Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Department of Natural Resources and Environment Victoria

Forests Service Technical Reports 98-1 June 1998 Copyright © Department of Natural Resources and Environment 1998

Published by the Department of Natural Resources and Environment PO Box 500, East Melbourne Victoria 3002, Australia

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The National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in- Publication entry:

Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East.

Bibliography. ISSN 1443-1106 ISBN 0 7311 4440 6

1.Forest Management - Victoria, Northeastern. 2.Forests and forestry - Victoria, Northeastern. 3.Old-growth forests - Victoria, Northeastern. I. Victoria. Dept. of Natural Resources and Environment. (Series: Forests Service Technical Report ; 98 -1).

634.909945

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This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss, or other consequence which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication.

Cover design and layout: Wamen Press Cover photographs: 1. Montane/ Sub-alpine Woodland near Mt Howitt - Geoff Lucas, 2. Alpine Complex - from Tims Spur, - Geoff Lucas Printing by Wamen Press i FOREWORD

During the early 1990’s the then Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (CNR) and the Australian Heritage Commission (AHC) reached joint agreement on a series of studies to evaluate National Estate values in Victoria’s North East.

One of the studies undertaken involved an investigation of the area’s old-growth forests. The work was carried out by a team of specialists, and overseen by a Steering Committee that had been established as part of the joint CNR/AHC National Estate process.

This report provides a brief background to the study, outlines the methodology used, summarises the results, and briefly discusses the future management of the area’s old-growth forests.

The study has proved to be an essential input into the development of a Forest Management Plan for the area, and more recently, in the work that is under way to prepare a Regional Forest Agreement for the area.

Richard Rawson Executive Director Forests Service.

ii SUMMARY

The objective of this study was to determine the extent and distribution of old-growth forest in North East Victoria. The study area included the 1.25 million hectares of forested public land within the North East Regional Forest Agreement area.

Old-growth forest was originally defined in the East Gippsland Old-growth Forest Study as: forest which contains significant amounts of its oldest growth stage in the upper stratum - usually senescing trees - and has been subjected to any disturbance, the effect of which is now negligible (Woodgate et al. 1994). The analysis methods developed for previous old-growth forest surveys in East Gippsland and Central Highlands were applied in this North East study. Three key elements: forest growth stage, Ecological Vegetation Class (EVC) and disturbance history; were mapped for all forested public land. A limited number of old-growth forest stands identified in the analysis were field checked and ongoing field verification is recommended to be incorporated into routine forest management activities.

The study estimated that 260,000 hectares or 21% of forested public land in the North East is old- growth forest. Old-growth forest was identified in 13 EVCs and one vegetation mosaic found within the study area. Generally, the larger portions of old-growth forest were found in the foothill and montane forests, with the EVCs on the drier sites tending to exhibit higher proportions of old- growth. Old-growth forest tended to be rare in the lowland forest types (generally favoured for agriculture) and disturbance tended to be more pronounced on flatter areas.

iii CONTENTS

FOREWORD ...... ii

SUMMARY ...... iii

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.2 STUDY OBJECTIVES ...... 1 1.3 STUDY AREA ...... 2

2. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF OLD-GROWTH FOREST ...... 3

3. SURVEY OF OLD-GROWTH ATTRIBUTES ...... 4 3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 4 3.2 SURVEY ATTRIBUTES ...... 4 3.2.1 Forest ...... 4 3.2.2 Forest growth stage ...... 4 3.2.3 Forest type ...... 4 3.2.4 Ecological vegetation classes (EVCs) ...... 5 3.2.5 Disturbance influences ...... 5

4. FOREST GROWTH STAGES ...... 6 4.1 CONCEPTS ...... 6 4.1.1 Eucalypt crown cover ...... 6 4.1.2 Eucalypt crown form ...... 6 4.1.3 Forest growth stage ...... 8 4.2 SURVEY METHODS ...... 9 4.2.1 Crown form mapping ...... 9 4.2.2 Aerial photograph mapping types ...... 9 4.2.3 Transfer of line work ...... 9 4.2.4 Forest growth stage mapping ...... 10 4.3 RESULTS ...... 10

