernando" aria • • 35 20. Twelve measures of Edilia's "Condemnation of Osman" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 37 Two measures of Raymondo's "Consolation of Edilia" aria. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 39

111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS--Continued

Page ri•en measures of Ballanti' s "Rejection of Consalvo" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 40 23. Seven measures of Sonsalvo's "Reply to Ballanti" aria • 41

24. Seven measures of Fernando's "Soliloquy" aria • • • • • 42

25. Fourteen measures of Fernando's "Disillusion" aria • • 42 26. F'ive measures of Fernando's "Declaration of Innocence" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 44

27. Nine me a sure s of Fernando's "Confession of Love" aria • 45

28. Bleven measures of Almira's di Bravura aria • • • • • • 46

29. 'i'en measures of Almira's Virtuoso aria in C • • • • • • 47

30. Six measures of Almira's "Letter" aria • • • • • • • • 49 31. Four measures of Caesar's "Conquering Hero" aria • • • 54 32. Six measures of Caesar's "Revenge of Pompey" aria • • • 55

33. Bight measures of Cornelia's "Grief at the DeatfP of Pompey" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 56

34. Sixteen measures of Sextus' "Vo"'' of Vengeance" aria • • 57 35. Five measures of Cornelia's "Mourning" arioso • • • • • 58 36. Six measures of Cornelia's "Harem" arietta • • • • • • 59 37. Keys used in the murder of Pompey pattern • • • • • • • 60

38. Six measures of Caesar's "Admiration of Cleopatra" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 61 39. Eic;ht measures of Cleopatra's "Conquest of Caesar" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 62

40. Sixteen measures of Cleopatra's "Wooing of Caesar" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 63 41. Pive measures of Cleopatra's "Prayer" aria • • • • • • 64 42• Twenty-two measures of Cleopatra's "Defeat by Ptolemaeus" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 65 43. Ten measures of Cleopatra's "Joy at Caesar's Return" aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 67 iv LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS--Continued

l"i gure Page

44. teys used in the affinity between Caesar and Cleopatra patte~ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 68

45. Fifteen measures of Ptolemaeus' "Revenge" aria • • • • 69

46. Seven measures of the "Hunting Horn" aria • • • • • • • 71 47. Five measures of Caesar's "Defiance of Ptolemaeus" aria 72

48. Eight measures of Ptolemaeus' "Attack on Cornelia 11 aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7 3 49 • Eleven measures of Sextus' "Dedication to Vengeance" •' . " aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 74 50. 1ic;hteen measures of Caesar's "Return from the Sea 11 aria • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 75 . . • • 51. Seventeen measures of Caesar's "Return to Power" aria • 76 52. Keys used in the Enmity Between Caesar and Ptolemaeus . ' pattern • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 77 •

v ,

CHAP'rER I

AFFE.K'rBi~LEHRE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Recent performances of the works of eighteenth century com posers have stimulated study of their composition, and revealed the presence of certain features of their construction whose existence had not heretofore been known. Analysis of these structural characteristics has shown the influence of motivating forces of the eighteenth century upon the composition of music. The contribution of these forces to the growth and development of the fields of science, medicine, re ligion, and philosophy has long been recognized. Such a force was the philosophical doctrine~own as ration alism which, extending from the seventeenth into the eighteenth cen tury, demanded from men of science that reasonable explanations of pre vailing beliefs and conceptions should supersede the mystical, super natural explanations that had satisfied an earlier age. The scientific spirit, with its craving for the rational operation of cause and effect, its urge toward the crystalization of scientific data into form, produced the methodical studies of Linnaeus. The publication of his Fundamenta Botanica 1736, Systema Naturae 1735, Species Plantarum 1753, and more than a hundred other works, estab lished the systematic study of botany and zoology. The scientific spirit of the day and the force of the demand for regulated form are demonstrated in the work of the French Encyclo pedists headed by d 'Alembert and Diderot. The collaboration of these

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:-~~~,-~~~~. . ~.i._r.:.. -2- two men resulted in the publication, between 1751 and 1780, of the 1ncycloped1a, ou Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers. The thirty-five volumes of this work brought under one head all new writers, new ideas, new opinions, and all knowledge of the times. These forces of rationalism and science and their widespread trend toward organization and form are illustrated in the field of music by the growth of the da capo form of aria. Arising in the sev enteenth century as an agency for the intensification of emotional expression, the aria signalized a departure from the continuous recitativi employed by the opera composers preceding Cavalli. Although not so prolific a writer as his successors, Cavalli produced more than twenty-seven operas between the years 1639 and 1676. The feature of the arias contained in these operas is that their repetition of the first part points to the beginnings of the da capo fo~. In 1663, the da capo form of aria appeared in the opera La Dori by Cesti, and in 1661 the form was used by Tenaglia in his opera Clearco. Alessandro Scarlatti gave the da capo aria a definite and well-rounded form when he added a second part to the aria, followed by a repetition of the first part. This style of da capo aria remained in use by opera com posers until the advent of Gluck, and its use as a vehicle for the expression of emotion resulted in its expansion into various types. These types, the aria cantabile, aria di bravura, aria di port amento, aria di mezzo carattere, and the aria parlante, furnished a mold for the expression of every known human emotion. The growth of the da capo aria was largely responsible for the establishment of the accepted form of opera composition in the first half of the eighteenth century. The distribution or the dirfer ent types of aria created the laws that governed the opera form. These -3- laws were so stringent and were held in such high regard by singers and public as to dictate to the composer the use and selection of the different voices, and the number and type of the arias employed. The action of the drama, as conveyed through the recitative, became sub servient to the aria; and this separation of the two became still more definite as the leading composers of the day developed the dramatic possibilities of the accompagnato recitative. The gradual increase of the resources led to a freer use of the accompagnato recitativo as a more musical and more powerful means of carrying on the action of the drama than the secco recitativo. The first known example of the use of orchestral accompaniment for the support of recitativo occurs in San Alessio, an opera by Landis, in 1634. The first example to appear in the works of Alessandro Scarlatti was in his opera Olimpia Vendicate in 1686. The definite distinction between the function of the recita tivo and that of the aria led to an agreement between~ibrettist and composer, whereby the librettist could exercise his skill in outlining the course of the drama through the use of words; and the composer could exhibit his ingenuity in writing music for the display of the voice. The words of the arias were considered of so little importance

that 1 t made 11 ttle difference whether they were unders·tood or not. The segregation of the aria as a medium of emotional expres sion is responsible for the revelation of another factor in the compo sition of music, illustrative of the eighteenth century demand for organization and form. Works of the great masters of the century re veal, by their persistent use of certain scales with certain emotional situations, a consciousness of correlation existing between rhythm and melody and the human emotions; a consciousness that furnished an emo

tional basis for the selection and use of scales. This conception o:t

....~I' the existence of an emotional content inherent in the scales became a -4- doctrine of emotional expression known to eighteenth century Germany as Affektenlehre. The influence of the doctrine of Af'fektenlehre upon eighteenth century opera composition is attested by the leading writers of France, Germany, and Italy. J. C. G. Krause, a writer whose aesthetic views tended to improve the aesthetic situation of opera, says in regard to the aria: "The listener's attention should be directed toward more emotional sensation. Episodic action should be abolished, leaving more space for the aria to interpret the plot emotionally." He recommends innovations in arias leading to a greater variety of keys, thereby re leasing a greater variety of affects.1 Krause's ideas for this new approach to the aria became popular, and found expression in the im proved libretti of Cortellini and Calzabigi; and in the better operas of Jommelli, Traetta, di Majo, and Sarti. In the following statement of Krause's views we see a foreshadowing of the theorlls of Gluck and Wagner. Opera is an entity based upon the collaboration of poetry and music. Such collaboration is made possible because each branch must give in to some extent. The best opera is not the one most similar to tragedy or drama, but the one which grants the greatest ease to both librettist and musician.2 The fact that all composers were not actively conscious of the doctrine of Affektenlehre is remarked by J. J. Engels in his book

On Musical Painting, 1782. Commenting on this Goldschmidt says:

Due to the theory of Affects, music was regarded as a vehicle of expressions inherent in rows of tones, yet some composers of the eighteenth century, especially those of opera adhered to the painting of outside events in music; events of the visible world. Engels considers all these efforts wholly subordinate to the pur pose of music to portray the impression made by the outside event

1Hugo Goldschmidt, Die Musikasthetik des 18. Jahrhunderts und ihre Beziehungen zu seinem Kunstchaffen, p. 280. Leipzig: Rascher & Co., 1915. 2Ib1d., P• 280. -5- or object, on the soul. All the properties of music: single tones, chords, color, rhythm, and dynamics, should be utilized for imitating the emotions of the sou1.l Duval, another writer of the period, defines it as the duty of the musician to communicate the utterances of Affect. "All he has to do is the fixation of the pitches of the language, for n o one has doubted that they are already inherent in language. rr2 Schiller, writing in the latter half of the eighteenth century, says: Music has no other object as the greatest masters teach us, than portrayal of sentiments. The effect of music consists in expressing the inward motions of our sentiments in corresponding analogical tones. As the inward motions, part of human nature, are subjected to strong laws, the necessity and certainty of those motions which they express can be seen when the composer understands the mystery of these laws dominating the emotions of the hwnan heart; and when he studies the analogy between psychic motions and outside phenomena, he is, instead of an ordinary artist, a real painter of the soul who abandons the realm of ar bitrariness, and enters that of necessity.3 Schiller's statement of an analogy '~etween tsychic motions and outside phenomena" points to an interesting relation existing be tween the doctrine of Affektenlehre and the ancient Greek doctrine of the Ethos, founded by Pythagoras and maintained by Plato, Aristotle, and their disciples. The doctrine of the Ethos rested on the belief that external movements which could be translated into sound through music were definitely related to movements of the soul. Certain suc cessions of tones were believed to be capable of calling forth certain distinct emotions of the soul. The Ethos of a song, according to the philosophers, was dependent on different ~actors; the rhythm, the char acter of the modes, the tonality, and the accompanying instrwnents. The emotionally expressive character attributed to the modes was

libid.' p. 170. 2Ibid., p. 170. 3Ibid.' p. 163. -6- dependent on their intrinsic pitch; that is, in the nomenclature of the Greeks, on the position of the mese. The Mixolydian mode with "A" as the mese, one note from the top of the scale, was "high." The Hypophrygian mode, with the mese one note from the bottom of the scale, was "low;" while in the Dorian mode the mese was found near the center of the scale. Plato and Aristotle were a.greed that those modes wherein the mese lay near the center were superior to those wherein it lay either high or low. Naturally then, the superior modes were considered expressive ~f the virtues esteemed most highly by the Greeks; courage, manliness, temperance, and steadfastness. Modes with a high mese were considered expressive of excitement and passion; while those with a low mese were deemed expressive of softness and self-indulgence. As to the individual character of the modes, the philosophers were agreed that the Dorian was firm and manly, that it taught courage and resig nation; but there was a difference of opinion as to t~ other modes. Plato considered the Phrygian smooth, and suited to prayer; while Aristotle fowid it exciting, bacchic. However, although they differed in regard to the particular emotions aroused by certain modes, the Greek philosophers wilted in a recognition of the importance of the doctrine of the Ethos in their conception of the value of music. Leichtentritt, viewing Affektenlehre from the vantage point of the twentieth century, says: Italian opera of the eighteenth century cares more for the expression of sentiment, affects, than for the personal accunrl.na tion of expression. Pain, joy, love, hatred, make up its spec trwn; and from the multifarious mixture of these basic colors fascinating and interesting variants result in abundance. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • If these affects of the human soul are constant, unchanging. transcending the bowidaries of time, nationality, and race, then the way of giving expression to them • • • • will present a last ing artistic value. It will be understood by the man of' the twentieth century just as well as by the one of the eighteenth century, provided however, that the modern hearer first takes -7- off his nineteenth century spectacles, puts aside his literary psychological pretences, and surrenders himself unprejudiced to the musical effusion of pure sentiment.1 The force of the doctrine of Affektenlehre in the construc tion of the operatic works of George Frederic Handel is a discovery of the twentieth century. In 1920 a performance of Rodelinda was staged in Goettingen, Germany; and was followed in 1921 by a revival of Otto and Theouhano. The interest in these performances was so great that by 1922, five other German cities had undertaken Handel re vivals. Between 1922 and 1927, fifty cities had sponsored similar productions and approximately one-fifth of the master's forty-six operas were performed. An important result of these revivals was the subsequent study of the Handel scores by musical experts of Germany. The unanimous verdict was that "nothing so important to the music world had been rescued from oblivion since the discovery of Bach's cantatas• and Passion music a hundred years before. 11 2 The scores of Handel's operas were found to contain features of construction that are of the greatest im portance in a truer estimate of the c·omposer himself and of his long- neglected operas. Leichtentritt, discussing Affektenlehre in the Handel operas, says: The Handel opera, in its entirety, is derived from musically architectural laws. Primarily and fundamentally, it strives to be music, and once more music, and only then, in the third and fourth places, all other considerations assert themselves. It is no music of situation, no music of illustr ation with disintegration of form, no music of gesture, but absolute music of emotion based upon a definite form. Its chief' theme, its basic problem is a

lHugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 596. Berlin: Deutsche verlags-Anstalt, 1924. 2Hugo Leichtentritt, Music, History, and Ideas, p. 145. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938. -8- strife of affects, a drama of mutual passions and sentiments , in the abstract, but brought into physical, visible appearance by the medium of action, by the acting personages. Action is not the primary object as in later dramaturgy, not the essential thing, but the means to an end which lies in the musically ar tistic and entertaining ple.y of affects. Dramatis personae are not independent individuals, as in the nineteenth century, but only representatives of affects. From this understanding re sults the style of the Handel opera. All stress must be put on the convincing and overpowering rendering of affects, on the music of emotions.I • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • A man like Handel succeeds in opera • • • • in bringing out the most marvellous variations and shadings of all affections that can be imagined and the psychic intrinsic value of his art really has its center of gravity right here.2 Leichtentritt's investigations into theanotional nature of Handel's music led to his discovery that the composer, throughout his entire creative life, consistently associated certain scales with certain emotional situations. In his book, Handel, Leichtentritt has illustrated Handel's procedure in the selecting of scales for the pro jection of affects, through analyses of the operas S111fe and Amadigi. The delineation of character effected thereby in a Handel opera is described by Leichtentritt: Handel's manner of characterizing is synthetic. A number of characteristic affects is presented separately, mostly in sev eral arias, and by adding all these particular traits the pic ture of the character is obtained.3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • The formal principle is simple and easily understood: to the dramatic event, to progress of action is reserved a recitative written with great art of declamation, with delicate harmonic grounding. These recitativi push the action forward much quicker than the complicated modern musical apparatus can do it. Due to this quickness of progress more time and scope is won for the resting points, the long stays on the stations of the journey, the arias and ensemble pieces. Here the music of affects lyrically displays itself, here the several psychical states become intensely illuminated, those several states of which Handel's synthetically

lHugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 598. Berlin: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1924. 2Ibid., P• 596. 3Ibid., p. 596. ,

-9- constructed art of characterization is composed.I The force of the eighteenth century trend toward organiza tion is further evidenced in the opera scores of Handel by the dis covery of a systematic arrangement of scales inf orrnal, symmetrical patterns. The presence of this element of construction operating aide

by side with the doctrine of Affektenlehre is described by Leichtentritt: In addition to making use of the emotional and expressive meaning of the various keys, Handel builds entire acts of his operas •••• according to an ingeniously devised architectural plan of tonalities, making use of the relationship of the vari ous keys and grouping them in symmetrical order, or, when neces sary, destroying this symmetry by a striking contrast.2 The discovery of this feature of the Handel scores is at tributed to Steglich. Rudolph Steglich was the first one to point out what fine and yet imposing organ!sm reveals itself, to those gifted with a fine ear, in the sway, in the flow and ebb of grandio.., tonality- waves in the acts of Handel's operas ••••• The several parts of an act are frequently brought into a delicate, ingenious and plastically impressive mutual relation of their keys and sequence of keys. From this results a modulation of the several complete pieces one with another on a grand scale which corresponds abso lutely to the modulation-effects on a small scale within the several parts. · A new superior rule which puts into the work of art a new symmetry (with the necessary asymmetrical counter- part). 3 The knowledge of the systematic use of scales as an element of construction, and of the emotional quality attributed to the scales themselves in the Handel scores, leads to the observation that these forces functioned more strongly in the creative li£e 0£ the composer than did the laws and conventions that his era imposed upon the composition of opera. The Handel opera scores disclose that the composer

libid., p. 599. 2Hugo Leichtentritt, Music, History, and Ideas, p. 145. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938. 3Hugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 599. Berlin: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1924. ,

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disregarded these conventions, to which his contemporaries so rigidly 8.dhered, whenever they interfered with the expediency of the dramatic situation or the necessity for emotional expression. Characteristic illustrations are found in his operas, Almira and Julius Caesar. (1) The cast must have six or seven characters, three women and three men, or three women and four men. There are eight characters in the casts of both Almira and Julius Caesar; in Almira there are three women and

five men, and in Julius Caesar two women and six men. (2) The leading

man must be an artificial soprano. In Almira the leading man is a

tenor, and in Julius Caesar the leading man is an alto. (3) No singer may have two arias in succession. This rule is disregarded in both Almira and Julius Caesar whenever the exigencies of the dramatic situa tion call for two successive arias from the same character. In regard to this phase of Handel's creative work Krehbiel says: Among composers Handel alone so far overcame• the trannnels of pedantry as to suffer them to exercise no deleterious influence upon his work. When it suited his good pleasure to submit to them, he did so ••••• when submission would have interfered with his designs, critics and singers at defiance.1 Speaking of the association of tonality and emotion as found in his analyses of the scores of Handel, Leichtentritt says: Handel, the great dramatist, makes a most scrupulous choice of keys for the arias in his operas and oratorios. It matters very much to him whether he writes a piece in F major, or F-sharp major, in F minor or F-sharp minor. For him every one of these keys has a well-defined color, atmosphere, and meaning, to which he adheres strictly during his entire artistic career of over fifty years. • • • • F-sharp for Handel is what one might call a transcendental key; indeed, all keys with signatures or five, six, seven, e.nd even eight and nine sharps are associated by him with the idea of heaven, •••• F minor and F-sharp minor are both tragic keys, •••• F minor is generally chosen for the ex pression of profound sadn~ss, • • • • F-sharp minor is full of tragic intensity, ••••

lGDMM, Vol. III, P• 447. 2Hugo Leichtentritt, Music, History, and Ideas, p. 144. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938. -11-

In the analysis of Handel's operas, Almira and Julius Caesar ----;__;;..;;,;;.;;;...;;.;=..J ·.•lith which this thesis is concerned, many instances of the association of tonality and emotion have been discovered. The keys used for the arias in both of these operas appear to serve a dual purpose; in that they are identified with the expression of a given emotion and that, through their relation to each other, they become a factor in the construction of the score. The following examples of the association of key and emotion occur in both operas. The key of E minor is used to express the grief of Almir a in Almira, and of Cornelia and Sextus in Julius Caesar. The key of B-flat major is associated with triumphant love and recon ciliation in both operas. The key of E-flat major is used for the ex pression of loyalty and devotion in both operas. The key of E minor is used for the emotion of love for four arias in Almira. However, of the two purposes served by key :riection in these scores, that of key relation offers the most fertile ground for study of Handel's systematic use of major and minor scales. The scores of Almira and Julius Caesar are constructed of patterns of keys whose re lationship indicates an association existing between the characters; an association which may be based on the emotions of love, hatred, or vengeance. A diagram of the keys used for the arias of these operas reveals at a glance, which characters in the cast are associated through some common bond. These patterns may be maintained throughout an entire opera, or through only one act, according to the trend of the alliances formed between the characters. The use of related keys for associated characters is £urther emphasized by the occasional appearance 0£ an unrelated key in the pat tern, for an aria bringing a new element into the situation, or bearing a reference to another pattern. -12- The analyses of Handel's operas Almira and Julius Caesar presented in this thesis, are motivated by study of the influence of the doctrine of Affektenlehre as evidenced in the selection of keys from an emotional basis, and as an element of construction •

• CHAPTER II

ANALYSIS OF ALMIRA

Of the opera at Hamburg where the nineteen year old Handel received his first connnission to write an opera, we have this picture: At Hamburg there is an opera where they sing in the Italian manner, •••• the recitativi are in their own language, but the airs generally in the Italian. I don't know if the musicians in the opera at Hamburg are upon the same regulations as they were forty years ago, but I am assured that they are all Tradesmen: and your Shoemaker was often the first performer on the stage and you might have bought confections, and fruit from the same girl whom the night before you saw in the character of Armida or Semaramis.l The principal singers at the Hamburg opera during Handel's years t here were Mattheson and Conratin1, of whom it •was said, "Mattheson was no great singer, for which reason he sang only occasionally, but he was a good actor, •••• Conratini excelled greatly both as an actress and a singer. n2 Mattheson has recorded the fact that he sang the leading tenor role in Almira, and we are saf'e in assuming that the other "principal singer," Conratini, was cast in the role of Almira. The libretto of Almira was prepared for Reinhard Keiser, di rector of the Hamburg opera, by Feustking, a theological student of Hamburg, who adapted it from an old Italian opera story translated by

lLuigi Riccoboni, Account of the Theatres in E'urope, p. 212• London: R. D. & R. Dodsley, 1741. 2John Mainwaring, Memoirs of the Life of G. F. Handel, pp. 31-2. London: R. J. Dodsley, 1760. -13- -14- Bonoventi. It was in the fall of 1704 that Keiser gave the libretto to Handel with instructions to prepare an opera for the winter season. Hehearsals were in progress on December 1, 1704; and the premiere took place on January 8, 1705 11 in the dazzling splendor of a sumptuous setting." Synopsis.--Alrnira, Queen of Castile, appoints Consalvo, Prince of Segovia, as her Field Marshall; and Fernando, a young soldier who believes himself to be a foundling, as her secretary. Consalvo has a son, Osman, and is determined that he shall marry Almira. He gleefully gives Almira a letter from her dead father, knowing that it contains the King's command that his daughter shall marry Osman. The letter is the cause of great consternation to Almira, for she is already in love with Fernando. Osman fully expects to marry Almira and therefore is very much annoyed by the attention of his former love, the ,,rinoess F.dilia, and a quarrel ensues between them. :Ed.ilia then tries to arouse Osman's jealousy by her attentions to Fernando, with the result that Almira's jealousy is aroused and she believes Fernando to be in love with Ed.ilia. Fernando is really in love with his Queen but is too awkward and timid to convince her that she, and not Edilia, is the object of his arrec tions. Consalvo gives no hint of his own plans while he takes sides with each person in turn; but he loses no opportunity to play on Almira's jealousy of Ed.ilia. These tangled affairs are set aside while the court stages a brilliant pageant for the entertainment of Raymonde, King or Mauretania, who has come as suitor for Almira's hand. Osman and Fernando quarrel over their interest in Almira, and there is a duel in which Fernando is slightly hurt. Consalvo finally convinces Almira that Fernando is un faithful to her, and on this pretext he is thrown in prison, and Almira -15- pronounces the death sentence. However, on making a surreptitous visit to the prison she overhears Fernando in an impassioned avowal of his undying devotion to his Queen. A reconciliation between the two lovers follows; and Consalvo's goodwill is won when he discovers that Fernando is his long-lost son. In the meanwhile the other love affairs have been adjusted. :b.dilia has transferred her affections to Raymonde, and Osman his to the Princess Ballanti. So this comedy of misunderstanding ends on a note of reconciliation between the three pairs of lovers. Tabarco, secretary to Fernando, furnishes the element of comedy throughout the opera. The voices employed for the cast of Almira are, Almira, sopra no; Ballanti, soprano; Fernando, tenor; Osman, tenor; Consalvo, bass; Raymond.a, bass; Tabarco, tenor. Structural plan of the opera.--The keys used for the arias of the entire opera are, B, D, F, G, F, C, D, G, E, C, •A, E-flat, B- flat. These keys are found to assemble into patterns based on key re lation, and to conform with the relations existing between the charac ters. When there is a lack of harmony in the relations existing between characters, there is a corresponding lack of relation between the keys employed for their arias. Almira is essentially a love story; the en tire plot and its patterns of keys are built around the love affairs, jealousies, and misunderstandings of its principal characters. Almira and Fernando reflect, in the relation between the keys of their arias, the attachment existing between them; and through the interposing of unrelated keys, the misunderstandings that interrupt their love affair until the last act. Throughout Act I, Osman and Ed.ilia quarrel over their former love affair, and the keys used for these arias make a re lated pattern, the "quarrel" pattern. Other characters drawn into this quarrel, or reflecting some phase of it in their arias, become a part -16- of the pattern through the use of "quarrel" pattern keys. Whenever a love affair develops between the minor characters the keys used for their arias are related, es in the case of Raymondo and Ed.ilia, Osman and Ballanti. The characters Consalvo and Tabarco do not have a part in any of the love affairs, and the keys used for their arias do not connect with any of the patterns of related keys. Act I.--The opera opens with a brilliant coronation scene on the plain of Valladodid. When Prince Consalvo, the vice-regent, places the crown on Almira's head, her subjects join in a chorus of greeting, "Viva Almira." The musical characterization of Prince Consalvo begins with the brief aria, "Almira regiere, 11 with which he welcomes the Queen. This aria is stilted in style, but attains rhythmical energy through the agile accompaniment scored for violins and oboes. The key ls B- flat major. Consalve's next duty is to give Almira the letter• from her father. Consalve's interest and excitement over the contents of the letter are conveyed by the lively, energetic splri t of the aria, "Le set ihr funkelnden Augen," in which he urges Almira to read. This aria, containing the only allusion to the dead King to be made in the opera, is set in the key of F major, the only time that this key is used in Act I. Later, Consalvo meets Ed.ilia. who complains of her treatment by Osman. It is Consalvo's intention to unite Osman and Almira, but now he attempts to placate Edilia. by assuring her that Osman should re main faithf'ul to her. The aria carrying this bit of deception is in the key of D minor, the same key as that used for Osman's first aria.

Almira and Fernando After the coronation ceremony, Almira is left alone to read -17- the letter from her father containing his connnand that she shall marry Osman. Her mood is one of consternation and despair as she

thinl{s of Fernando, with whom she is already in love. This mood is set in the key of C minor and is accentuated by the tones of the oboe in a florid accompanying solo. The aria concludes with a ritornello in which the violins and viola join the oboe. Measures one to six or Almira's aria are quoted: I ...... ,,_ rJ • - a a ,. ~ 7 _.,- -~ I A 7 • I. I , I • 7 I -y T I - n L.::: - -. - I - - -"""" ...... ~ I 17 ~ I r7 ..::a...... - ' - 7 - - ,..,,- - - -. .. I - • " , - J I 1 I . -- 11/l~., __ . t, , e,, ...... ~ ~ F~~cztco L'ff·S~ ,a.kd. ~~ ~~ Lt . - - . 1 I ... -... - .... • • 111• - .. I ...... - I I LI - .. l I - ,...- 7 ,, ,, ., ff • - :-7 I I 1 I I L -I I - I .. -__..:- I ...... a -,_:- , . '~..- - .,. .. ~ I . ~ .IJ - .. ...- i • -i I 1:... - ., -, .. -. I 7 I II - - -y ' -, I.I - - ~ - - '" J / ...... -- ii' 1 - 1 J - , - , ~; ... .~ ~ "' -t:c,- - .Q£. ~ j1'rM. ;t. -~(.t..f....O fi!ia.~... ~ Jl. ~'p9-~ .. ~,_ , h.• -+ .. Ill I 1 • . - • H 1 I ) - ...- ,._ ' ,."" - - 1 --·... ·- T -. ~- .. - "' - -- . -.·~- . - I ...... I r ... • - • -- . . .. 11 • • 7 - " -·- -· ~n - A. - - -- I.ii j - -· tr" - k .. - ~~- • I -~·~ . .6111 .. ~ " IM··, ..... - - - - • -~ .:_.~-- Mr TT ,. - - -·--L-0. > I

Fig. 1.--Excerpt from Handel, Almiral

A different phase of Almira's character is revealed in her next aria when she discloses the jealousy 0£ Fernando that is to

la. F. Handel, Almira, p. 11. Leipzig: Auegabe der Deutschen Handelgesellschaft, 1873. -18- dominate her throughout the opera. She has misunderstood trifling incidents that have occurred, and believes that Fernando is in love with Edilia. This aria conveys a plaintive mood, more of jealous grief the.n of anger; for in spite of her jealousy, she still cannot believe

that her beloved is unfaithful. The key of E minor is used for this mood, and the oboe again accompanies the voice in a brilliant obbli gato, to which violins and viola furnish the background. Measures one to eight of "O, Jealous Torment" are quoted:

... - _...... --.- 7 - - .. - ...... -. - • IW I "" - • - • I -- - - I . . • ,. l y • I.I J I ._ 'P"- J YI' ..I i fl I n ' ~ I I l • . w I • l ~ : ~ ~oi;,-. mw:t 9;, .,£,, .,40:ror/ ~'l.Mw :i; t LIL Yo dtM. doJ.'eot ~1 • i i - ,. + _,_ - .... - I - - .. • l"M rl - - ! I l l I - - : I \ I - -. -.. L ,_,_.-:.L....l_ ••• - I -- _.,.. • •..,

I - • \ -~ .. I~ - - I lo. l / -... - - -- .. - "/;I .... -, .. I u - -··· ·-. -- - .. . L ---I :.-. !.. •- - - ' . ·1 .. - ·-----· - • ... IJ I J I - - - / ....,.., .. -..... -.,,_ ·-IJ / - i I I e' - ...... -~ - .._ I 7 \ -- A'O io..,.. 44>~! ~ ~l, flo eo I ~ .. .. """'"',.." f' ...... - - -., - I . : ---- ..,, I I '.I - ~ L , ~ . _, ...:. ... ~ . . . : • r r., JJ-~ --. -~ _·· ·_:1 1T , , .. • - - - - • -- . • • • • --

Fig. 2. --Seven measures of Almira's "Dawn of Jealousy" arial

During the coronation ceremony Fernando was given the posi

tion of secretary to the Queen; and Osman, that o:f Commander o:f her army. The two men appear and express their loyalty to their Queen in

libid., p. 28. 1

-19- "short, mediocre arias, somewhat in the form of canzonets, an imita tion of 1·~eiser' s terse style. 11 1 Some time after the coronation

F1 ernando strolls in the beautiful palace gardens. 'l'he text of his aria in this setting contains a comment on the beauties of the scene around him, and an allusion to his love for the Queen. The key is D minor, the dominant of that used for his aria in the coronation ceremony. This mood of contemplative enjoyment of nature is heightened by the use of two flutes with violins and viola, for the accompaniment. Measures one to nine of Fernando's aria are quoted:

r---... - , --- ...,. ~-..... u • - """' -... u.. - ~ L- -· ~ J - .. _, ~ ~ - . / ,- .... - - - ...- f I J '- -\...... ,, I . - - .. - I ~~J... ~ .. ~~ ~ .. ~ivy- ~~ .:ti, . s--~ ~~-c.l~ .. ,....___._ -- - I I JI - ...- I - __ ir- .. - ~ I lfJ - - .... - .... - _. - , - I - I - J I •- - - - • • "... D' - - -...... - -- ....-- --·- - I JI 'I I -. ------i ,...,. """"" '--.. ff ~ ~ - - d.."-0 ~ -4)~ -~ - ·- JI ----.. II ...... ·- ~ - ...... - ~b ... -- "Tl -I ~ . ~- - - - .. I • ~ Fig. 3.--Eight measures of Fernando's "Contemplation of Nature" aria.2

The peaceful mood of the above scene is soon shattered for

Fernando, when he is unjustly accused by Almira of being in love with Ed.ilia. The aria in which he denies this accusation is, however, in

lHugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 606. Berlin: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1924. 2a. F. Handel, Almira, p. 23. Leipzig: Ausgabe der Deutschen Handelgesellschaft, 1873. -20-

n gay, almost humorous vein. The contrast with the mood of the previ ous A.rin is indicated by key change, from D minor to E-flat major. uboes and violins in unison are used for the accompaniment. Measures 11 one to five of 11iy Love Stands Firm" are quoted:

~L P\ r ., \ r'. - ' II' I/ J 9'F.r h I" - -- v ' . J ... - ) - - ...... I I -.I I - --· - / ., - - " - , ····=-~~= &.o.A. J&;_~ Wit, .~ ~~,()._ ·;Di SU ~ ~ ~~ - -. l --·--··------.. A - ·----,..,---~...- - - .... -- - - '-J!• 11 -- - -.------n1 l - _L .. , ------____ .,..,.. _____ .. .,...,.~ ~ .. ru~ ·-- - . ------,____~ .. ·~· ~ ...-

.. ""' L..... \ - ' • ... l - _.I I I _., .... ~ ...... ,,,, ... I - £4- - ~ r ,I - - - - - ...... -- - ,,.,., ...... - - ~ .I ------I- I - ' .I - - I Jd.~~~ w1:t ... 8U-r -- • - ...-~- '"'••·-· n - - - . ,,,... . ------,... I ""~-- ...... - I- - - - I I I

t--=--.,-+.------. -·------· - --- . ------···------· ------·------~ r-"-i•,....,'t ·~.,_- ___ ._ --~ - ~ -- -_,______------·---·. __ 11._·~-:_-_-_::-_::-_-_-...-.-_-_-_-_-_-_-_::-_-_:-_-_-_-_::~~,:..-_-_-_-_-_~_-_-_-_---- ___-_--,_

...... -L-- ..-,______.-·,-~h-· __..,._..,r·1'-l1l---+---+--l1f--I._- ... -~--+---F--~~-~~ ~---~-+--1~-___ - ,.--,---_·F·------·------1------, ------...... ~

Fig. 4.--Five measures of Fernando's "Loyalty to Almira" aria.1

The setting for the first appearance of the Princess E.dilia is the palace garden with statues, flowers, and playing fountains. The orchestral accompaniment heightens the description of nature con tained in the text of Fiiilia's aria. Passages for violins and viola in smooth-flowing rhythm suggest the breezes on the fountains; while the flutes add imitative, bird-like notes, and in the closing measures,

libid., p. 34. -21- the oboe plays in unison with the violins. F.dilia's mood is in keep

in'·u with this scene as she reveals her love for Osman in an aria described as "exceptionally beautiful, with broadness of melody and attractiveness of tone, and a great deal of sentiment and feeling, typically Handelian, quite different from Keiser's tender, elegant

style. 11 1 The key used is G major, the first in the pattern of related keys formed by the arias of Osman and &lilia. Measures one to ten of

I Edilia's aria are quoted·• k !-.-• '/\\ __ ,....- , ------~·- -- /1 -· • -- - ., ------·~------j .., l ~-- - ' - - 111111 • ---±.=- - ~ I - - ~ \ - - - -- • i- j k ,- ')' ,/ I I - ...... I - -- - -a-~ ' P~-A Ro-JJ.\M., A - Rq,A..'i..1.A LIM. ] ~all .eUJ ~w,, l - ,. - -- I ., -· 'lA I - - r ------~ -- +- I' W r1 .--- I ~ ~ -- --1 ~- . - I' l ..- .... - ~ - _. - - ll. - ' . .. ' - - ... - - - •• .. - - .. 11. -- - r- -2'- ...... ft ----F= ------,___,~------p -- -- '' . ....& r- - - - -· • I - - • . ------~ - \ - - I J .. I - I' -J - II - - ·- r ' . - ~~ \M.. ;V\. u/d)\ .. J~ 'ft~ - --I -"' ...·~ - . - ~ r l'ft ~ - - - ,_ I I - -- I i-- , .. .- . - - -. . - I - • - - I j_ ...... I( .. - n - - .------.._ I .. - - I ------I ------I' I - - - - .WI'" - I I I - - I - ) - ... -... ~~ -...- I "''I• 7 - / I --... - - ,r. __ ., , , - - c-- .• I - f ~------.----- .,_ """'