5. ECOLOGICAL VEGETATION CLASSES ...... 11 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 11 5.2 CONCEPTS ...... 11 5.2.1 Ecological vegetation class (EVC)...... 11 5.2.2 Floristic community and sub-community ...... 11 5.3 METHODS ...... 11 5.3.1 Vegetation survey and description of floristic communities ...... 11 5.3.2 Mapping of ecological vegetation classes ...... 12 5.3.3 Data transfer ...... 12 5.3.4 Limitations and qualifications ...... 12 5.4 RESULTS ...... 13 5.4.1 Plains ...... 13 5.4.2 Valleys...... 13 5.4.3 Low hills ...... 13 5.4.4 Foothills ...... 13 5.4.5 Montane ...... 13 5.4.6 Sub-alpine ...... 13 5.4.7 Poorly sampled vegetation ...... 14

iv 6. FOREST DISTURBANCE ...... 17 6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 17 6.2 GRAZING ...... 17 6.3 MINING ...... 18 6.4 AGICULTURAL CLEARING ...... 18 6.5 TIMBER HARVESTING ...... 19 6.6 WILDFIRE ...... 20 6.7 FUEL REDUCTION BURNS ...... 20 6.8 RESULTS ...... 20

7. AGE OF FORESTS IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA ...... 22

8. ANALYSIS OF OLD-GROWTH STATUS ...... 23 8.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 23 8.2 METHOD ...... 23 8.2.1 Resource data input and validation ...... 25 8.2.2 Disturbance data input and validation ...... 26 8.2.3 Evaluation of candidate old-growth areas ...... 29 8.2.4 Forest Categories ...... 30 8.3 RESULTS ...... 32 8.3.1 Maps and Area Statements ...... 32 8.4 ADVANCES AND LIMITATIONS IN ANALYSIS ...... 35 8.4.1 Advances ...... 35 8.4.2 Limitations ...... 35

9. CONCLUSIONS ...... 36

10. MANAGEMENT OF OLD-GROWTH FOREST ...... 37 10.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 37 10.2 LAND-USE PLANNING - LAND CONSERVATION COUNCIL ...... 37 10.3 FOREST MANAGEMENT PLANNING ...... 37 10.4 CONSERVATION OF OLD-GROWTH FOREST ...... 38