Fig. 5. --Nine measures of Edilia' s "Praise of" Nature" aria2

1Hugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 606. Berlin: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1924. 2G. F. Handel, Almira, p. 13. ,

-22- .- ..... -e-: 1--.1.,.... • -- ---+- - ..: . ';~ -) --- r--::-~ ~~ ------;---~ ~~- - - r-__- r- --· ; --- -·------~·--- / ~ - .... - r_ - -/,,,... - 1 . £Mai llVv t:c.M. .Jl 't/L u/,wv.._ ·cLvr j .. - a 'A a I ------·M -- ,. • . • ·------· ~------:..;,:-- :Ai~ r •-.--. -1---- I. - - - -•- • -·- ,• - I ·'· - -

Fig. 5.--Continued

The beautiful palace garden now becomes the scene of a vio- lent quarrel between Osman and Edilia. Osman, intent on wooing Queen Almira, reveals his change of heart to E.dilia; thereby giving her the opportunity for an aria in which furious rage and curses are heaped • on Osman in "true Hamburg style. 11 1 C major is the key selecte·d to project &lilia's rage. Violins, viola, and oboes are used for the accompaniment. Measures one to five of Edilia's C maJei- aria are ' •' quoted• ) • :\ ..-- • ...... - • • I • - I~ n ~- " - , , / I I / / I -;//. -1 ./ f • L -7 - .. - -I -/ -7 - I / / - I/ I/ I '/ I/' ~ - I /, /1 '/ 71 - ... . - -- 11 I I/ '/ I.I - • -t- (I. ' .. Ji.~ ~~ . ~-JUu.. -fn' ,~ ~ ~-re.~ ,fl44 d..&..€. cL, {iv- .L ~) ... ..~ ... ,.. - - I - ....., I 'I II -- I - II""'- - I / I - ,.,_ I '- "i.. -- -- ~ ~ . - . - - • - "" ---

Fig. 6. --Four measures of Ed.ilia' s "Rage at Osman" aria.2

lHugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 606. Berlin: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1924. 2G. F. Handel, Almira,_ P• 18. Leipzig: Ausgabe der Deutschen Handelgesellschaft, 1873. -23 - .._.. •• ~~,~. ·t- .... ~- .... .• .,..Ai,. •• J' ,,.. i ...-- • -... I . '" .. I • ---- .. - .. ..- - r --- -I - ' I - - ._ ... ~ t1--4- - - - - lo' ... .____ .. ------~------~ -#- ~,_ .,,.. --- ... -,~ ~~ ,,. ... ~ • - .. . --"n'" • r. I J -- I ' - --~ . c / -- I I .. • - .. -I ~· L-"-· ,-_ J- ~-- ...~~ ... ~ - ...... _ - ~.

Fig. 6.--Continued

Later, when Ed.ilia gives Consalvo a report of her quarrel with Osman, her anger has abated but she complains bitterly of Osman's treatment. The key of G minor, parallel of the key used when she sang of her love for Osman, is used to project her complaint of him. Bass alone is used to accompany the voice; and a ritornello at the conclusion prolongs the plaintive tone of the aria. Measures one to seven are quoted: "

I ~ .J - ~ \ , I/ ,; I r - • • . lf'I I - ... - ~~~- -· I ~ - ...... I .. I - .. ... - -=-· ~ ..... I J I L I I ... ' • ... - - - ~- . _,, I ... I / , , IJ II - i·-·- -. - • - .. , ------·· ' ~~ ~--- \NO~~·"- 4t\O ~·d.tf·~ ~~~ti~()-O

I ~ it.. .. .A I I ~ .... - I~ J "'1 , _6 • 11 H ~ - _,.. ... I' - ' ' -~ ~ ---~ ...... - • .. - ....._' ~ ,.. ... I/ ...... - - - -·-- - - - I .I I 1£.- 1. - -~~~- . " ,. - ,. ,., • ~ .. .. ~ - - ,_.I ...... ,.. .. . I -. -I I --· "' - - - -~ , ,, ,, / J I I L- - f v ·=··"' / I . v I --- ~ ' , , ;:: , 1.1.J...... ~ ...... "'.- -~ ~ U) ;i&: .. . ~jY\Jz.. ·~Q • ~. I I I . I I ~ . l . i-- ... I I I - I I I ...... _.. . '---t"- ---;;J- ~ ~- -• "' I r..1 I .. I ..... • .... I , • - .. - - - - ..fl - ,, - - ~ ------.... ------Fig. 7 .--Six measures of Ed.ilia' s "Complaint of Osman" aria.l 1

-24- The first meeting between Osman and Ed.ilia is characterized by a nhort aria by Osman in which he attempts to deceive Edilia as to his real lntentions, but only succeeds in convincing her that he is pretending. The key used is a minor; and the same key is used for the duet between this couple when they meet for the last time and vow eternal hatred of each other.

Osman's aria in response to Edilia's outburst of rage at him, is in the same furioust one. The key used, G major, is the same as that of Edilia's first aria; the dominant of her "Rage at Osman" aria; and the parallel of her "Complaint of Osman" aria. Sixteenth notes in both melody and accompaniment are aptly fitted to the words of the text. String instruments alone are used in the orchestra. Measures one to six of Osman's aria are quoted:

_r\ ~ ~ r . II • - I I -/ ~ , - I - I ---- ~ / - ' L - - l r I -I ) ,... - ,,..... ~ I - ... -. II - - Y/ /~ I/ J, ,"" r

---.1~-- ~ 6 I ·~·1~111"",, '--1 I ~ - ...- - I I L- I.. F ~ ...... - .r .. , - - - - If , - -- -... - - - - r-.. ~ ... ,.. .. _If. ---... r • - I - - -.... - - - .,I I -I I I --.,f I " I - I -· -I - .. ,_ 11/- '/ I/ I 'I'· I.I =:ii 'I '/ " - - (/' I -,, II - , I/ -l I v '/ I I - - , "~ ~ - I ,, ..__·- n ~ - I/' I - ~ l'"""' I - .. ,_- - 'll• 'I[ • .... - ~ I - .. • i-"' 7 I I .... - - - ...... - - ·7-"··= I - - , II - .. I ------~-- ~ ~ - r ,.... -

Fig. s.--Fi ve measures of Osman's "Rage at Ed.ilia rr arial

libid.' p. 21. .. -25- ~ !l-'.- ~ • • ,_ ------• • - - ·-. -lL=.- - - - l - - .. .. - - .. ------···-,. ~+ ,, i- -· --~ ~"· -

l l. --·------~--· ~---'T.T-.~ r .. ~ I/ l ' ... ' 1/ ..... ··~11::..-. ,. '---I • I I ... .. I / ~- ---~'"'-"' • I u -I - ,_ ...... ' - ·~~.,-

Fig. 8.--Continued

At the next meeting of the two Osman resumes the quarrel, in a da capo aria accompanied only by the bass. The "quarrel" mood is maintained through the use of the key of C major, the same key that was used to project Ed111a.'s outburst of rage. Sixteenth notes, in six-eight meter, are a.gain used to characterize words of anger and hate. Measures one to five of Osman's aria. a.re quoted:

r"'\ --~ .,, I - .... lLI - .....-- ~- I ..- • ! ..._-4~---- ~+--- '- -= ~ ""' - - I J -..- I - i - I - I '} - - . - ~~-· . ~- • - ---~ - .... ·- ·-· . ,.... ""': ~t ...... ,,11..· ~ VII /1'W "~\M,.J ~ ..~~ ,---·

::,-::::l:~======_=;:====:=_=i:=====-~-:·----r------=------=-=====~~---==/:~=~=====:=::-====----_·=~~=~--.,~~t-=~--=~--=~:.....~·-=~--=~--=~--=~--=~-=-~:~~~:--- -~ -: --...... ------~-~------t------~~~----t----· ~

1--:.;J---~--...... ------h-~~--,----,.---,~-----;jl,--:------~-======·~-

+--~_.__-.~-1--'vt~~~,-,-,...,-~-""'--·m..,:__'ll\_~d~(;L,--r-..e". __ .:..~·-_.-.--"------·~------

.-.,...__ ...... ------111------+---..,.,------~------~ -· ------~~..:_ __--:.._.----- ... ~----jr--,_,_., ______..,_,----,_~----_-_-:._ __ - .. ·.·' ~- ~-+-~---+-~~-~----r--~-r--,---~ ~-~ / - -· /

Fig. 9. --Four measures of Osman's "Quarrel with Ed.ilia" aria.1

!Ibid., P• 36.

1 '1-A.-r~- ... -- -26- Tobarco, the buffoon of the opera, "is a character seldom missine from a Keiser opera, and Handel in the ariettas for Tabarco has followed Kaiser's model."1 Streatfeild suggests that the music , of r.rabarco foreshadows that of l-'apageno. 2 In the ballroom scene Tabarco is given a short nonsense song that serves as comedy relief between the Osman and Ed.ilia quarrel, and the tense situation between Almira and Fernando. In B-flat major, its lack of relation to the patterns that develop from the keys used for other arias emphasizes Tabarco's isolation from the situations involving the other characters. Princess Ballanti has no alliance with the other characters in this act, and is given but one aria, an abstract connnent on love • • • The choice of the key of C minor for this aria is significant, in that C minor is the parallel of the key used .for Osman's final aria in the "quarrel" pattern, and this key relation gives a hint of the love interest that is to develop between Osman and Ballanti in• the last act. The keys used in the arias of Almira and Fernando are:

Fernando Almira Fernando Almira Fernando

G c D E E-.flat

Fig. 10.--Pattern of keys used by Almira and Fernando

lHugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 606. Berlin: Deutsche Verlags Anstalt, 1924. 2R. A. Streatfeild, Handel, p. 224. London: Methuen and Co., 1909. -27- It will be seen from the Osman-hdilia pattern that four keys are used alternately throughout the group of arias that constitute their quarrel. D-minor, the key of Osman's aria in the coronation ceremony, appears as the key of his first aria in this group and is related to the keys of later arias by Osman, as well as to those of other arias bearing reference to him. The keys used in the arias of Osman and Edilia are:

Osman Ed.ilia Osman Ed ilia Osman Ed.ilia Osman Osman Edilia

D G A c G G c ).

•

Fig. 11.--Pattern of keys used by Osman and Ed.ilia -28- Key Patterns, Act I

B D G F c G A c G D E D G B E C A C I I ;

.. • -

------~----· -

Osman and F.d.ilia, Quarrel Pattern: Almira and Fernando: Consalvo: Ballanti, connecting with Osman:

.· .. ..:-.ii-:• .. A , 1

-29-

Act II.--The opening scene is a reception given in honor

of the visiting King, Raymonde. Princess Ballanti enters the scene with another aria on the subject of love; this time in E minor and directed toward Consalvo. Consalvo responds in an aria in D minor, the melody proceeding in a labored manner that seems to characterize Consalvo as a clumsy sort of lover. The fact that this meeting is not to result in a permanent alliance is indicated by the lack of relation between the two keys. This is the only appearance of Ballanti in Act II.

Osman now enters the scene eager to begin his courtship of Almira. He approaches Fernando to ask his help in wooing her. His aria is in waltz rhythm with the unusual accompaniment of viola di braccio and two flutes. The key of G minor is used for this first as sociation with Almira. Measures one to fourteen of Osman's aria are quoted: _,__ - _,_ • ~ ~- I ,/ 'I IA. ,. t ,/ ,/ - ,... ~ A- - ..... - • .... • - - 1-1,... ,. .,, -. II .:• - - ~.,- j , -- - -- • - -... I- •.. ~ - • .. ... - i I I .. j

I r . ' I I ,,. ,. .U-. - , - I ~ ~ .. -,f ... , ,r - L L - - .J ...... - , ~=1 , .,,. ... - _,_ - l -~ I I I l -1• ... -...... - I r .,., ,,. ~ I _...... - - -- ,_ ...- - ~ ------J' ·- I -- I .... . ------I - --- I -I - - -

I - . - I --1---· 1111• . fl - - - J , - .....- • I •.I ....,.. ,_ .A - . , ./ 1111 - """" - ·- ~

Fig. 12.--Thirteen measures of Osman's "Appeal to Fernando" aria.l

la. F. Handel, Almira, P• 51. Leipzig: Ausgabe der Deutschen Handelgesellscha?t, f873. -30------..--= ~------·)_·. ~-~--~---;;; __ : .·_-_.-_--1____ .-_:_---r-:::--,~l_--r--_t-_- __ -____ +_r--::------~--~~i--~-=-=-::r..~:' 0-==--=~-~-:.__-~+="f-~::i.=_-::_4--!=_=_-=:z - _ ~ ______------_------+-f-.__ r-----jt-c· -----=~ 6µ ~ ~ MM- ~ ~ ~-~c•~ I ,,,,fl...... j -, I I• .. , -· 1 "" - - - I

Fig. 12.--Continued

Consalvo now appears with the statement that his son must stand by his promises to Edilia, and the result he desires is obtained when Osman refuses to obey. The contrast of Osman's mood in his aria of agitated refusal, with that of the above aria is indicated by the

change of key from G minor to ~-flat major. A striking illustration of key relation is shown here, in that the above aria, with its refer

ence to Almira, is in a key related to those used for ~ira 1 s arias; while the present one, referring to Osman's relations with Edilia, is in a key related to the key used by Ed.ilia when she again heaps reproaches on Osman. The lively accompaniment of Osman's refusal is carrled by violins in unison. Measures one to five of the Aria d 1 agi ta to are quoted: _,.. I - -,.-,_ ·f- IL ".J I I ...... • ...- - . ...- • .. ll'l -, , ,_ - ...... I . . --, ' .T .. - I }, ,ti I el - JI / ., II -,~ ,_ / I I (/ - r/ v .. "' - - •• - '-' ,,• r/ r/ - II' / F7 "' - s~~-t~~ ~ .11i.Ja=M-wiol ~ Mk..Jtt,un mu.-"'8 u-k ~JI '

Fig. 13.--Four measures of Osman 1 s "Refusal of Ed.ilia" arial

.,.~ -31-

/'"'\ L - • • • - • i~ - •l • .. - - .. 11- .. I I, Jr, ...... - .. - - -- - /, ( / , I r; - / Y/ /1 I - i~ ... I - I --/ .. I ~ l/ _, v, - ~ i I ~ Bt* tt,. u.J. ~ "'tft-L'v\. .,uJ. ·~~ ~U, .J,tt'F"~~* ~ - _, I 1 I ...... , - . . . ,. - ... , . -... - .. -.. -...... _J ...- - •• - - • T -· , I 11'1 L .. .. - • ~ ~ - - -~ .. ... IJ ,..-· - ~ ,..._- - - .. .. - ~ - , ~ ' - - -- -

Fig. 13.--Continued

When Fernando fails in his attempt to woo Almira for Osman, there is a quarrel and duel between the two men. Osman's aria expressing his anger at Fernando resembles the "Rage" aria of Ed.ilia in Act I, in its use of groups of sixteenth notes and short phrases. The key, D major, is the dominant of the key in which Osman solicited Fernando's

aid. f,(easure s one to f 1 ve of the Aria furioso are quoted: ~ •• .. - l ,, , IA- - • ... •I ·-.:;:c - .. - - T- I - I I 7 I - - i...... I _.. - -- I - - ,, -- - L / I -- I u 'I ,f/ ' I/ '/ -/ '' • , r If/ ------T,,. ~ .. ~ }Jte,iU.\1·~L~ -I.-~ - ~ ... --n~-M e{L. Jo._'lt'U-n£r£ - .:.I. • .. • - ...... - - ... -- - .... - - ...... --··· ~ - .. - ... •t I~~·-!111 _....r• , 7 - - -- ,_ - -- -~ I JI . -- l - -I I I I = ~

_,_ -~ .... ~ .u;---.... - -·· -- - - • - " -- • / __ • - - .· - .. - - .. -..- II I 'f -- -,-· . /, ...- .. - • - T- -- - ... 111.....:1 ,. - .. _ '- -, - - - -I I/ '/ '/ - - ---"""'.: I/, I/ - ~---1 "' I/ / - -- - -I Et . - ~ ~) ~ 'JW1 ·M ~ _t.H:_ ~~-? -- - ~-I I ___. ~--- ...... ~ .. ~ ~ - _.- ...I. .... I ...... :.- ,,. - - ...... - .,...... - -, II -- - I - __ . I , 1 TE l 1 - I "I ...... I -I II JI - -l • • - .. - 4 ~ ~ iiff ~ ' -·

Fi g. 14 .--F our measures Of Osman's "Fury a.t Fernando" a.ria.1

1 Ibid., p. 63 •

• -32-

~ --~------r ,._ ...... ,__ __ • ------_._._~- I""\ '" ,,.... ~- ~- 'I ~ J. ... I "l"W ~ - - - -~ -I -, . ------}v()w1 - .... ,M_ ...... I ,. II "' t .. • ·- - I"" I .. r • .. ,,, 'I - • - " - - v

Fig. 14.--Continued

Fernando, aware of Almira's distrust of him, believes that his love for her is only a dream to which he must bid farewell. His aria is an unhappy lament, set in the key of G major, the parallel key of the one in which Osman stated his intentions toward Almira, and of

a key later used by Almira. The bass furnishes the only accompaniment

for this melancholy strain. Measures one to four o:f Fernando's Aria are quoted: • ~ ~ _=r_l------J~------iz~------.~----tr-~~-,_=---~:-_: ~=~--~~~-~==~·-·_... :' .. __· ______-~i}------r------~·------t:r---tr---;~-r_ ---·· ~

s~-1\"' '~ ~ ~ -~ ~~"-t...,. ,,,,.:e I - . _.__ I • ...- fl - llW ...... - ... ------..- - ______L ., -I 9 - ' - -

I"" '"' ~ 'I J.. ~ -- - , ~ - '" ~

i ~ I ,, ~---~ --•Po__. __ - --- _. ... , ... • - ...- ' I·- .1_-or ~ ... - ,... 1...-- I I - -· - )"" I""- - r I ·- - _J - I - -· - I • - - .. - Fig. 15.--Three measures of Fernando 1 s "Farewell to Love" arial

1Ibid., p. 53. -33-

After the duel with Osman, Fernando ridicules his supposed rival, taunting him with references to his tangled love affairs. c major is the key chosen to project this mood of bold defiance. The

aria is in lively rhythm, B.nd abounds in florid passages. An interest ing feature of the accompaniment is that the bassoon, used in lieu of the cembalo, is the only accompanying instrument. Measures five to nine of this aria are quoted: f'\ I~ ~ l ~ • r- ,, ,, + ~ r ( .l ...,._ I J ~ .... - .., ) ' - ... ~ I,._ l I f • l . 7 , I -j , ~ I 7 - ~·~ I - - - - /- - - -7 - I v v *·J~·~~"- ~ --~~ i~.4~ ~~~ ~

l ·- , .... I - - - - ...... - I ~ -I / ..,. - ----·'· /.A f - I , - • - - .. ,. - / ~ I - - - - .. • - • ·- -·n·---·-

Fig. 16.--Four measures of Fernando 1 s "Ridicule of' Osman" a.rial

When Consalvo approaches Almira with the suggestion that she shall marry Osman, she rejects the idea. In her aria, her agitation ls illustrated through a melody line based on eighth notes in short phrases, carrying a syllable to each note. The effect is that of' a

"patter song. 11 The text contains, besides her ref'usal, a poetic refer ence to the other love that has already entangled and wounded her. The key of C minor, used to project this emotional state, is related to

arias to come later. Measures one to eight of the Aria d 'agi ta ta are

libid.' p. 64. -34- quoted: ~ ...... 'J II • ~ - ... -.111 , L.... - ...... - I ,,,, , I - -... I I / - II I .. - ... - "" I - - J £... '1L.I"' IJ ' "' . I , - 'I - r - jl ' . ------~! 1W )'\Ali\ Vt> ~ ~ f r~ fc I~ l • 'II"" ~~~~ ' -~ l r 1 . ~ 1 ., ... ,, --·· , .ti.+- "" I ' ' I I fJ {1 j 7 'i IV '\ ,_ I / ' - , - - - .. -· _,, . ..- I •; fl I .--·i_ - -·-- - - -.· --- 111!11

- II - -··--·I .. -- -, ...... ,~- L.J ~ ...... - .. ~--~ • IJ ,L __; ~ / II - """ J / - - - ,,., - -~ , -; I 111iit- ... :.. / J f ' - I r ' " - I ~.,. &It'·~"'°.~.,. -~ D• ....----~ ""'° - h,t ·~ -...... I • - ... . -.. - 7 -- I ·- -- / - ~~-·-·-··- -- - ,__r I - . ~f .-::-~~ . ·-= .- - .I - - -

I .... ~ ...... ---... - .... _.. - r •I l - ...... ~ ~ - ~ ... / ...... --< -- - ii" I I ~ / ..... / -r . ....:.-:-- I .,,,.,• " - ...-· I / I , I , , - -·~· i • - I I I ~ ~ - t.4- ~ ~-= - ~=== ~ ~ ~.t- - • - ' ... - -... - - .. -"' ... - •""'. - IU I - - - .. - ....- - ~ -- - - I - •••• lii;....i -- _, , .. 'I r ·------, -·- =-~ r -- - Fig. 17.--Seven measures of Almira's "Refusal of Osman 11 arial

The proposal of marriage from her suitor, King Raymonde, is rejected by Almira. The mood aroused by this proposal is one of quiet meditation as Almira vows that she can no longer keep silent about her real love for Fernando. Her aria is built of sustained scale passages, in marked contrast with the agitation shown in the melody or her pre vious aria. Measures eight to seventeen of this aria are quoted:

1 Ibid., p. 55.

I J 1 iiJ -35-

\ - ~ 4~ YJ • .. • ...... , ...... -=·- J \' t • l - / ""'"- ..... - ... I - c , - • ... . - • I' I r - - --- • ~-- 'T I ·o-.--.. - , ... - • vr..4, ~A M,., ;.., . y\ ~ I Mo \_.~, ~ • CJz. • ~ .. 'L. ~-f~ ~ I ~------__·- - F' . - • .J# - - ~ , ..,,. JI I.I - - .. -- .. . - T~ .. .. - .. - ...... _,, , - - ,____ .. .. - -I - I I - - • I - - -

,, ... ~-

Fig. 18.--Ten measures of Almira's "Confession of Love" arial

When Almira learns of the hurt that has come to Fernando

in his duel with Osman, she is furious. She vows that ~e herself will comfort Fernando, and that he shall be revenged on Osman. The choice of the key of D minor for her aria, referring to both Fernando and Osman, is significant; for D minor is identified with both men in Act I. D minor, is, also, the dominant of the key us ed ror Almira's previous aria, referring to her love for Fernando. Measures one to

seven of the aria furioso are quoted••

· ... .-o• - ~L ------,, I ~ .... . - .. . . ~-- .... -- ~.:::..t-; -- -- ... - • , . . ., f ,. I ... ,{. I ----Jiff-~ ... ., Y•- - "- - ,- I L' I I • ...... ' ' =------/, -- ,,., ' - - ' - lL ., ~t.. }lit"~ -~ ~t ... I' ~ !: .. ;.,ff __ __,..-_ -.L ____ 41-.,_- - - I ...... - .. ··------.. ~~·=c- . .. t------. - ·- - -- .. • - - - ...- - ·-- - , ...- - - •••, - I - ·=r~ ... _"" • ------· ------' - - - - i-..... - Fig. 19.--Six measures of Almira's '"Defense o:f Fernando" aria2

libid., P• 60. 2Ibid., P• 67 • -36- -

·- - - - - ._ - - _. ' I " . -I I - .... r- I I J r' - I J - I/ / L/ / ./ IJ , f '2..-

Fig. 19.--Continued

When King Raymondo appears before Almira with his proposal of marriage he is given two successive arias. The keyfll B-flat major is used for the first of these. The choice of this key suggests the fact that Raymonde is to be rejected, for the key of B-flat major does not occur in the pattern of keys formed by Almira's arias nor is it related to any keys in this pattern. However, B-flat major is the key used later for an aria by Edilia, thereby indicating through key rela tionship the attachment that is to form between Raymondo and Edilia.

rl'he second aria, in which Raymonde continued to proclaim his desirability as a suitor to the Queen, is in E-flat major. This key also, bears no relation to the Almira key pattern; thus further emphasizing the absence of alliance between the characters Almira and Raymonde. Oboes and violins in unison are used in the accompaniments of both arias. When a chance meeting occurs between Osman and Ed.ilia, Ed.ilia seizes the opportunity to again berate Osman for his treatment of her. The key of her aria, B-flat major, shows through key relation F.d.ilia' s

.,, - .. _ -ail;~'il.i:','.; :.i'-c..L,~ • ... -~·i.. ;.._.~ _,." -~.~ :- -37-

connection with both Osman and Raymondo. B-flat major is the key of

i\aymondo 1 s first aria, the dominant of his second aria; and the dom inant of Osman's aria which bears reference to hdilia. The aria is a brilliant display piece for the voice, and is set to an energetic

rhythm. The accompaniment is orchestrated for two violins, two oboes,~

~nd viola. one to thirteen of the Aria di bravura are quoted:

f ; ~ Er r r Jd"!__b Ff E_r '- IE E c r Ef l r r r f ; _i

4.---- ....I I r I I .., - - ... - ..... I J-.Llr .. - .. - - .. ' -' ... , ...... - ..... - - ~ ------.. ------LI J - T .. " I ------·.:ii" 1 ... - \ _ ~

Fig. 20:[--Twelve measures of Edilia's "Condemnation of Osman" aria.

Tabarco, the clown, is alloted two lively, foolish songs in this act, two in German and one in Italian. The texts bear no comment on what is occuring between the principal characters. The first two are used to separate the Ballanti-Consalvo episode from the tense sit uation that develops between Osman and Fernando. The third, followed

by a ritornello, serves to bring Act II to a close.

libid., P• 69. I

-38- Key Patterns, Act II

D F D G G c E B G D c D B D

' ! :

I I I I

I I i I I I

I L I t I T I t I I I ! I • I

Osman (relation to Almira and Fernando) : Almira and Fernando: --- --·------Raymondo and Fililia:

... . - ._J·,~ 1

-39-

Act III.--In the pageant scene·that opens Act III, Fernando, Osman, and Consalvo each appear in costume and sing a simple arietta

followed by a dance. The keys used for the ariettas of Osman and ternando are related to the keys used for their later arias. F-major, used for the arietta by Consalvo, the manipulator of every one's else affairs, is related to all of the key patterns formed in this Act. The complicated situations of the previous acts now begin to show siQ1s of reaching solution.

Ed.ilia approaches King Raymondo and tells him the story of her troubles with Osman. The attachment that is forming between them is further revealed now by relation between the keys of their arias. Edilia's aria sung to Raymondo ls in the key of F minor, while Raymondo's response is in C minor. An interesting feature of Raymondo's aria, as he consoles the weeping Edilia, ls the characterization of falling tears through the use of scale passages and intervals l!ding downward. The oboe, with bass, is the only accompanying instrument. Measures

one to three of Raymondo 1 s Aria are quoted: - ~ - A ~- ... Ill""- - - - .. ... I I IJ - I ~ -- • -- I • , n ...... - - - -I - . LI._ - ...---- " , , I - -J J -I I I r-7- ., I ... - - -. a ~ ,, ,j .. A...... - - - ,_ -~ - tr V' ...... ,_ " - --- - ...... ,- --- . ~~~ ~~~ -~~.. i. ~·A~ ~ "-~~-~ ~ ~ - T I,_ -~ l I - ·~ -~ I••-,,.. I ,, ...- - - IA I ... - - , ·r - .::-i II - - ,_ ------.. •• - . ,,,,._ - - •• • -

Fig. 21.--Two measures of Raymondo' s "Consolation of' :b:dilia" aria.1

When Ballanti meets Consalvo for the second time it is evident

!Ibid., p. 84. '

-40-

th~t she intends to have no more of his love-making. The spiteful words of her refusal are set to a florid melodic pattern in the key of 3-flat major. Lleasures one to eleven of this aria d'agilita are

I quoted: L ... II ------"" - . -... - ... , - - /. -- J - ...... // . -- .. -- - - ,- - "/ // - I - f7- / / ~~- - I/ - f\lJ_ - . 'i.JL ~L~ ~ ~ AAAL -r:-n.vl..-t\_ ~ ~ .er.ft., .. 11 - ~...-...... -. •I • - .- ... - .... - - • ·- -- ·~ • •- n .._ - .. - ....- ....- .... - • .... - - ..... - -·~ ' 'II ...... -·- ~ - l - -I -I J -I ,, - I n !!S - - -~ I _.I - • ... - - ...... - - ....- ...... • - - - .... - - - ' - - I I .,.... - ...... ------I ... .. - - - .. ' ---- - • - - ~-"'"""'-..::..- I ~· - --~ "" I """'" ------~ ~bt.. -·-Ari--- - _. - • - • ..- .....- ~ I - - - II D .. I .... - -... - -- - - • Wll - - I - - - • ·- •'I I ., - I . -- - ~'.J.:{·- - , ~ • ~ ~ • ...- ....- - ....-- ...,, - I . - .., - - . :~ - - I " I - - - .....-- - - I ·------I I ' II r .... I I I I - - ,,.. - I J .- - .... -- --- I I I - 4 - ...... ------II I ~ - - ~ I I r l - ... I J I ., ...., - ...- ....- - - ...- . 1 ... - - / I . ~' ,, .., 7- - • - I I ------±--~F·-----·------~ -~...,,-- - - ·--

...... I

Fig. 22.--Ten measures of Ballanti's "Rejection o:r Consalvo" aria.l

Consalvo replies to this outburst in the same vein. His

!Ibid., P• 86. -41-

~riR is in G minor, and the melody, accompanied by bass alone, is a

clumsy imitation of Ballanti's aria. The contrast between the two arias gives striking musical portraits of the two characters. Measures

five to tvrn 1 ve of Consa.1vo 1s aria are quoted: • ...... I \ ,/ \ .. • ~- { ~- I ,,,,., ... I , -• .... I .,, - / / ,I - -J ,...- I - I/ I I 17- ~ !.~ ,__ ""'1. a:;t,~

I - I - ....L - - - ~ - - J ---,~-,~-~__Jmf!..~__..:!!!:_~--1£.:__--,.~~~L-.fl--~~:~--1---~------~-_:__.:..;;iiiJ...... :I~:::=~==~==r~===:r::r==~-~------.. .. - - - -~ .:~ ...... i - ,. ,... ~ ... . I • .. I - ... - - ... - • I ..... I u ..I.. v -... .. - ... -I .. I I - -J -... I ' I - / ~ - I J / I I v ------I / - I ~ - ~'I-tr Wd.L .~ ~ ~- .z:- I ...... a .. I I I •V . . . - 'II ... I - - - I llf - ., / / .... I- - ,... I , ' I I " , ------I • I - ,. _ • -- . -.- -~ ..... I .. I ....- • - I 1.a H J /) 7 ! I _, ,, ... =- J :1 - I .... / _,,,____ _,,,~ I ., - , . ~ ~ ~ - ~ ,,_ ')t.)z_ ..... I: -- • ·-----··· ..... , ·~ -.... ------. ~- ... ------·------...... -- I n - , ., - ... - ---.-- .. - - ...... -·---~.~~· - T

F'ig. 23.--Seven measures of Consalvo's "Reply to Ballantin arial

Fernando, in his first appearance in this Act, is found in a philosophical mood, similar to that of his aria "Liebliche Walder" of Act I. This similarity of mood is emphasized by the use 0£ the same key, D minor, for both arias. In the present aria he re£lects that "noble minds get rid of all dissatisfaction." The aria is accom panied by all the instruments of the orchestra in unison. Measures

... _,,... libid., p. 87.

.---~ -42- one to eight of this aria. a.re quoted: -- ~ ,... - -.... • j-- ...- IA "'...... ,_ F""'I "...... r I '!""""- - -~--- - - ... - I - - :=_~ - - • - '· e,_ - I 0. I u. . £. .s~ ~ ,_ll, "_ .. 1r ""F ~ ~ ..~ Uta4.

~ --·-·-· ,_,, ·~ ...... I --Ji' I """", - --- .. ... -,~ -· - "-·=·- f lfl .. •_ ...... - ·- -- .... . ·-·-- . ...! v - --- I - ~-- I ' -- - I I • -

IF ~ --- - I l ""I"" l .. .Jtll .. L. """ .., ,,, ~--~- I ~ .. l'M .. ...- - - ' •· - -· -· - I I - - .. - - ---~-- .. ,.__ ·----- I ___ -~-~ .. - ... ..Tl. I -'"""'- " " - ~ ~ S'o..&A-A. .~ ·~ -/rs'*.... .=.=- -Ir ...... ~~-~-=~ I ••• - ... n ... -- .. __...,,..._...._-_. -- I .... - ... . - I . .. - - J -·-

Fig. 24.--Seven measures of Fernando 1 s "Soliloquy" arial

Fernando's mood is abruptly chang ed when Cons... vo appears with Almira's order for his arrest. Bewildered and embittered by this

turn of affairs he saterizes the favors of court with the words, "what

is the favor of court? A smoke; it vanishes quickly." The contrast of this mood with that of his previous aria is emphasized by the change of key from D to G minor. Violins and violoncello are used for the accompaniment. Measures one i»teen of Fernando's Aria are quoted:

Fig. 25.--Fourteen measures of Fernando's "Disillusion" aria.2

1Ib1d., p. ea. 2Ibid.' p. 89. •

-43-

.1' • L. \. \ • '!P. y , - ,..I ... J ..., '"1 o ... n L - - I I ~ I "'- I - ,... I I - - / -- 1 7 ~ ,I - .. I - I ,. ~-~- ·- I •I . Md; 'CA- U/Q.4. ct~ ~ ~ :~~ ~ l4t-- -- I ----· - -- ~ ·- - ._::-~ I f 1 II/ I ~ ..__ I I lJ Iv r- .... 1 I .. - I L-, -,- --· . --,- - / ~·· ~ ------~-. • -

~ I.. ~ ~ U ... P I 1Y • ·-'--·· • • ... - - - -~- Pa FY . L l -- l • .- - I - I '-- '- I J -- - - - •• %"_ ... I I I' ,, - I I j r - -____ .,,_ / I " - . ~" ~-- ;f>ll> cl.._ ~~fw.~ a~ ~ ,BO~~-~ a~ck

A- -~- I l ... - ~ --·------. . ·~~- •·" ~--· ~ - ~ L. - 111 " '- -...... , . .:=....-_,; - . - ·- IM ' - L L . - I , ,,. .I - ...... ' - - --- .. - ,J - -J f- -- . - - I .. --

... l... ;_-----· .. l v - -• \ ----·-.....-·------. - - -~ ..... _ ·-·----~ -· .... I ...... l'J • ,..- - .. - ,.. - - -·- £.---- ' - ... I - - - ..... - T I " - J - - - ,----·-. -· f:____ - - ~-- iiii= ...... F- --· AA'k ~ - - -- - ~:~Jud:!-~ UY><. . ~~ I ..... ,__ I ·- ~ ~ I! . ··----· ·-·--·-- -- ,,, n- ....- --- - .... ----~-:: ~: -~~ - ~·- I ...-- ,_ -- - ...... - --~- •. ~ ... .. - - ·-- - - , 'rtT ·-- .... - - • - _,.... - --·-- ...... - I - - - • ~

Fig. 25.--Continued

In prison under sentence of death, Fernando has two suc cessive arias. In the first, as he reflects on his life and love, his mood is remote from that of any previous emotional state. The choice of the key of F minor for both "prison" arias is signif'icant, for F minor is not found elsewhere in the Fernando-Almira pattern of keys. Fernando is resigned as he reflects that, being innocent, he can even smile at his Fate. The viola, with first and second violins, is used to accompany this mood. Measures one to six of Fernando's

first Aria are quoted: -44- ,.... \ 1 . - ..... , .."" JJL - .. - 7 \.. , ... ,,. - ILi .,, .. - I I ~ I - .. ~ --- - - , . 1 - - J I ,, - - _.__._ - I - - -+--· J r I } _tt- - ' ~ ~aMA-t.. ~~~ ~ ~-')(~ -~ .I M ' 1- ...... •. - - - II - - , .. - ...... - ~-·-· - ...., -.. • .. . -I - - - I - I -- - - -' -· - ·--· - - -~:_:--1 - I I - I - . < - -- -- I I ·---- !II -· ' - r- --- :: ...,;._. ..