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 39

REFERENCES ...... 41

APPENDIX ONE: ECOLOGICAL VEGETATION DESCRIPTIONS ...... 46

APPENDIX TWO: FOREST DISTURBANCE ...... 83

APPENDIX THREE: ANALYSIS OF OLD-GROWTH STATUS ...... 94 APPENDIX 3A PROJECT DATASETS ...... 94

APPENDIX 3B ANALYSIS RULES ...... 96

APPENDIX 3C CONVERSION TABLES ...... 99

APPENDIX 3D ANALYSIS RULES ...... 100

APPENDIX 3E PUBLIC-PRIVATE LAND BUFFER RULES ...... 130

v List of Figures and Tables

TABLE 4-1 : EUCALYPT CROWN COVER CLASSES USED IN FOREST GROWTH STAGE MAPPING...... 6

FIGURE 4-1 : ILLUSTRATION OF SFRI CROWN FORMS...... 7

TABLE 4-2 : EUCALYPT CROWN FORM ABUNDANCE CLASSES...... 7

TABLE 4-3 : SUB-CLASSES OF THE REGULAR CROWN FORM CLASS...... 8

TABLE 4.4 : COMPARISON OF SFRI CROWN FORMS TO OLD-GROWTH ANALYSIS FOREST GROWTH STAGE CLASSES...... 9

TABLE 4.5 : COMPARISON OF FOREST GROWTH STAGE CLASS TO SFRI CROWN FORMS...... 10

TABLE 4-6 : AREA (HA) BY FOREST GROWTH STAGE DOMINANT CLASSES ON PUBLIC LAND WITHIN THE NORTH EAST...... 10

TABLE 5-1 : ECOLOGICAL VEGETATION CLASSES BY LANDSCAPE UNIT...... 14

TABLE 5-2 : AREA (HA) AND PROPORTION OF EACH EVC ON PUBLIC LAND...... 16

TABLE 6-1 : AREA (HA) OF PUBLIC LAND DISTURBED BY FIRE WITHIN THE NORTH EAST...... 21

TABLE 6-2 : AREA (HA) OF PUBLIC LAND DISTURBED BY CONTEMPORARY TIMBER HARVESTING WITHIN THE NORTH EAST...... 21

TABLE 6-3 : AREA (HA) OF PUBLIC LAND POTENTIALLY DISTURBED BY HISTORIC TIMBER HARVESTING WITHIN THE NORTH EAST...... 21

TABLE 6-4 : NUMBER OF MINING SITES RECORDED ON PUBLIC LAND WITHIN THE NORTH EAST...... 21

TABLE 6-5 : AREA (HA) OF PUBLIC LAND POTENTIALLY DISTURBED BY GRAZING WITHIN THE NORTH EAST...... 21

TABLE 6-6 : AREA (HA) OF PUBLIC LAND POTENTIALLY DISTURBED BY AGRICULTURAL CLEARING WITHIN THE NORTH EAST...... 21

FIGURE 8-1 : OLD-GROWTH ANALYSIS DATA FLOW DIAGRAM...... 24

TABLE 8-1 : RULES TO CREATE CANDIDATE OLD GROWTH FOREST CLASSES...... 26

TABLE 8-2 : VALUES ASSIGNED TO DISTURBANCE REGIMES...... 29

TABLE 8-3 : RULES TO CREATE FOREST CLASSIFICATIONS...... 30

TABLE 8-4 : RULES TO CREATE THE FOREST CATEGORIES...... 31

TABLE 8-5 : REASSIGNMENT OF FOREST CATEGORIES ACCORDING TO THEIR PROXIMITY TO PRIVATE LAND...... 32

TABLE 8-6 : AREA (HA) AND PROPORTION OF FOREST (MAP) CATEGORIES ON PUBLIC LAND AND IN STUDY AREA...... 33

TABLE 8-7 : AREA (HA) AND PROPORTION OF EACH FOREST (MAP) CATEGORY BY EVC ON PUBLIC LAND...... 34

List of Maps MAP 1 : STUDY AREA MAP 2 : FOREST GROWTH STAGE MAP 3 : VEGETATION TYPES MAP 4 : COMPOSITE DISTURBANCE MAP 5 : OLD-GROWTH FOREST

vi Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

In 1992, the Federal Government and all States and Territories, except Tasmania, signed the National Forest Policy Statement1 . This occurred after the release of the final report of the Resource Assessment Commission’s Forest and Timber Inquiry. Under this agreement, the relevant State agencies were to give high priority to undertaking an assessment of old-growth forest.

Identifying old-growth forests is an important step in preparing the North East Forest Management Plan and the North East Regional Forest Agreement, as well as providing information for day-to- day management of forests in the North East.

The data gathering phase of the North East Old-growth (NEOG) Forest Study was integrated with the Statewide Forest Resource Inventory (SFRI) project and the North East Forest Management Plan, as there is considerable overlap between the projects. The NEOG project was jointly funded by the State and Commonwealth Governments.

The SFRI is a project undertaken by the Victorian Government to provide a standardised set of forest resource information. The data will be used to make informed and consistent sustainable yield forecasts and forest land use planning and resource allocation decisions. The project involves the mapping of forests at 1:25 000 scale into stand class codes which provide a comprehensive description of the eucalypt component of the forest.

1.2 Study Objectives

The primary purpose of the study was to describe the distribution characteristics, attributes and values over the range of forest age classes in North East Victoria, in particular old-growth forests. The objectives of the study were to:

•determine the nature and extent of older forests on all classes of public land in the study area by undertaking field surveys, using aerial photographs, satellite imagery and data obtained from other sources. Gaps in the existing databases were to be identified as a precursor to this study; •undertake research and analysis of historical data and archival records relevant to public land use in the study area;

•define a set of age classes of forest that were ecologically significant and which could be used for management and research purposes in the future;

•assess and map the nature and degree of human induced disturbance and its impact on the environment using quantitative measures such as weed indices, dendrochronology and growth staging;

1 Tasmania has subsequently become a signatory to the National Forest Policy Statement. 2 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

• create a digital database using the above datasets and integrating them with other data layers in the Department’s Geographic Information System (GIS) for analysis at a scale of 1:100 000. Data layers include: topography, harvesting and fire history, forest type, floristic vegetation, land systems, land tenure and land use; and

• use overlay analysis techniques to identify and describe the attributes of old-growth forest in the study area.

1.3 Study Area

The NEOG study area is a combination of the Wangaratta, Wodonga (in part) and Benalla-Mansfield Forest Management Areas. The NEOG study area boundary corresponds with the boundary of the North East Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) area. The locations and boundaries of the study area are shown in Map 1.

The study area contains a wide variety of landforms that range from the Eastern Highlands plateaux and high plains of the Australian Alps, dominated by Mt Bogong (1989 metres elevation), extensive dissected foothills, to the riverine floodplains of the Murray Valley. Rainfall has a winter peak and varies from 600 mm per year in the west to over 2550 mm at Falls Creek. Monthly mean temperatures in summer are about 30°C at low altitudes to 15°C at highest altitudes. In winter, the monthly mean temperatures range from 11°C at low elevations to 0°C at high elevations. While low elevations may experience days of 40°C in summer, the temperature drops by around one degree Celsius per 100 metres increase in elevation above 600 metres. Alpine areas experience extremes in climate, with low temperatures, frosts, and long periods of snow cover. The Victorian Land Conservation Council (LCC) study area reports are a source of geophysical data for readers requiring additional detail about North East Victoria.

Of the 2,300,000 ha of land in the NEOG Study Area, 55% (1,250,000 ha) is public land and 45% (1,050,000 ha) is freehold land. The land use recommendations for the LCC Benalla-Upper Murray Review, and parts of the Murray Valley, Alpine Special Investigation and North Eastern Area Districts 3, 4 and 5 include the reservation of over 32% of public land as national park and other conservation reserves, and over 57% as State forest, with the remaining area (<11%) divided among softwood plantation (4.5%), water bodies (1.5%) and other public land categories (<5%). Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 3

2. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF OLD-GROWTH FOREST

Old-growth forests and the definition of old-growth forests have been discussed for well over a decade by both the scientific and general communities throughout Australia.

The East Gippsland Old-growth Report (Woodgate et al. 1994) identified attributes which contributed to the forest description, and disturbances which influence the state of old-growth forest. The attributes were relatively simple to ascertain. However, it was a more complex matter to determine at what threshold the attributes must be present for an area to constitute old-growth forest. The attributes are further discussed in Chapter Three of this report. Refer to the East Gippsland Report for additional information.

The definition of old-growth forest as applied in the East Gippsland, Central Highlands and North East studies was based on the National Forest Policy Statement and is outlined below:

‘Old-growth forest is forest which contains significant amounts of its oldest growth stage in the upper stratum - usually senescing trees - and has been subjected to any disturbance, the effect of which is now negligible’ (Woodgate et al. 1994).

The definition recognises the dynamic nature of old-growth forest. Forests could be recruited into, or excluded from, the old-growth domain over time.

The suitability of the definition was referred to the Joint Scientific Advisory Group (SAG) by Victoria and the Commonwealth in response to concerns raised by stakeholders during the Deferred Forest Assessment (DFA) process conducted in 1995. The SAG accepted use of this definition, but recommended additional research to further evaluate its application to different forest types. 4 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

3. SURVEY OF OLD-GROWTH ATTRIBUTES

3.1 Introduction

The NEOG study used remote sensing, field survey and archival research methods consistent with those used in the East Gippsland, Central Highlands and Goldfields2 Old-growth studies.