------::::::---i+--~r----.111._ ____r-- ______, ..----~Ff L---~------·-+-- --=·---::--~---__.-_-.--.---·-._...,_ ...---,. __ ~-r,.:--~r-- ..-:r------=-""'!-_""',_j-.~~..:::---~:~~:·-:~_ .. :: r ...... ·------i::::t:===t--___.!-_._ . d'

Fig. 26.--Five measures of Fernando's "Declaration of Innocence" aria. l

Now while Almira listens unseen, Fernando gives £ull ex pression to his devotion and loyalty to his Queen. The key mood and orchestral setting remain the same for this stirring arioso. Ifeasure s thirteen to twenty-three of the arioso are quoted:

libid., p. 103. -45-

_,_ t'i l...... " ---.....=:ar-~ I a ., a ~ ... . - - .... - - 11 ..,., - - - - If- / r - -. 1 I I I - \ I ~- ., - - • - /---,Ir- IJ , J T , - ;- I - ~-..-. - ..c +- ~~·-~- ., ::.~ - T 'f . £,«. ~ F-A~ ~ Lt/nJ. ~ Ad~Wui-fA. +.f_ #'"-"--- 1. I . I I I.a• U I• 7 I -- i ~ ..... - -·I - I -· L. - - -- 7- .. • I " , v..- I -. - - - i - .. ·- - t

-k~_-m_u,..,_~~-"tu---t-'>1?_u.J.___ tk-_~~~-!_·~_·+-~~~~~~~~

~--&LJL~ _ ___.__ -<-~k- --=.------======~1====:i~======jt:~_-_-_-_-:_-:_------_,,,.-- ...... --.+-~ ----~ .....

Fig. 27 .--Nine measures of Fernando's "Conf'e ssion or Love" aria.I

libid., p. 106. -46- Almira, when she first appears in Act III, is in a gay and

11 8 ppy mood. She feels sure now, that she can win her beloved away

from Ec1 ili£l.. The reference to Ed.ilia is reflected in the choice of the key of G major for her aria, for G major is the key used for Mille.' s aria in Act I, when her quarrel with Osman became the cause of Almira's jealousy. Also, this key bears out the plan of relation ship between the arias of Almira and Fernando. Almira's gay mood is

expressed in a brilliant aria di bravura. I~ieasure s one to twe 1 ve of

~iI-~ t-+---~-:._-_-_-_-:_-_-_-:_-:_-_-_-~-_--:1-.:..-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_;_-:,...:c'-:_-_-__-_ -----:::.-r-.....-_-:,,.a.- .....-_-~ .---#-' ~-----_...,__ ----_,,;,.·=~ ~---..--...... __ ~----~~------~~~-+~.~../----·-~~-~=+~1~-_-+--F-+-F-~.+---F~l~-.~~----.__...fllll:~~~--~---1 --r·· I I I •

- --·-- .....-- 1 ··- ~---) -~ -· - ... - - z 7 ) ~------···--- .. .. I ~ ~- ~~- ~-~~~~-·---.. __ ...... I - --- . .""t;,..._ - (!h.l.l. .At .• :li JL._ ,. +.::.- ~..,--. . '-- - • IL ...- ' '" -'-··- ... , ... -· , ...... Al .. • ..... - - .. • -- ,.... -- -· ----·--·- - .. I• r 1-- ...... - - ..- '""' ~- ·---~ ---- ._ -- .. I ... ~ c ---...... -- - • - -- t- -· ., -.. - .. ~ i i- r

Fig. 2s.--Eleven measures of Almira's di Bravura Aria in al

libid.' P• 91. -47-

--·------·----~-·----·------·------···------·- - . -----~~------·--- -·------~ -· -~~ ------··------·-- -·· --- .

Fig. 28.--Continued

When Consalvo succeeds in convincing Almira that Fernando is unfaithful to her and in love with Ed.ilia, she is furiously angrY,. She vows to avenge herself on Edilia, and punish Fernando• It is now Almira's opportunity for an aria in which virtuoso display of voice is used to typify an outburst of rage. The key used, C-major, does not belong to the key pattern formed by the love arias of Fernando and Almira, but reverts to the pattern formed by the "quarrel" arias of Osman and Milia in Act I. C major is the key used for Ed.ilia' s "quarrel" aria in Act I; the quarrel which was the original cause of Almira• s jealousy. Violins, oboes, and viola are used in the ace om- to e !even of this aria are quoted• &oa n i men t • easures one ~ ~ \ r • • \ I ·------\ ,. ) _,. ..,, - - - f I\ - I - ,. /-· I -·.... , v - - ' q_ r - -- - .J--- I ...... i Ii- ·- - -~ - •• • .. ~ -;~- ~- .•.,_ ..;.J..<'t,. ~cl~(,-dL~ )j.:t-ik -a.. t-~ ( ,.- .. ,. _.. ,. - I 7' l. I - I & - ~ -- - I ..,, +-¥ _, f - f - - ___ .J._ --· - - - - / - - • - / - --·--- I , ------Fig. 29.--Ten measures of Almira's Virtuoso Aria in cl

libid., P• 96 •

...- __'!. -48-

- • .- • • • •·. - _, ..- - - .... - - .....- ~~- --- ... - l""" I ..... I ~ ,..:.....;;..i------·-

Fig. 29.--continued

Almira's emotional state at the time of her next aria is one of mingled anger, love, and grief. Her fury of jealousy has sub sided since she received a letter from Fernando; and, although she still believes him guilty, she wants to "kiss the lines," of the let ter. This unusual combination of emotions is projected by the key of'

A major, marking the only use of this key in the entire opera. A major is, however, the dominant of the key used for Fernando's preced ing aria. This aria is in one part and accompanied by bass alone.

Me a sure s one to seven are quoted:

- ~ _,_...... __ _: ...,...., c '-... -49-

11 .o1~ _, l t-~ J P°I I I / --- .._ "I - .- I I ...... ,. ---- . - ... " .. ,_ I ... I ,.. - P\. -·-.. ~~- .. I .. I ~" .. - I -...... ------' I I ~\l:l ~·~ M-· ~~t.:a- ... jp., ·'tAA. fc}tl -~ ~.oi \l I I I ,...... I l ... - - --- ..I - - -- ¥ .. ' ... - -·- - - ... ..41 . - ...- - J :_:j . ------~ .. I I .. - - .. -.. - -· =~J .. I I - ...... f

Fig. 30. --Six measures of Almira's "Letter" Arial

The coincidence of Almira's overhearing Fernando's song of love for her brings about their reconciliation, which is ...gnalized

by a duet. The choice of B-flat major for this sumber, the key used

for Fernando's first aria in this Act, brings their pattern of~ related keys to a close. B-flat major is used again for the final chorus in which all the principals join with Almira and Fernando in expressing their joy at the happy termination of their love affairs. 'Nhen Ballanti makes her le.st appearance in the opera, her aria is directed at Osman. That the result will be a final attachment between these two is indicated through key relation. G minor, the key used for Ballanti• s aria, has been associated with Osman throughout the entire opera; and their love duet, which follows immediately, is

in the dominant key, D minor.

!Ibid., P• 100. -50- Key Patterns, Act III

I3 I.J F G F c B G D G G E C A G F B G D

iI I I 'I

11 I I ~-

I I

' I I J

Almira and Fernando: Ed.ilia and Raymondo: Consalvo: Ballanti: - - / ~ CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS OF JULIUS CAESAR

Handel, who had been living in England for ten years, was made director of Italian opera at the Royal Academy of Music in London, in 1720. He was commissioned to go to Dresden to engage the best Italian singers to be found; and returned with Senescino, Cuzzoni, Berenstadt, Bosch!, and Durastanti. Julius Caesar was composed toward the end of the year 1723, when the composer was thirty eight years of age. It was performed for the first time at the Royal Academy in 1724 with Senescino as Caesar, Cuzzoni as Cleopatra, and Bosch!, Berenstadt, and ~s. Robin son, in the cast. The first German performance of the opera took place in Goettingen in 1922, at which time the score was adapted to modern performance by Oscar Hagen. Publication followed in 1926 with an English version by Hagen of the original libretto by Nicolo Haym. The voices, in the original production, were cast as follows: Julius Caesar, contralto; Cleopatra, soprano; Cornelia, alto; Sextus, soprano; Ptolomaeus, alto; Curio, basso; Achillas, basso; Nireno, alto. In the twentieth century version the part of Julius Caesar is taken by bass-baritone; that of Sextus by tenor; and that of Ptolomaeus by bass. Synopsis.--The scene of the action is laid in Egypt af'ter the battle of Pharsala, 48 A.D. Victorious Caesar, entering Egypt with promises of forgiveness to his foes, finds that the Egyptian King, -51- -52-

I-tolomHeus, has murdered the Egyptian general, Pompey; ostensibly as a gesture of appeasement to Caesar. Horrified at the deed, Caesar threAtens vengeance on Ptomemaeus. Sextus, son of Pompey, also vows

to avonGe his father. Cornelia, beautiful wife of Pompey, has already attracted the attention of the Egy~tian general, Achillas, and of Ptolemaeus. Cleopatra, sister of Ptolemaeus, claims her right to the throne of hgypt and plans to enlist Caesar's aid against her brother. She visits Caesar disguised as one of her maids, Lydia, seeking protec tion from the persecutions of Ptolemaeus. Caesar becomes infatuated with her beauty and promises to help her. Meanwhile, Ptolemaeus and Achillas plan to murder Caesar at the banquet to be given in his honor. This plot fails, as does Sextus' effort to avenge his father and he is thrown in prison. Cleopatra has Caesar brought to her apartments a!d reveals her real identity to him. A love scene between them is interrupted by the approach of the Egyptian guards intent on the capture of Caesar. Caesar eludes the guards by jumping in the sea and Ptolemaeus, believing him dead, has himself proclaimed ruler of Egyp~ and puts Cleopatra in prison. Caesar saves himself by swimming to land and returns just in time to assemble his scattered army and defeat Ptolemaeus in battle. Caesar and Cleopatra are reunited and, placing her beside him on the throne of Egypt, Caesar thus happily unites the Roman and Egyptian people. That the plot of Julius Caesar is "an almost inextricable muddle of plots and counter-plots that defy analysis, "l makes Handel 's systematic use of key relations in the construction of this score, all

lR. A. streatfeild, The Opera, p. 239. London: George Routledge & Sons, 1896. -53-

the more emphatic. It is here that the composer shows most strongly his innate urce for form; and here that he contributes another example of the force, on the art of music, of this desire for form. The plan of construction that is revealed through an analysis of the key relations in the score of Julius Caesar is quite different from that revealed in the analysis of Almira. In Almira, when a change of scene occurs, there is a change in the relations of the characters to each other, and the key patterns develop according to these rela tions. In Julius Caesar, when a change of scene occurs, there is a change of location and a change in the trend of events involving the characters; and the key patterns develop according to the meaning of the location and the effect of events on the relations between the characters. Unrelated keys placed against each other denote a transition from one character to another, or a change of mood in the same character • The different keys used in the entire opera are:• D major, C minor, E-flat major, G minor, G major, B-flat major, F major, E minor,

C major, F-sharp minor, D minor, and E major. These keys are found to comprise three patterns of keys, corresponding to the three situations that dominate the opera: (1) the murder of Pompey, (2) the a.i'finity between Caesar and Cleopatra, and (3) the enmity between Caesar and Ptolemaeus. The keys used in the arias connected with the murder of Fompey make the related group, D, C, D, C, G, G, D. Those connected with the affinity between Caesar and Cleopatra, G, B-flat, F, F-sharp, E, E, G; and those dealing with the enmity between Caesar and Ptolemaeus, E-flat, E-flat, D, F, C, C, C, F, D.

The Murder of Pompey Act I, Scene 1 discloses a broad plain in Egypt, beside the river Nile. A bridge lies across the river. Roman troops led by Caesar

)

. ·,.. .- . ''-, ,- ~ ~· --

- ....~. -54-

file over tJ.1e bridge and are hailed by the Egyptian people. Caesar

nddres~e~ the people in a stirring aria di bravura, and bids them honor him as their conqueror. The key of D major is used here in projecting the character of Caesar as a conquering hero, and is use d twice nsain in the score for the same characterization. An orchestra of string instruments, oboes, and bassoons furnishes the accompaniment.

I•1easures one to five of the Aria di bravura are quoted:

·-t--+--¥-----+-~-1_-- _J t--t~lr+J.__.,__ +----+---++-...... ---+----.~--f---f--+--+--+---1--___j~--·-." ~ =-1' f ,_

I ~ •J -~- ______-_.,..,. .. ------. ------·- ·~-- ·~ . ------~ ...

Fig. 31.--Four measures of Caesar's "Conquering Hero" a.rial

Cornelia and Sextus now enter to pay homage to Ca.e sa.r, and a few minutes later the dramatic high spot of the scene is reached, when Achillas b rings in the severed head of Pompey a.nd presents it to Caesar. The atmosphere is tense with consternation a.nd horror.

rl1he change in cae sar rs mood from that of the preceding aria. is charac terized by the change of key to C minor for the following aria, in which he threatens revenge on the murderers of Pompey. The melody carrying this threatened revenge and impending battle is constructed

lG. F. Handel, Julius Caesar, P• 13. Leipzig: c. F. Peters, 1926. -55-

of sccle passat=;es and rhythmic patterns c ons i s ting largely of repeated notes. 'l1he accompaniment is scored for the entire string instrument section with violins playing in unison. Measures one to seven of

I --1... - - I -t-t-\_ _. 1 tt-ff-1t"~---+---4t--bl-i-d--+-;~--:.__4_~~J---4'(i:..:.·_:.:r~=U- = "-7 - I T ...... _ ___ _..-="---JL..-~"'::" ...... -=ir-~ ... ~--~..:.-1~--~·,,_~;,_....l~- - - -:f :-.:_-:::_-v-_--~-----. Cll.{w.i11.r~. ~. 13- '· ~ -"M-:trL ~cur. f/1-:f_<___ ---~

H,-lfl=,...7"~~-,.------. --- -fir·------·-_~-_..,._-.. __ ·~--=,-·...--.,.---_:-._ .. r!9-·------~-- ~ ~ ---~ --~~ I ., 1.aa. ------+-+·- ., • - .------lt::=----.-- •• t.:.~L.'- __ ... ----·------;;;:-· _,. • . . ·-··_-·----~---·---~-_--:__ -__ ------~------.. --...-~~--+-,~~--

A ,, •_n. l -.... ~ • • - • .. • ·--·- ·-- -- ..... ~ ... ~--~ 11 I I" ~· .... ._, . - ,,;;:::.:.; ~ ~ -·- - I lfl - - I -T I I ,I ,._ - I - J. I I ,. / '/ .. - ~- . - - -~' UM. .. ~- C>.MA.. -il'...!. ~\_,'. p~ Clfl-~ · lA f&Jc·W~ ~,) ..... - • • I '-I • - - --~-- -- - ·---·~-- I Ill t... - /_ ... .. - - ,------·- -- -·-· . ..------·-· . -· -···· . '. - I f

Pig. 32. --Six measures of Caesar's "Revenge of Pompey" arial

During the following recitativo between Cornelia and Sextus,

harmonic transl tion leads into the key of D major for the first tonal portrayal of the character, Cornelia. There is significance in the choice of D;»Jr1or for this aria expressing Cornelia's grief at the death of her' husband; for D major is the key employed for Caesar's

l Ibid., p. 18.

-_._.. -56-

arlr1 8 t the time of his triwnphant entry into Egypt, which was the cause of fornpey's death. Cornelia's aria of despairing grief is based on tlle recurring rhythmic pattern , on a downward scale passAee. The accompaniment is carried by a solo string quartet to ·::hich the flute is added as an obbligato instrument. This is the first instance, in this opera, of the use of the flute in association with the mood of grief. Measures one to nine of Cornelia's aria are

q uot e d • I'- l \ \, ~ \ ~ . "I £ I I, ~ / , ...... " -·· ... " ' , I ~ 1'~.-· p I ...... I ·~-~ • - I - - - / .. .. ------' ~ fMN.._ J\,v~ ().- "" ~- !&() - ~~-~ ~- 4- I~-~ I I l.P _., ·-- I - - ...... - .....-- I ... - .... "J- .... - - - " I ~ ..: - - I I/ - - - I

Fig. 33. --Eight measures of Cornelia. 1 s "Grief at the Death of Pompey" aria.l

As Cornelia ls led from the scene, a sudden change of' mood

is apparent in her son Sextus. With the words, "weeping does not

avail. Avenge him! 11 his recitativo modulates into the key of C minor,

the same key as that employe d for Caesar's aria in which he vows to

avenge the murder of Pompey. Bassoons replace the flute, in the or- rage and vengeance, and the viola chestra, to accompany this mood of The aria is da capo, the f'irst is dropped from the string section.

libid., p. 20. -56-

nrlr, 8 t the time of his triwnphant entry into Egypt, which was the

cause of fornpey's death. Cornelia's aria of despairing grief is based

on tlle recurring rhythmic pattern , on a downward scale passaee. The accompaniment is carried by a solo string quartet to

·::hich the flute is added as an obbligato instrument. This is the

first instance, in this opera, of the use of the flute in association with the mood of grief. Measures one to nine of Cornelia's aria are

q uot e d •

1... \ ., I .. \ ~ \ ~ . I . I I' ~ " ... "/ I'' ' ~ I -· - f ~I~~~ I --·-- ... • .. ------/ .. - " , -·- - -- -·- ' ~ 0-.AN- J\,'v~ 0-"' ~- '9

_LL. - -~ " ILA' ... ~ Dlill: • I" --· - ·-~-~ - .... ~ - , ~ --~--- I .. .:'1•1 ---::!--~ .-- I• - - . - . I ---- .... ~ -- -- M..I ------I/ -- . -·- ·-·· . ------. --~ ~- ~---:;. • j, -___ - - I ~ - . - &4.' ~ f" 1 !~ ~~ ~ - - - 1 I _J[;j \ I - I _1, .. -- II - II ' TI I -I - ' - , - -~ I -II- r - - -- . -· - -

Fig. 33.--Eight measures of Cornelia 1 s "Grief at the Death of Pompey" aria.1

As Cornelia is led from the scene, a sudden change of' mood

ls apparent in her son Sextus. With the words, "weeping does not

avail. Avenge him.1 11 his recitativo modulates into the key of' C minor, the same key as that employe d for Caesar's aria in which he vows to avenge the murder of Pompey. Bassoons replace the flute, in the or- rage and vengeance, and the viola chestra, to accompany this mood of The aria is da capo, the f'irst is dropped from the string section.

libid., P• 20.