The survey methodology essentially followed that developed for the East Gippsland study, using technologies and techniques which have proven reliable, effective and objective. Although some minor refinements were made, the methodologies were the same as those applied in other regions of Victoria. The attributes which were measured in the survey are described in the text below.

3.2 Survey Attributes

3.2.1Forest The first stage of the old-growth study was to identify the forested areas within the study area. As in the East Gippsland study, the definition of forest used in this study is as follows:

‘All woody vegetation with potential height generally exceeding five metres and crown cover projection generally exceeding ten per cent’ (Woodgate et al. 1994).

3.2.2Forest growth stage The age of the forest was assessed indirectly through the relative growth stages of the conspicuous strata, usually the overstorey. Although forest growth stage was considered to be a primary old- growth attribute, the rate of development and resultant characteristics of any growth stage were likely to be specific to each EVC and forest type and were dependent on site productivity.

Forest growth stage mapping refers to a combination of eucalypt crown cover and crown form, and for Victorian studies it is applied to areas of eucalypt forest, as defined above. The mapping was completed using a combination of aerial photograph interpretation (API) and supplementary field checking.

Eucalypt crown cover is expressed as ‘the percentage of crown area projection to land area’ (Elliott 1995) and is sometimes referred to as solid crown cover.

The morphological characteristics or crown forms of eucalypts were described by Jacobs (1955) and have been modified and adapted for Victorian studies. The eucalypt crown form described the basic condition of the eucalypt crowns within the stand. There were three components which were described: irregular, regular, and regrowth forms.

3.2.3Forest type The structural vegetation mapping categorised dominant vegetation by species and height. Where the dominant structural vegetation was comprised of forest species, it was described in terms of forest type. The structural component (forest top height) of the LCC dataset was adopted for use in this study.

2 The report of the Goldfields Old-growth study is currently in production. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 5

3.2.4 Ecological vegetation classes (EVCs) EVCs are part of a hierarchy of floristic vegetation descriptions that display correlations with particular quantifiable environmental attributes. EVCs were mapped using a number of sources including structural forest type mapping, a comprehensive flora quadrat dataset, and API to complement extensive field inspection.

3.2.5 Disturbance influences Research using historic and contemporary records was undertaken to delineate and map the extent and severity of the major forest disturbances considered to have altered the primary attributes of the forests in the region. These disturbances were stratified according to their intensity, and were identified as either natural or un-natural. Un-natural disturbances were intended to refer to European disturbances. Although Aboriginal influences were apparent prior to and during the early years of European settlement, the absence of areal records of Aboriginal disturbances prevented useful mapping.

It should be noted that disturbance records are of variable quality, due to an absence, inaccuracy or loss of records. One obvious problem with disturbance records was the absence of comprehensive documentation of the 1939 fires, an event which had a significant influence on the forests of the North East. In addition, for some locations there was a paucity of contemporary fire records. The old-growth analysis has taken some account of this disturbance through the forest growth stage analysis (which expected to indicate predominantly regrowth with perhaps some regular crown form, but not irregular crown form, in affected locations), along with records of fire salvage harvesting and historic sawmill sites and timber tramways. Similarly, where other disturbance data were missing, the growth stage analysis provided a clue to past disturbance of the forest. 6 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

4. FOREST GROWTH STAGES

4.1 Concepts

Aerial photograph interpretation was used to characterise forest stands by providing data on crown cover, crown form, species composition and stand height. Most of these attributes are used directly to model old-growth forest. Forest growth stage is a term initially described by Jacobs (1955) and is now highly correlated to the SFRI crown form. Jacobs outlined the typical stages of eucalypt growth in terms of tree morphologies: juvenile, sapling, pole, early mature, mature, late mature and overmature.

Victorian old-growth studies have redefined the term growth stage as an ecological concept for the purpose of old-growth analysis. As redefined, growth stage is a substitute for relative forest stand age. As such, it does not require the absolute determination of age (in years) for particular individuals or species within a forest stand.

Depending on the quality of the site, crown form can represent different growth stages. To account for this in the old-growth forest analysis, crown form was considered in conjunction with site quality. As a result, Jacobs’ tree morphologies were combined into three forest growth stage classes: regrowth, mature and senescing.