La., ~-~-- I. -57-

one to apr)ear in the score. In the second part, when Sextus' rage :_::i v0 s \•:n:r to his grief, the flute is again added to the orchestra. i .. e o. sure s one to six and twenty-three to thirty-four of the Da Capo ariH Rre quoted:

I \ .....-...... ~ ll ., .l.. . ~ ... . '"1 ..., ~- • • '- k\ .. A I ' - ~,.." \ J ,I -J ·-- J - '--- - '/ 'J - II ~=~----~- I - ·-l.J -I T- - [/ -. -- • - - - r ------.. ~ ... - I I "°-' . JU.w ._) . ,wt~ 0.. -l1cA/... I ~~¥ -'":f Mr('+ . - t1 ~~ ! .. i ..... _r-'1 _l.. '+ • t - -- ~~ ' . I • ------~ . --· nlu - - ... ~ .,.. I - ' i •••. - L I I - I ~-- ~- - ... . - - LY._N_ __ -~. ... , I - - ,.... I I I

I \ 1 • ... - - I. I - .., - .1 - - - - - 'Y 'P" - ' I/ ! ., rr / ,v ' .. ,,.... - 1 1 -:-- I 1 1, , _ • :::J Iii.I/ - ..ii ,,. ., I• I I ~ r7 ff 1

-----· 7 ------~-- ,·. i ....tM--4----1--.-- ..i..~-~--P1-----+tt---1111~r--r~~-+r---r- - -·~ •! 1

11 Fig. 34. --Sixteen measures of Sextus 1 "Vow of Vengeance arial

The next number associated with the murder of' Pompey is

libid., P• 21.

• ,

-58- found in Act I, Scene 3 laid in Caesar's camp, where a monument to

1-'ompey has been erected. Cornelia enters dressed in mourning and kneels before the urn containing Pompey's ashes. Her arioso is in the key of G minor, a key-mood already established by the preceding recitativo in which Caesar mourns the death of Pompey. The orchestra is reduced to string instruments without viola for the accompaniment.

The words of the text are set to a dotted sixteenth note pattern on • a dovmward scale passage. Measures six to twelve of' Cornelia's arioso

are quoted•• ~ l I• . • -.: ,.~ - --.. II - • - - " LI' ... 7 • - - - " I - ... ~ • , - rJ ~- - - . - . - .. - ...... - I - ... -• - _.,.j ;1. . • '- i ~~ - ~:~~-i&1~·~ ~ '1-tlt,i. ~ ~ ...t.e~ . ' « .... - -.- .... f I. I o ...... - ...... I U I -· - - -- """ - I"" -- -· - - - I ...I - ·~ --- - ·-· ~ . Ill -··- . - • - I -- - - - I - - - I ...... - - - - - •

I I 1

- ...... ' , ,. . •'

Fig. 35.--Five measures of Cornelia's "Mourning" ariosol

The final number b elonging to the murder of' Pompey pattern occurs in Act II, Scene 3 where Cornelia is f'ound in the harem of' Ptolemaeus. The arietta is an expression of' despair at her situation and the key chosen is D minor, the dominant of' her preceding arioso, and the parallel of D major, the f'irst key used in connection with the murder of Pompey. The solo string quartet used as an accompaniment

libid.' p. 42. -59-

to Cornelia's first aria is again used here. Measures one to seven of Cornelia's arietta are quoted:

~ ~ ... -- ~ ~ ----- r l' '1 ' 1 I ,- r--o. r I ... ' .,,T' .... ' - . I ---y-- ~ ' I ' - . .,....-.:::- I .. ' .. .. -I • ~ -. I - -- • • . - - I I\ I .. - - - - • 7 I I ,_ -,J- . )1 ~~. M:fi; twtfi.r a.iL - ~ - - .. -- ~ ·• I -·It I - ·---.------... - . - V"'\ ·- • Ml -I • • ... - - - 7,... - - I .. 1....;;- - • •• - - ~ - - I - ~ I ~ .. h t\. I ' I 'I J I I :1 [1 , ' -n ' ~ I JllloF . I , -- I'" ·~ _. ' " .. " .. .. 7 - ' I. J.. I - IL - -r. .. ,_ .T .. L:J "'n.. • - - - • - • I- 1~ - -if' .. - I VJ -i. .. • - I... - I ~· rTl.. C> ~ f.'---'YI"+~· ~- •. ,_ I~~- '?tJ,U,_, ~-nt>~&Jm j ...... ·•-· ...- - - ·•I 111' •• _. ":-7 - ,_.. - ,_ I h /Ill- -.;;:__ - ~- I , . ,.. I ~--..... -

~ l f I' ~- l' - .... "'-- ll ~ I - I "- I - 1 .....- i-' - • -J ""'. h .. :#'·- F - - ... • 11 I ,- '· .. I • -0_·:1 . ~twr wu~'1.-~ of (JJ. -"JVUIA. -- .. ·---~---- ~ fw<- . f - - ·- 1 II I ._, • I .. 1- • ..,. I - - -- 11--v I I • -··------.... 1-

Fig. 36.--Six measures of Cornelia's rrHarem 11 a.riettal

l Ibid., p. 85. ,_ •, -60-

Caesar Caesar Cornelia Sextus Caesar Cornelia Cornelia

D c D c g g d

It1ig. 37. --Keys used in the murder of Pompey pattern

Affinity between Caesar and Cleopatra The first meeting between Caesar and Cleopatra takes place when Cleopatra enters Caesar's camp disguised as one of her maids, come to seek Caesar's aid against the persecutions of Ptolemaeus. Caesar is immediately infatuated by her beauty. The mo~ of his recitativo before the monument to Pompey quickly changes to one of eroticism. The key of G minor, associated with the murder of Pompey, changes to G major, which is hereafter associated with Caesar's af finity with Cleopatra. String instruments in unison furnish the back ground of the accompaniment to which are added solo parts for violin, viola, and violoncello. The smooth flow of the melody and of the ac companiment are in contrast with the militant style of the other arias by Caesar. Measures one to seven of Caesar's aria are quoted: ----·-· ~~-~-~~~------_,.'---t--tJ.-----r--r-~r-;-~~--v- rw;t ~

- L - ~ .... ,_. - • - -- - ... .- n. JI -- I ,, ... r ~-- ~- .. I I - f------.. • "! I - -- _,,_ - . - r I I -···'~ ....-- I J - I I • ' / . . -- , ' r __... /" ------. - -- V't :t!OM- .A..Q. ~vtt.- J.OIWA-~ ~n~711- ,.. .It.CJ.ft- - • ------_J L ___ 04~ ~ r---..... -.u --- - I ~ "' .. ., - -- .-- ---.-~--- - - ...... I • ... - -- - • I -I ------· -I ' ------.- - t _It .::~:I!: -L .,,_ I .,. -~ - I---- • - -- -•-+- ~ .. I ~ - • • - - '- I • - - ,~ - ... ~ ' - I ' J ' ~ r. I - Mil lsv-.~. ""- ~ ~l ~fA.Jl ·OW • __. ... ,_ ,.,_ ~-"- -four ~ ..- • .. • ,. -" - - • .. - £."' Pl.- - - - -. • I • "'"""I I - I .... { - I I ------I -r

Fig. 38.--Sfx measures of Caesar's "Admiration of' Cleopatra" aria.

Cleopatra is radiant with joy after her f'irst meeting with Caesar; her victory over him is complete and she f'oresees the success

of her plot against Ptolemaeus. The key of B-flat major makes its

only appearance in the score for the aria which portrays Cleopatra's

joy at the success of her plans. The aria is in da capo f'orm, and in the second part there is a change of mood as Cleopatra suddenly realizes that her heart, as well as her political ambitions, has been affected by her meeting with Caesar. This change of' mood is projected

by a change of tonality from B-flat major to D minor. In the rirst

part the mood of joyous excitement is heightened by the use of dotted

1 Ibid.' p. 37. -62- sixteenth notes in six-eiGiit meter; while in the second part the rneditative mood is accompanied by an uniform rhythm in eighth notes. Strine instruments without violas are used for the accompaniment throuc;hout. Measures one to five and forty-eight to fifty-two of the Aria d'ag111ta are quoted:

L ~ I - ~ v - -- -- ~- -r 'J ~. I • .- ... - -·- ~--.- - '- ..... f - ... '"'\ ' ~ - ... ·1 - - .... - .,. ,_ P"" ..... I / I- I I -ii . \ .. - .... .L ~ ' ,, I IJ I ,,,.... ·f - - ,.., I/ ...... ~ ii - - (. ------l ' ~ lk~ st-~ all ~-~~ h..0-- d.i. aiiJl_ "iiL-~ Al \ j - - - -. - t I I• .,, 7~ , , ' ~ ._,, -·- " ~ ..., - .-1 ';;,;: I n - .. - / I -· L. ,I L- .,... - , r- I . I - - 1..1 It 1.- ·1--· - •• - ' ~ I ' _"':' \ 1 ,.....-..... I ' .,,_, ---·- II - - F.J . ~, - 'ty~ I I ...... ,I - ·- - "' ...- ·-- .!. - - - L- - - - - / 11 l I I ft -- l - n I f-j-- . - ... If I , -I ~ '- "'" 'iJ- .r - ;--f~l - I - . .,.. I J 1-:£- LlM.- ...... ,_...,..,_ .. -d I-· • ~ , ...... - • 1..0Jv --- J;tt.w ·w.""-t. J ~ • ')'\Jl..I I ~EtV.N.-~ - I"" r _._ . ""- -· • ~ ....- -- I If I •I IJ - - I• - F - - "I I -a I" , • t r . ,- f "" I - .....--- '- I " .. , ... I "' ... - . - - I I I ..

Fig. 39. --Eight measures of Cleopatra 1 s "Conquest o.r Caesar" aria.I

The next meeting between Caesar and Cleopatra takes place

in Cleopatra's apartments which are connected with other parts o.r the palace by terraces and reception halls. It is night under a starry

~gyptian sky. Caesar has been swnmoned by Cleopatra and comes, still

believing her to be the maid Lydia. Cleopatra makes a dramatic en trance, to the accompaniment of festive music .rrom a chamber orchestra concealed on a terrace. As she draws near Caesar the main orchestra joins the chamber orchestra in the accompaniment o.r her aria. A lan

guorous air, it is directed toward the further enchantment o.r Caesar.

!Ibid., p. 48. -63-

1 '11he tonFility, 1~ major, is the dominant of her preceding aria, whose subject was the triwnph of her conquest of Caesar. The form is da

capo and the second section, when Cleopatra pretends to be wondering Rs to the whereabouts of her new love, is a modulatory passage coming to rest finally on the chord of A minor. This ls followed by a reci tative by Caesar, after which the first section ls repeated. Measures one to five and thirty-one to forty-three of Cleopatra's aria are

quoted·• I ,, -~ .. r"!! i...... ~ I ...... _J ... - ' / ~ - • -' - - I ..,. ~ ~ ) - - - ""/ , ... , ... ~ I r- ... .. -· .. " .. -- ~ ...:'=-' A.I - . ,_ . ~- I -~ / .... - - I- - ii . .- - - .. - ~ tQ. ~,~L -:d~ ~1(F- .Ml ~t. ~ -~ I - I I I -"" ~ L ,.J ••• I • ll"' --- I I I .• I= I "- I I .,, J -==t $ I .A - I , """'"I -1 r- / • - ... - - - I , I - ' • I f - - - ~ " -,, l I -' I ~- r-1 n t--t , I - r I ,,/ I • • ~ ,, ...... ~ ~ .. "" ... -- • _J 1-.:6 -~ . X"""''-' --- - JA.- -, II' \'"' - - , 11 - I I I- ,.. - . ...., ' . .. ·~ •I • ...... r- I .. ~ I"" .. - i-"- - - ,, - • ---"' 1• - I 1""19' I - - it. -~ r:- - mi4'l ·l--·····.\---·- . r· -- .. - - - . !-

Fig. 40.--Sixteen measures of Cleopatra's "Wooing of Caesar" aria1

libid., p. 71. •

-64- He.rdly is this number finished when Caesar is warned that the soldiers of Ptolemaeus are pursuing him. As he escapes from the apartment Cleopatra lrneels before the shrine and prays to the Gods for his safety. This aria, in which Cleopatra's only concern is for Caesar's safety, projects her in the throes of an unusual emotional experience; a rare instance of the absence of any concern for her own

material welfare. The isolation of the content of the aria from any other emotional state portrayed by either Cleopatra or Caesar makes most significant the choice of the key, F-sharp minor. This key is not used elsewhere in the score, and is unrelated to any other keys associated with these two principals. Cleopatra's voice is accompanied by a solo violin obbligato, while the full orchestra alternates with a solo string quartet to carry the accompaniment. The rhythmic pattern, dotted eighth note and sixteenth, is used here to denote agitation; while chromaticism is shown at every reference to death. Measures seventeen to twenty-two of the Aria d'agitata are quoted:

1 ,, -- - 1 -. ... _Yr. - . . I - r1 - v -· - , - ., ' / - .. I L_ ~· ... , .... ) • .I V I • .. - •• • - • ..... 7 ~__: _.

I\ ~ t \ ~ _.---..... I T I ,. , 'fl"' '\" -. - "I" - -. ---·-. , II·' "":;;;( . ~ ...... - - -1- .. - - I I - - . ~ I -I -re:~ -- . LI' ' • ------I • I - -- -- I - --· - - -- I - . - "" I ~b ''K'UlJt :4- -/Jl"4- ~{tual\. ~ !\.."'- - - - t-- • II , ., A (II ._ ~:!-~~,_ • ·• ...... ,I ~- .... I I 1 11 ,. . - ~ - - - - ll --n.. .. 'l=------~· - -~ - 11 - - - I +..J - - r ------.. --- i-... Fig. 41.--Five measures of Cleopatra's "Prayer" arial

1 Ibid.' p. 83. • -65- After the disappearance of Caesar, Ptolemaeus, exulting in his victory over the armies of Cleopatra, has her imprisoned. Cleo patra loses all hope for herself and, in a mood of dark despair, la ments her fallen estate. '11he key of E major is introduced into the score for the first time to depict Cleopatra's emotion under the cir- cumstance of her subjugation by her brother. The form of the aria is da capo, and in the second section a sudden thought of Ptoleme.eus causes Cleopatra's mood to become vindictive, as she contemplates a possible revenge on him. This change of mood is accentuated by a change of tempo and a change of key, from E major to C-sharp minor. In the orchestra the flute again comes into use to accompany a mood of despair and, throughout the aria, it alternates in solo passages with first end second violins and violoncello. Measures one to fifteen and forty-three to fifty-one of this Aria are quoted: •

... -. - - ', I ~· ,...-,. - .... - - - • -

Fig. 42.--Twenty-two measures of Cleopatra.' s "De:rea.t by Ptolemaeus" aria.I

libid., p. 106. '

-66-

',~

,j ~\ - - --··--- - tl.11 f~ ...... - - • - - • ~.--.- >- • .. ... • • - - - - -~---- ~. -· - -I -----l .. J -td- ~ -=~=_::$ r • ------I l , l J.lo. ... ------II ------,llJ- • --- -- n 1~11 · • Ill"' '*- • ------j • - - '"JI .. - -- -- ,, • .__ -- ' ------·- . - - Fig. 42.--Continued

The return of Caesar transforms the scene of mourning in

Cleopatra's tent into one of rejoicing. When Caesar leaves her for

the battle with Ptolemaeus, Cleopatra has herself draped in the royal mantle and voices her triumph and joy. The happy excitement of her mood is expressed in an aria abounding in trills, staccato notes, ornamental passages, and cadenzas. The string instruments, without violas, are used for the accompaniment. Measures eighteen to twenty

nine of the aria d 1 abil1ta are queted: -67-

h._ - ~Jr~ ------~ -*-,. I- -~--~-r...-- - --.-- --,9---..?:- .... ., , T ,,(" ~ ---- II"" ~ 1P' -=::;, i -~·. ~~t- ·'-' .. ~------~- --- .. "ti .. I ~,. ' --- - .. / L I' / I I _ _ -1- _. --- - /Il. I - -- .. II ~ n I I - ""' I ---.--- - - Loi - - - ' I I I I - _I I I . J,, .... -~ ____ _._ ~ ...~ ... :1 ... I nJ "JW . .... I ~ ,,,.....,_ • ------... • .. - II"' A\ • • ...... I - ..- - l -----r---- - II"" - 1- ~ ~ - ·- I I ------• . I I ...... • - J -...... I • ' - -- . ~ i - - I '" - - - n ------~------~----~-- .... ------~------.------~ • ------.... '- ,/Ir ,.. --... - - I • - -- __ A__ - .~ ...... ~------. - " I ~ ..- _:_ - • ---#------:;;m~---~-1'---~~~--+------

' --· -- - -~ _- ~~- - -_ - ~=------=~------. ------~- ----

Fig. 43.--Ten measures of Cleopatra's "Joy at Caesar's Return" aria.l

Af'ter the battle and subsequent defeat of Ptolemaeus by Caesar, there is a triumphal march which brings Caesar and his legions back to the scene. This march is in the key of D major, the key used for the triumphant entry of Caesar into Egypt in Act I. When Caesar

has placed Cleopatra be side him on the throne of Egypt they unite in a duet, expressing their love and mutual admiration. This number,

libide I Pe 127 • -68- ·:1hich concludes the Caesar-Cleopatra pattern, is in G major; the key used for the first aria in this pattern. An orchestra of strings , oboes, and bassoons, is augmented by the harp for the accompaniment.

Caesar Cleopatra Cleo. Cleo. Cleo. Cleo. Cleo.-Caesar

G B-flat F F-sharp E E G

Fig. 44.--Keys used in the affinity between CePsar and Cleopatra pattern.

Enmity Between Caesar and Ptolemaeus The contest between these two leaders begins with Ptoldmaeus' plan to be revenged on Caesar for his conquest of Egypt. Listening to the advice of Achillas, he determines to murder Caesar at the banquet to be given in his honor. The key of C minor, which was used for projecting revenge in the Murder of Pompey pattern, is not used in this pattern; and the key of E-flat major is chosen to project Ptolemaeus' mood of vengeance and heroism. The aria is da capo in form and di bravura in type. String instruments with oboes and bassoons are used in the accompaniment. Measures one to sixteen of the aria di bravura are quoted: -69-

,...

Fig. 45.--Fifteen measures of Ptolemaeus' "Revenge" arial

The key of E-flat major is again used f'or the theme o:f re venge when Sextus, standing before his father's tomb, vows to avenge him by slaying Ptolemaeus. Vfuile the text of Sextus' arietta would seem to place it among the arias relating to the murder of' Pompey, its reference to Ptolemaeus and its key relation to Ptolemaeus' "Revenge" aria, give it a place among the pattern of keys relating to Ptolemaeus.

1 Ibid., p. 30. -70- However, it is considered highly doubtful whether this number belongs to this opera at all. The accompaniment is scored for solo trio, violin, viola, and violoncello. A brilliantly lighted hall in Ptolemaeus' palace is the setting

for a banquet in honor of Caesar. Ptolemaeus attempts to give the im pression of a gay welcome to Caesar, while in reality he is planning

his murder. The pretense in his arietta of welcome is in contrast with his former outspoken declaration of enmity, a contrast that is accen

tuated through the use of a different, and unrelated, tonality D major • . , I The position of this aria in D major between arias in E-flat major and F major, serves to emphasize the isolation of its mood from that of the other arias. Ptolemaeus' welcome, and invitation to all present

• to join in the festivities, has a lively staccato acC4J11paniment scored ' for string instruments in unison. When Caesar enters the banquet hall, he is at once conscious of the danger that is surrounding him. The aria in which he reveals his suspicions is allegorical. He characterizes Ptolemaeus as a hunter in pursuit of his quarry. The pictorial effect or the number is heightened by an obbligato for hunting horn which accompanies the en semble of string instruments and bassoons. The key of F-major appears in the score for the first time as the tonality for this aria whose text carries the first allusion to a probable reverse in Caesar's ar-

fairs. Hereafter, the key of F major is associated with the subject of Caesar's misfortunes. Measures one to eight of Caesar's aria are

quoted:

~1...: ti- -· - . ~- _.. -71-

- • • -~ ~ .:..~--·--,.-~,~----,..... ~- ... - I ----.- - ""' - . - - I ..., ~ ·- --- ,_ -; Cl -- -~-~-,_:_· _..-.__,.-._-j=---1- ... - (-=;. ~ , , ..... ------1------<~--lli.-;::•=-~I---+--- . -~'-- r ·-- i.111""' I I I I r--~~=-~------+------1--=-~-- k!~~·~ .u~ ~' ~V+------·-----:--t=F=~--=R-i~i:::=;~-•==~+--~---·=t--- --r 1-~+-+-"------==------~"'4•1-tl".=t1 ~:!i=-J~::t~t.=it~t~-=1t~~-1i:-::::+::~-t~~-=..-J;.-~.:if·~-:i- ....t.r~::-:ii- ••1~~------...:!-:t;"%:::-----r ·~:....,;_iar-U-.,..------~,- J • .. - ~ - - l •I • I l:• • - ,. .J - 1 ---- ~ .. ~~

--L~~~~~~~~~~------1 +-..-.. ,.:...__ ___ ------~--·------1--1-----1-----+~---41------4~------·--..lll·-----<11~-----ll ,.,, ... J----i~""'-~-=-----l----+--:J-::l-....;,_--:1:---:iiilr---::;jj.-----~---+--- ,• !" ~~~---..--.-----~~---~~~-~-----~·E---4--i-----l---...l.--~1-41----~-~ ..... _ _J..E..,. _ __.....911'.:--_-_-_-_-_t~---_-_-_-_-.r-_-_-=:.._-=_-::_-::_~~--=--=--=--=--=--=-~~-=--=--=--=--~:..~ 1....,;;____ ~------L------+---~--'--._ __..__• ._ ____ ::...______.,., ~. l\ -----~-· ·- - -. ... , I/ •- J ••. ----.,.,------. .- -- J 1(1 I '/ -I ... L • , • - - ...... - 11 7

J_q_ ~A.a A ~ --7· ~ ~I I ~ . 1~~?~- I ------' ~h ... ·- -J#' --~ -~ J --~ - - --- 7 - .. -- - - ... ~ - -

• Ill I - ·- - -,... - ._ - - .... - - ~- - I- I- I • .. - L. - .., II"' F - - - "'- - ;:;:::~- - - Fi t?:. ' 6 • ..,._~vv 'n - -- -- m 9asu· •es cf the "Hunti1 lg H1 ~rn" ariE: 1

1 Ibid., p. 57. -72- Later, in Cleopatra's apartments, Caesar is warned that the :t.cyptian Gll.ards are pursuing him and before he is forced to f'lee,

he asserts his defiance of Ptolemaeus. The melody of' this aria is florid, and in the accompaniment repea.ted notes in groups of' sixteenths

appear, as in previous arias, in association with the threat of coming battle. The tonality, C major, is emphasized by the persistent use of tonic and dominant harmonies. This is the first appearance of the key of C major in the score, and its use here is reminiscent of' the C minor aria of Caesar in the previous key-pattern when the subject

was a threat of vengeance on Ptolemaeus. The viola and oboe are omitted from the orchestral ensemble for the accompaniment. Measures one to six of the C major aria are quoted:

- • .. - - ~ -. I .. I 1 JI .. .. - I J I - - -- ~- - I • - I I ~ r/ '/ -J-. lj- :/1 I -./ - " u r/ - -.. I -.. - .. v / ·~ ~ t"./ r7 -) () ..... 'Th-~ ,..1. • )l~-eJ~-~ ~

.. ------

Fig. 47.--Five measures of Caesar's "Defiance of' Ptolemaeus" aria1

1 Ibid., p. 78. -73- The disappearance of Caesar has given Ptolemaeus a temporary victory over the people of Egypt, and he uses this opportunity to

force his attentions on Cornelia. Angered by her resistance he de f'ie.ntly asserts his power. In his aria the key of C major is again used for the assertion of individual power and defiance of all enemies and opposition. String instruments and bassoons are used for the ac-

companiment and, as in the previous C ma.jor aria, it is based on an assertion of tonic and dominant harmonies. Measures one to nine of Ptolemaeus' Aria are quoted:

..... 11, n a ,I I

Pig. 48.--Eight measures of Ptolemaeus' "Attack on Cornelia" arial

Sextus now arrives on the scene, and renews his vow of revenge for the murder of his father. The return, in his aria, to C minor as the key for the expression of revenge gives the aria a place in the "Murder of Pompey" key pattern. However, as C minor is the parallel key to the one used to express defiance of Ptolemaeus, this aria now has a closer relationship to the arias of the Ptolemaeus-Caesar pattern.

libid.' p. 89. -74-

rr1his aria, in da capo form and cantabile style, is one of the most

beautiful in the opera. 'I1he fury of the "revenge 11 aria is gone, and

Sextus' mood now is one of devout consecration to the duty of revenge.

11he orchestral accompaniment is supplied by string instruments, oboes,

and bassoons. lvieasures one to twelve of the Aria cantabile are quoted: ,.,,.,--.. Lo , ~. ~ .... ~ u .II ~ ...... -h I I - "'.'"____ £ ___ -... ------... y rJ JI - ~- - -· ---1- - .... /...... - - - I ...... , -- 'lj,:/ - ,, ,-.- -•---= - -· - .. ~ ------4 - - --. $QM.., - ~ lllui-~ 1~-~ ~-l~ ~- - f..h../ ,.,~ ... ~ J\ r ..... I --- - l . .. 611 II ' ~ -..,, "!:;.- .... ' .. --, -- • - -- - _7 ~- ,... 'I II I... L I I ... / .. -.. . "' I __, 'I -I .... I fl ' •___ II J Ii - ,____ - '-' - - r.

ll ~ ~ I • D . I I J - hi -- --·-- - I --I --:: ----11-- ~ v -J ( 1'' II ·~ ~-=-~-- '-'- -- - I II' II'------~ ~ I I I / - - I I ·-·~.:t;l ' .JL'vit;. U'v\A.. -

I ! I IJ I ~r----- ~- . ·rJA- ----)----- ,------!==: --. ------1= ' r fl .... \ \ I _., ,- l/ • I/ - - i - - IA~-~~ ~ ~L .t~in.~ ~~L k~~' . I , -r- -'------~ I - • -- . 1A -- ... - ... "~ ... - r-- It I I'/' -- - .. ,_ .... - I IJ I ... - I , fl ,...- i.....- • .4 ' - I - I F'ig. 49.--Eleven measures-- of Sextus' rrDedication to Vengeance" aria.l

While the army of Ptolemaeus is engaged in battle with that

of Cleopatra, Caesar appears, swimming in from the sea. Alone on the shore he invokes the sea to comfort his weariness and grant him new strength. His aria is in binary form and between Parts One and Two

libid., p. 97. -75- there is a recitative as Caesar, looking off into the b attle field,

cilscovers the fate that has befallen his armies. The key of F major which was used for the first intimation of Caesar's coming reverses, recurs now to project this final episode of his downfall. A string

quartet is used to accompany the voice and is supplemented by the entire orchestra for the interludes between the verses. Measures one to nineteen of Caesar's aria are quoted: _,,...... ,.,... I n. • ... ·-- ,.,,..- .- I I• } I ~ I . - \.... ---I/ - I • - I r1 1/ 'J I/ -) / I I LI I l "' - - , v It . - • I I v - -·- &t.4 ~ _. :tl'z.. 0..-z,.ul!,~ /J. 'cA-' ~, ~aJ. ---rkt f;m- -~~. ...__ ) ·- - - I - -... _. .-. Im ..... r . 11.1 I~ .... "" - .I' - In 7 .... 1..- ~ ------• .. ..- l I II' ; I I - .~ ---~+ - I -

'\ ' - -· ~ ------~ I - - '~ .... - - -- .. - .. J f I I l I - I 7 - -· - - / J _, J I/ ',/'/ - J .Io .. / -·· -- -~ v • 1. - ~~-~ - I ·-- J,&.~ - ...l\.U...'t.- ~"- - l l t0c.1. [1__ ,~ 'WWI\..·~ h1-0 ~ ------~ - ·..... • --- -im ------·- ---- ~ - -" - l.l1a =r=--- -... - - - - ~ I rt i.- ~ - I v - I I l - ---··-- ._ -l - I ' .ii'

,_,,- --- - ...... n1 ------~~=---~= ~ =L:. -.---~-~~.---; : . ~ L. ... I 11. - IJ y •- .. - l..- . l ..- - --· . .,... • I n I ... I J I 11 I - - I I v '( . 'f' - I - / -I/ J r - I - ~ . -:tLw. 't. ~.Q44 Q.m\·-~·:i ~- - - - 1.6~ 4. • n- ~ ·i. 1'>- .... ~- ~. T\ ~ ._ VI., ,...... I J, ,, Im I !&I - ., - ~ ... • •• - - - - ,I• J VI - , ... .. •• • • -·- - - --

Fig. 50. --Eighteen measures of Caesar's "Re turn f'rom the Sea" aria.1

!Ibid., p. 112. -76- Im.ring the recitative following the above aria, Caesar re ceives a seal from the dying Achillas that will give him connnand of forces sufficient to defeat Ptolemaeus. Caesar's self-confidence and courage return, and his aria reflects his sense of the restoration of power. His change of mood from that of the previous aria is projected by a change of tonality from F major, associated with his reverses, to D major previously associated with his success in battle. Rapid

do 1.mward scale passages in the melody of the aria suggest the "water fall's torrent dashing," to which Caesar compares the advance of' his army; and, for the second time in this score, they are used with the

suggestion of approaching battle. Orchestral color is supplied by violins in unison, with violoncello and b assoon. Measures one to eighteen of the Aria di bravura are quoted: - L .~ ~ ... i ...-.I --- ... _, ------,_- , -- I - - - "-' ------I l ~r-- I v :\AA, -fir-~Jr-'·- -~_.___ .. I 2~ ~ -- -· -- - f1h ------..- • - - .,...- - --- I

_L .,~. #-...~ ~ -- ~ - _.;.. • - • -.. - ---1---~ ' - ...------· I -- - ' - - ' - ~:!j ,..- +-'-----. ------,---- r - J . twL -4- (;± MA Aa.v- - I ' ,, ~ -~ ·- - . ------. _ - - - - J!.' . - - - , - - .-. "''M .. --~- .------! i/J,111 - } .- - - -~ -- - •1 .. ------I ------f------~ - =---r=- -r- r ~--,

Fig. 51. --seventeen measures of Caesar 1 s "Return to Power" arial

- libld., p. 119. - 1 .r-·

~ ~~~- -.-.1---=--- ~~---·----

- ~ ------

------if------.------·----+-----·-- ,,- ... . ·~ ~~--~t \ • ·-~--~~~~--~-~-~~~~~--~------~~1~ rr 1:~t==i=~~~~~~~~ +- - ~~~-'------, ·- -- -····----ii~- --~-+---.4J--t~--...... -~--+----+--=---t------t------

Fig. 51.--Continued

Ptol. Sextus Ptol. Caesar Caesar Ptol. Sextus Caesar Caesar E-f lat E-flat D F c c c • F D

Fig. 52.--Keys used in the Enmity Between Caesar and ~tolemaeus pattern.

As has been noted previously, the key of G major is used for a duet between Caesar and Cleopatra. This key is continued into a Finale for principals and chorus of Romans and Egyptians. This song of rejoicing is accompanied by full orchestra of trumpets, horns, -.

~- _;:_ ~: ~- ,.,.,;.~ ~:,.....~l.,j~;t_,-~.~... ~- -· -78-

oboes, bassoons, strings, and harp; and the story of Caesar's vicis situdes comes to a majestic close.

•

~, Ir & tts+&+:Wbeg..~ .. ::;,, CHAPTER IV

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALMIRA AND JULIUS CAESAR

The overtures.--The opera overture, during the one hundred and five years of opera composition preceding the appearance of Almira, developed from the short prelude of the operas of hlonteverde tnto a three-movement form which was universally adopted by seven

teenth and eighteenth century opera composers. An overture of three contrasting movements arranged in the order, fast, slow, fast, was first introduced by Alessandro Scarlatti in 1696 for a revival of his early opera, Dal Male il Bene; and was knovm as th• "Italian" overture. A three-movement overture established by Lully with contrasting movements arranged in the order, slow, fast, slow, was known as the "French" overture. This latter form was the one most generally accepted by opera composers until the advent of Gluck. The overtures to the German operas of Reinhard Keiser did not, however, conform to

either the 11.French" or the "Italian" models; and are described as "pretty little preludes."l A comparison between the overture to Almira and the overture to Scarlatti's opera Il Prigioniero fortuna, makes it obvious that Handel was influenced more, in writing his first opera overture, by the "Italian" model than by the "French, " or than by the works of Keiser. The overture to Il Prigioniero fortuna has three movements:

lR. A. Streatfeild, Handel, p. 224. London: Methuen & Co., 1909. -79- -80- AlleGro, Grave, and Presto. 1 The overture to Almira has three move rne n ts: Allegro, Adagio, and Presto. 11he Allegro movement of the Almira overture introduces a dotted eighth note rhythm in four-quarter meter. This is repeated in the Presto movement and leads, without change of key, into the open ing recitativo and aria. This overture has been described in recent

years as "finer than anything that had been written up to that date. 11 2 The overture to Julius Caesar, written eighteen years later than Almira, shows the influence of the "French" model; but it is modified "French." The first movement, Maestoso, is repeated. The second movement, Allegro, is in fugal style. This fugue, it appears, was taken from the overture to Ottone; and transposed a semitone lower.3 The last movement is a Minuet, Non Troppo Allegro; and in both the manuscript and the arrangement by Hagen it is~sed as an ac companiment to the opening chorus, "Glory, Glory! Hail him victori ous!" Burney says of the Julius Caesar overture: "The first move ment •••• and the fugue have as much fire and animation as Handel ever manifested on such occasions • • • • the Minuet was never popular, has too many repetitions •••• 11 4

The instruments.--'11he orchestra of the Scarlatti opera scores consists of a band of string instruments supported by an harmonic in strument, with the occasional addition of trumpet, flute, oboe, and bassoon, as obbligato instrwnents. In later works, the violins are

1 GDMM, Vol. III, 'pp. 579-80.

2R. A. Streatfeild, Handel, p. 336. London: Methuen & Co., 1909. 3w. s. Rockstro, The Life of G. F. Handel, pp. 139-40. London: Macmillan & Co., 1833. 4charles Burney, A General History or Music, Vol. II, P• 727. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1935. -81-

used as supporting instruments for the voice. '1.1he Scarlatti ensemble :nore nearly resembles the modern orchestra than that of any preceding composer. Handel's orchestra for the score of Almira consists of the same instruments as the Scarlatti orchestra, with the addition of viola da braccio, violoncello, clarino, and tympano, as obbligato in struments.