4.1.1 Eucalypt crown cover Eucalypt crown cover is expressed as the percentage of crown area projection to land area (Elliott 1995). This concept is further discussed in Woodgate et al. (1994). The eucalypt crown cover classes used in forest growth stage mapping are shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4-1: Eucalypt crown cover classes used in forest growth stage mapping.

Classification Description Eucalypt Crown Cover (%) 1 Very Sparse 1-9 2 Sparse 10-29 3 Low 30-49

4 Medium 50-69 5 Dense 70-84 6 Very Dense 85-100

4.1.2 Eucalypt crown form Crown forms are descriptions of tree growth stages present within a eucalypt forest type. An illustration of the crown forms used by the SFRI project can be seen in Figure 4.1. Note that API, as used in the SFRI project cannot detect regeneration under the forest canopy. Detailed descriptions of the eucalypt crown forms are outlined in Elliott (1995) and Black (1996). Further discussion on the concept can be found in Woodgate et al. (1994). Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 7

Figure 4-1: Illustration of SFRI crown forms.

regular SFRI regeneration regrowth irregular crown (not detectable highly equally moderately forms by API under a regular regular regular forest canopy)

A stand can have a combination of irregular, regular, and regrowth crown forms (Figure 4.1). Crown form classes are measured as a percentage of total eucalypt crown form and crown cover and recorded in the order of irregular, regular and regrowth (see Table 4.2).

Table 4-2: Eucalypt crown form abundance classes.

Crown Form Abundance Description Class d crowns occupy greater than or equal to 50% of the total eucalypt crown cover g crowns occupy between 30 and 49% of the total eucalypt crown cover p crowns occupy between 10 and 29% of the total eucalypt crown cover t crowns occupy between one and nine % of the total eucalypt crown cover n crowns occupy less than one % of the total eucalypt crown cover

When the regular crown form class occupied 30% or more of the eucalypt crown cover (ie code ‘g’ and ‘d’ in Table 4.2), it was divided into three sub-classes depending upon the proportion of intact crowns and the presence of dead branches. The three sub-classes are: highly regular, equally regular and moderately regular. Table 4.3 provides definitions and related API mapping symbols for the sub-classes. 8 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Table 4-3: Sub-classes of the regular crown form class.

Sub-class Sub-class symbol Definition Highly regular + More than half of the crowns of the regular crown form component in the forest stand have at least three-quarters of their boundaries intact. No dead branches are visible.

Equally regular = More than half of the crowns of the regular crown form component in the forest stand have circular to oval shaped crowns which have between 0.5 and 0.75 of their boundaries intact. A few dead branches may be visible.

Moderately – Of the regular crown form component in the forest stand, regular there are approximately equal proportions of highly regular and moderately regular crowns (that are within 10% of each other).

It is important to recognise that not all eucalypt and non-eucalypt species conform to the typical growth habit described by Jacobs (1955). This is possibly due to genetic factors (eg multi-stemmed form of snow gum) or to environmental factors such as poor sites (eg Red Box and Red Stringybark mixture on shallow soils on steep rocky sites, or Narrow-leaved Peppermint on steep dry north west facing slopes).

4.1.3 Forest growth stage The different phases of tree development can exhibit different crown morphologies. While the growth stages and the characteristic crown morphologies in particular site qualities are distinctive and well documented for some species, our understanding of the growth stages of other species is far from complete. Jacobs (1955) described the typical eucalypt stages in terms of tree morphologies and crown form for Blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis) on high site quality.

Jacobs’ growth stage classes for species growing on high site quality have a high correlation with the SFRI crown form classes. This is because crowns are large and the growth stages are easily interpreted. For species on low site quality, the full range of crown forms may not be so easily interpreted.

There are two reasons for this difficulty. For some species on low site quality, the characteristics of a senescing crown (spouts, bayonets, loss of major crown branches and crown decline) are easily seen in the field but not detectable at the scale of aerial photography used. Examples of such species include Red Box (Eucalyptus polyanthemos) and Long-leaved Box (E. goniocalyx). For other species however, the regular crown form is characterised by a healthy crown (intact crown branches and an absence of bayonets) but represents the final growth stage before death. Examples include Red Stringybark (E. macrorrhynca) and Broad-leaved Peppermint (E. dives).

Forest stands with non-Jacobsian growth stages occur when the relationship between Jacobs’ growth stages and aerial photograph interpreted crown forms is not strong. Eucalypt species which can occupy both high and low site quality were classified into Jacobsian and non-Jacobsian by using potential stand height. This was defined at <28m for low site quality (non-Jacobsian) and >28m for high site quality (Jacobsian). comparison of the SFRI crown form and the forest growth stages used for the old-growth analysis is presented in Table 4.4. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 9

Table 4.4: Comparison of SFRI crown forms to old-growth analysis forest growth stage classes.

regular SFRI crown regeneration regrowth irregular forms (not detectable highly equally moderately by API under a regular regular irregular forest canopy)

Jacobsian regrowth mature senescing * Growth Stage (>28m)

Non-Jacobsian regrowth senescing Growth Stage (<28m)

* The growth stage is considered senescing dominant where there is less than 10% regrowth and greater than 10% senescing.

4.2 Survey Methods

4.2.1Crown form mapping Crown form mapping was undertaken through the SFRI project using mostly 1:20 000 aerial colour photography. Forested public land and some private land in North East Victoria were mapped and additional information was gathered for areas of State forest greater than 28 metres in height (see 4.2.2 Aerial photograph mapping types). Procedures used in API and full details of stand class coding are described in Black (1996).

The level of coding detail applied to certain land tenures was dependent on the mapping type (see 4.2.2 Aerial photograph mapping types). The land tenures mapped were: all State forest; parks and reserves; Wabba Wilderness Park; alpine resorts; public land which constituted the former Vic Hydro (previously State Electricity Commission) Kiewa lease; and also private forest areas which both exceeded 5 ha in extent and lay adjacent to public land.

4.2.2Aerial photograph mapping types Three mapping types were applied to the forests of North East Victoria: 1.SFRI full code mapping - applied to State forest with commercial potential, generally being State forest greater than 28 metres in height. 2.Crown form (growth stage) mapping - applied to State forest less than 28 metres in height; and to parks and reserves, except those in the LCC Alpine Study Area; and to freehold forests larger than 5 ha in area which lay in close proximity to public land. 3.National park mapping - applied to the Alpine National Park, State forest less than 28 metres in height within the LCC Alpine Study Area, and some other National Parks. This modified code provided some species and height information, but with larger polygons, less species detail than the full code, and broader height classes.

Typical polygon size for the full code lies in the range 1 - 20 ha, for growth staging 5 - 20 ha, and for national park mapping 40-60 ha.

4.2.3 Transfer of line work Stand class boundaries and labels were transferred to a GIS database. To prevent distortion in the data layer due to topography, the API line work was fitted to the terrain on 1:25 000 digital maps. 10 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

This was accomplished by matching the stream and road networks on the map to the stream and road network on the aerial photographs. In some instances, a digitised elevation model was used to improve the accuracy of this process.

The crown cover and crown form component of the SFRI polygon code, stored in a SFRI data layer, was used in the old-growth analysis procedure.

4.2.4 Forest growth stage mapping The process described in Section 4.1.3 and summarised in Table 4.4 is represented as the modelled forest growth stage mapping illustrated in Map 2. Table 4.5 lists the forest growth stage classes depicted in Map 2.

Table 4.5: Comparison of forest growth stage class to SFRI crown forms. Equivalent SFRI Crown Form Forest Growth Stage Class Jacobsian Forest Stand Non-Jacobsian Forest Stand Senescing Dominant Irregular/ Moderately Regular/ Irregular/ Moderately Regular/ Equally Regular Equally Regular/ Highly Regular Mature Dominant Highly Regular – Regrowth Dominant Regrowth Regrowth

Whilst the highly regular crown form in non-Jacobsian forest stands represents the senescing growth stage for the purposes of the old-growth analysis, some proportion of these trees will actually be mature. To date, no method has been devised to morphologically separate these individuals into the senescing or mature growth stage classes. It is important to note that whilst these stands are old, the burden of proof for the lack of disturbance still relies on the presence of regrowth being less than 10%.