Although introduced into the score of the opera Pomone, by Cambert, in 1671, the oboe, prior to its recognition by Handel, was chiefly employed by bands and for military purposes. This recognition began early in Handel's creative life. In 1703, two years before the composition of Almira, he wrote six solo concerti for the oboe; and, in succeeding years, thirty sonatas and solos in which either one or two oboes have important solo parts. In the Almira score the oboe is advanced from the position given it by Scarlatti, of ait'obbligato in strument, to that of an integral part of the orchestra in the support of the voice. Oboe solos are written to accompany the voice in three of the principal arias; and the one accompanying Almira's aria, "Chi piu mi place," contains passages of considerable floridity. '11hroughout the score the oboe appears as a leading instrument in ensemble passages to almost as great an extent as the violin, in most cases first and second oboes doubling with first and second violins. The dance music of the "Europeans" in the Pageant scene ls scored for oboes in unison. In the score of Julius Caesar the oboe maintains its place as a leading instrument in ensemble passages; but it ls not utilized for solo obbli gati as in Almira. The bassoon, another instrument whose first known appearance was in Cambert•s Pomone in 1~71, is used occasionally in the Scarlatti opera scores. Handel uses it only once in the Almira score, and its use on this occasion is unique. In Fernando's aria, "Ob de in Mund wie '

-82-

l'luto' s Hachen," the bassoon is substituted for the cembalo to carry the bass. This use of the bassoon as the only instrument to accompany

R humorous aria appears to be a recognition of its amusing character istics; and is the first known example of its use as the "joker" of'

the orchestra. By the time that Julius Caesar was written the bassoon was established as a member of Handel's orchestra. It is a part of' the orchestral ensemble in eighteen of the thirty-two numbers in the score, including the preludes, march, war dance, and the finale. How ever, as part of the orchestral accompaniment for the voice, its use is confined to the male voice; it is never used to accompany women's voices. The viola da braccio, the tenor of the viol family, is known to have dropped its sixth string in the eighteenth century, after which time its compass approximated that of the viola. ~andel uses it

in the Almira score for a solo obbligato to Osman 1 s aria, "Spricht fur mir." Its use in this particular aria, in which Osman gayly sings o.f his intentions toward Almira, suggests that it was still an instrument of six strings, differing from the viola in tone quality; and especially desirable here for its color effect. The viola da braccio, apparently was entirely superseded by the viola in 1723; for it does not appear in the score of Julius Caesar. The viola, prior to its appearance in the compositions o.f Bach and Handel, was only used for doubling with the violins. In the score of Almira Handel elevated the viola to the position o.f tenor voice in the string band. A tenor part is written for it in all but a .few of the nwnbers scored for strings and oboes, and in all passages .for full orchestra. The violoncello, like the bassoon, appears only once in the Almira score when it has a solo part in Fernando's aria, "Was ist -83-

Hofes gunst!" Its use by Handel as a solo instrument in 1705 is

notable; for, prior to this time it had been used by Corelli and

other seventeenth century composers only as an accompanying instru

ment. 11111 s appearance of the violoncello in Almira antedates the

compositions of Antoniotti and Lanzetti by approximately thirty years.

In the score of Julius Caesar the string band is augmented by the ad

dition of the violoncello in all ensemble passages ror string instru-

ments; and in a number or the recitativi, violoncello solos accompany

the voice. Two of the arias in this score have the unique accompani

ment of string trio, violin, viola, and violoncello; and in Cornelia's

"Harem" aria, the bass violin is added to the trio. The trio accom-

paniment to Sextus 1 aria in Act I, Scene 3, is written in rugal style.

Although in 1757 the gambists or Germany made a rormal pro- test against the use or violoncellos, the viola da gamba• declined in popularity in England in the early part of the century, and was en tirely supplanted by the violoncello. Handel, however, brings the

viola da gamba into use once in Julius Caesar, when he assembles a

chamber orchestra for an instrumental number in Cleopatra's apartment, in Act II, Scene 1.

The overture to Almira is scored for string band alone,

first and second violins and first and second oboes playing in unison.

rrhis ensemble is augmented for the opening chorus by the addition of

clarini, principale, and tympani. The clarino, a small bore trumpet

capable of executing passages of great floridity, was used in the high registers and is ~ored for first and second parts. The principale, a large bore trumpet resembling a large bore military trumpet in tone and compass, is given the third trumpet part, usually an octave below the olarini. This opening chorus is the only number in the score in which trumpets are used, but their use is more extended in the score r -84- of Julius Caesar. Here they are used for all the triumphal choruses , the triumphal march, and the ballet music.

It appears that Handel is responsible for the introduction into Bngland of the horn as a member of the opera orchestra, since the first known use of it in this capacity occurs in his opera Radamisto,

in 1720. In the score of Julius Caesar, Handel writes for two horns in every ensemble in \'which trumpets are used. In Caesar's aria, "'Tis there I see a huntsman," he makes appropriate use of' the ef'f'ect of the hunting horn in an elaborate solo obbligato. The complete list of the compositions of Handel enumerates seven sonatas for two "German" flutes and harpsichord; and three sonatas for flute with harpsichord accompaniment. While the flute is not an integral part of the orchestra in either Almira or Julius Caesar;

there are numerous instances of its use for special e~ects. These ef'- facts are obtained through association of' the f'lute with def'inite emotional conditions. These conditions diff'er widely in Almira and Julius Caesar. In Almira, the flute is associated with the moods of' happiness in love, and joy in the beauties of' Nature; as in the arias, "Schonste Rosen and Narcissi," and, "Liebliche Walder." In Julius Caesar, the flute is used with the string instruments to accompany the mood of profound grief and despair, as in the aria, "I am ref't of' con solation," and "I must weep and lament." The harp is not used in the score of' Almira. Its first ap

pearance in Julius Caesar is in the Symphony which opens Act II, in an ensemble composed of strings, oboe, and bassoon. Thereaf'ter; it is found in the Chamber orchestra, in the Ballet with trumpets, horns, oboes, bassoons, and strings; and, with the same ensemble, in the closing duet and Finale. Incidental Instrumental Numbers.--The score of' Almira contains numerous examples of the instrumental numbers called ritornelli which, r -85- accordinG to the current custom, are interspersed throughout the opera scores at the conclusion, or, between the verses of the arias. Usually, the ritornelli are scored for a larger orchestra than that used to accompany the aria. Almira's aria, "Chi piu mi piace," which is accompanied by the oboe, is followed by a ritornello scored for violins, viola, and oboe. Osman's aria, "Scepter und Kron," accompa nied by violins in unison, is followed by a ritornello scored for vio lins, two oboes, and viola. The closing duet, between Almira and Fernando, is scored for violins and oboes in unison. At the time of the writing of Julius Caesar the term ritor-

nello, in vogue since Peri's ~uridice, had·given way to that of sin fonia, or symphony. The sinfonia however, appears as an introduction to an act or a scene, instead of with the aria, as did the ritornello. A sinfonia is used to open the second scene of Act II,41re.nd is scored for strings and bassoons. The tonality, E major, is continued into the recitativo between Cleopatra and her maid, and as they leave the scene there is a repetition of the sinfonia which serves as an introduction to the entrance of the next character. Act II opens with a symphony in three movements which serves as background for the stage

action. These movements are separated by recitativi. ~he first movement, Larghetto, is scored for strings, oboe, bassoon, and harp. The second movement, Andante, is performed by an of'f'-stage orchestra of two violins, viola, viola da gamba, violoncello, oboe, bassoon, and harp; and is augmented in the second section by the stage orchestra. The third movement opens with the theme of' the first movement, now in Andante tempo, and as this theme is developed it becomes the accompani ment to an aria by Cleopatra. Stage and off-stage orchestras unite in the rendition of this movement. In the original version the third movement accompanied a pantomime: Parnassus and the nine Muses. The -86-

symphony preceding Act III is subtitled, Battle Music; and is a repre sentation of the battle in progress between the forces of Caesar and rtolomaeus. The musical description of the uproar of the battle is prouuced by sequential groups of sixteenth notes, punctuated by martial cries from oboes and trumpets. This symphony is scored for violins in unison, oboes, bassoons, and trwnpet. The dramatic return of Caesar from the sea is accompanied by instrumental music of a programmatic nature. The recurring theme

is suggestive of the lapping

of the waters, and might be designated as the "river theme." The orchestra is composed of strings and bassoons. Later, this number, scored for string quartet, becomes the accompaniment to Caesar's aria, "Breath of the Azure Sea. 11 A stately march scored for• string instruments, oboes, bassoons, and trumpets, heralds the triumphant entry of Caesar's victorious troops in the last scene of Act III. Heavily ac cented chords alternate with lighter staccato passages from which the trumpets are omitted. The ballet, a mock War Dance, between Roman and Egyptian youths, is scored for string instruments, oboes, bassoons, horns, trumpets, and harp. The rhythmic figure

continues throughout, and is heard alternately by full orchestra, trumpets alone, and horns alone. Dance music.--During the seventeenth century many di£ferent dance forms reigned for a time, then waned in popularity and were dropped. By the end of the century Pavans and Galliards had lost favor and were supplanted by Allemandes, Courantes, Sarabandes, Minuets, Rigaudons, and others. These are the dances found in the scores of

Scarlatti and Keiser, and are the ones incorporated by Handel into the r -87- score of Almira. In this score, Handel followed the custom, begun by Peri and carried on by 1.'ionteverde, of interspersing dance suites

throushout their opera scores. Almira contains two Sarabandes, two Hi<3audons, a Chaconne, Bourree, l.iinuet, Rondeau, and a Gigue. These

dances are not interpolated into the score merely in order to satisfy a popular demand. They occur where their insertion is logical and an acceptable part of the action, and not an interruption in the progress

of the dramatic action. The first Sarabande and a Chaconne, danced

by ladies and gentlemen of the court, are part of the coronation ceremony, following the chorus of welcome. The orchestra is the same as that used for the chorus. A suite comprised of Courante, Bourree, Minuet, Rigaudon, and Rondeau, is part of the entertainment for the festive Ball of Act I. The suite is scored for violins and oboes, with bassoons added for the Rondeau. During the pageant• of Act III,

a dance is designated for each group of impersonators: a Rigaudon for the "Africans," a Sarabande for the "Asiatics," and a Gigue for the "Charlatans" who follow Tabarco. The somber libretto of Julius Caesar gives no logical opening for the introduction of a dance; with the exception of the War Dance ballet. The 'Nar Dance, in the last act of the opera, occurs as part of the celebration of Caesar's victory over Ptolomaeus.

Accom~agnato recitativi.--One of the first of the eighteenth century composers to realize and exploit the dramatic possibilities

of the accompagnato recitativi was Jommelli. Hasse made free use of the form, going so far as to lift decisive scenes, where problems were solved, out of their accustomed setting in the secco recitativi and place them in the accompagnato recitativi.l The composers were ably

lHugo Goldschmidt, Die ldusikasthetik des 18. Jahrhunderts und ihre Beziehungen zu seinem Kunstchafren~ p. 278. Leipzig: Rascher & Co., 1915. -88-

supported in this advance by the writer and critic, Scheibe. Scheibe urbes a further enlargement of accompagnato recitativi, stating that

it is a better interpreter of action than the trite secco recitativi. Ee further suggests:

It would be an advantage to have the instruments accompany the voices softly and discreetly, and be just prominent enough to distinguish the recite.ti vo fror.1 rough speech • • • • a modulatory use of expected keys and enharmonic intervals will lift recitativo into an interesting branch of music.l The operas of Handel abound in melodious and effective examples of accompagnato recitativi. There are three in the score of Almira, accompanied by violins and viola, the same ensemble as that used by Scarlatti in Olimpia Vendicate, and his later works. The four found in Julius Caesar show a more varied orchestration. Streatfeild says of these, "Much of the strength of Julius Caesar lies in its accompanied recitative, recitative and aria alternate in •a way no composer had ever dared before. n2 These recitativi contain many descrip tive rhythmic patterns, and significant examples of the association of mood with tonality. Caesar's recitative, when in contemplation

before the urn containing l'ompey 1 s ashes, "Spirit of noble Pompey, that here about his ashes invisible dost hover, a legend is now thy glory," is accompanied by sustained chords in the key of G-sharp minor, played by string instruments alone. As the words of the monologue become a comparison between today and yesterday, "Yes-tre 'en by thee alive the world with war was harried. Today a heap of ashes in this urn buried!", the key changes from G-sharp minor to B-flat major; and a succession of altered chords heightens the reeling of change and unrest. Cleopatra enters, and a violoncello obbligato is introduced;

l Ibid., p. 279. ':; 2R. A. Streatfeild, Handel, p. 239. London: Methuen & Co., 1909. r -89- while the key changes from B-flat major to ct-major for the ensuing din.lo.sue between Caesar and Cleopatra. Cleopatra's recitativo, 11What clamor, O heaven.' His death slays Cleopatra, 11 is preceded by an in- strwnental interlude, scored for violins, violoncello, bassoons, and bass. The rhythm of continued groups of sixteenth notes in four quar ter meter conveys the excitement of the action off-stage, as the soldiers of Ptolomaeus pursue Caesar. As the recitativo begins, the orchestra is reduced to string instruments alone. The groups of six teenth notes continue an agitated accompaniment until, as Cleopatra's mood becomes one of supplication, the orchestral support subsides into sustained chords. String instruments alone are used to accompany the recitativo of the fatally wounded Achillas as he relates the secre. of the murder of Pompey, his love for Cornelia, and his plot to defeat Ptolomaeus. The melody line, as the narrative proceeds, is closely aligned with the words. Ornamental patterns sustained by chords, as Achillas speaks of the beauty of Cornelia, give way to harshly accented measures as he reveals his bitterness toward Ptolomaeus. This recitativo is the longest and most dramatic in the score, and aptly illustrates Handel's use of accompagnato reci tati vi "to emphasize situations of special

importance. 111 Before the curtain rises on the second scene of Act III, to disclose Cleopatra a prisoner in the camp of Ptolomaeus, the melancholy

atmosphere of the scene is established by a short prelude in Adagio

tempo, softly played by string instruments with oboe. As Cleopatra be gins the recitative, "Alas, ye faithful maidens, 11 the accompaniment is given to string instruments without cembalo. The tempo changes to

libid.' p. 16. -90- Allecro Bs Cleopatra listens to the sounds of battle without, and 6roups of sixteenth notes in four quarter meter accompany the words, "Yonder rattle the weapons!" The one other recitative in the score

announce~ Caesar's return from the sea. Here the sustaining chords take on a martial and dramatic character as Caesar questions the Fate of his legions, and defiantly refers to himself as "lord of the world." The dramatic turn of this recitative emphasizes the complete absence of the old secco recitativo, and realizes the suggestion of Scheibe that accompagnato recitative might become a better interpreter of ac tion than secco recitativo, and an "interesting branch of music." Although Almira has not been heard since 1878 at the two hundredth anniversary of the Hamburg opera, 1 the use of themes from the score has attracted the attention of several writers. Rockstro claims that nearly half of the Almira music has been reconstructed,• and notes that Handel himself uses the theme from the Sarabande in

F major six years later in Rinaldo for the aria '!La scia chio pianga;" and again in 1737 in a revised version of the Italian oratorio "Il

Trionfo del Tempo, e della Verita. 11 2 Leichtentritt also cites examples of Handel's later use of Almira themes. Motives from Consalve's aria

"Almira regiere, 11 are used in Amadigi, 1714, with "superior skill. " The leading motive from Osman's aria, "Du irrst dich, me in Licht," is found "in improved and enlarged form 11 in the well-known Gigue in G minor from the fifth piano suite of the second collection or 1733.

'rhe theme of Fernando's aria "Ob dein Mund wie Plutons Rachen," is a favor! te of Handel's. He has used it in the aria "Pugnerau le stelle"

lHugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 606. Berlin: Deutsche Verlags Anstalt, 1924. 2w. s. Rockstro, The Life of G. F. Handel, p. 39. London: Macmillan & Co., 1833. -91-

from Hinaldo; in the aria "Spezza l'arco e getta 1 1 armi," from the

c nnta ta Auollo e Dafne; a.nd in the aria "Abruggio, avvampo, 11 from ninaldo. 1 J. s. Bach also, has paid his respects to the Almira score by using its themes in his works. Themes from Osman 1 s· aria "Svenero " ' and Fernando 1 s aria "Ob dein Mund wie Plutons Rachen, 11 are used in the first chorus of the cantata Wachet, betet. The first aria of the Passion according to St. Matthew contains motives that are noticeably similar to those of Almira's aria, "Der Mund spricht zwar gezwungen nein;" end these same motives are found again in the cantata, "Ich hatte viel Bekwmnernis."2 The opera Julius Caesar was among those performed during the annual revival of Handel operas in Goettingen, between ~20 and 1927; the last date of its performance being April the thirteenth, 1927, at Danzig. Previous to this revival its last date of performance was in 1787. Discussion and analysis of this opera have interested writers from Charles Burney to Percy Robinson, and probably to all these has come a fuller ap?reciation of the words of Hogarth, written one hundred years ago: His chief claim to immortality rests upon his sublime ora torios; but a full knowledge of his genius in all its variety and extent, cannot begained without exploring the treasures which lie hidden in the dusty scores of his Italian operas.3

lHugo Leichtentritt, Handel, p. 606. Berlin: Deutsche Verla.gs Anstalt, 1924. 2Ibid.' p. 606. 3George Hogarth, Memoirs of the Opera, Vol. I, P• 17. London: Richard Bently, 1851. ,

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