4.3 Results

An area statement (ha) of forest by dominant forest growth stage class on public land within the study area as mapped through aerial photograph interpretation is displayed in Table 4.4. The extent of the forest growth stage classes across the NEOG study area is shown in Map 2.

Table 4-6: Area (ha) by forest growth stage dominant classes on public land within the North East. Forest Growth Area * (ha) on Stage Class Public Land Senescing Dominant 404,420 Mature Dominant 421,220 Regrowth Dominant 225,200 Unclassified 202,260 TOTAL 1,253,100 * Figures rounded to the nearest 10. The unclassified category includes areas that are either: forested and do not have a current growth stage (because the date of a disturbance record post-dates API information); unvegetated; or non- eucalypt forest. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 11

5. ECOLOGICAL VEGETATION CLASSES

5.1 Introduction

Vegetation types vary in their sensitivity to disturbance, and display ageing and senescence in different ways, so it is logical that vegetation type was an input to the old-growth study. In the past, mapping was undertaken of structural vegetation units, which roughly corresponded to eucalypt species groups. More recently, mapping of EVCs has provided a more comprehensive picture of the range of floristic communities by considering other environmental attributes and vegetation characteristics.

5.2 Concepts

5.2.1 Ecological vegetation class (EVC) EVCs consist of one or a number of floristic communities that appear to be associated with a recognisable environmental condition. The floristic communities can be characterised by a number of their adaptive responses to ecological processes that operate at the landscape scale. Each EVC was described through a combination of floristic, life-form and reproductive strategy profiles, and through an inferred fidelity to particular environmental attributes.

Floristic communities within one biogeographical region will share many species in common but may have a number of species that are not shared. This reflects slight altitudinal, exposure or soil differences. The floristic communities of an EVC which occur in different biogeographical regions will have fewer species in common but will have similar fidelity to environmental attributes, and their life-form and reproductive strategy profiles will be similar. Floristic communities have not been identified or mapped in this study. EVC and floristic community names in this report follow the statewide vegetation typology currently being developed by the Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DNRE).

5.2.2 Floristic community and sub-community A community reflects the vegetation’s response to environmental influences such as geology, soils, landform and rainfall at the regional or sub-regional scale. It is an aggregation of one or more sub-communities that have floristic, structural and major environmental affinities. A sub-community represents subtle floristic differences within a community which may be the result of microclimatic variations such as slope position, soil fertility and moisture levels, or of proximity to another community. Sub-communities may represent temporal phases of the same vegetation, or vegetation under different disturbance regimes (Woodgate et al. 1994). Neither the floristic communities or sub-communities were mapped during this study.

5.3 Methods

5.3.1 Vegetation survey and description of floristic communities Data were collected in the form of 30m x 30m quadrats, within which all vascular plant species were noted and their cover-abundance was recorded. Sample sites were chosen with the aim of representing the range of native vegetation that occurred in the study area. The sample sites were stratified by altitude, geology, land form, rainfall, aspect, climate, and position (slope, ridge, gully etc). Information from each quadrat site (floristics, locality, altitude and date) was stored in the DNREs Flora Information System. Data were analysed using a computer-based system, PATN. Plant nomenclature followed Ross (1993) and the periodic taxonomic updates of the National Herbarium of Victoria. 12 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

5.3.2 Mapping of ecological vegetation classes Mapping of EVCs at 1:100 000 scale was carried out in 1994-95. All public land was mapped. Two basic methods of mapping (modelling and API) were used interchangeably. The method used was dependent on the availability of data and time constraints. Initially the use of forest types as a surrogate was investigated for the study area. However, due to the low level of correlation between EVCs and forest types, this structural mapping technique was not considered to be a suitable surrogate. Both of the mapping methods were preceded by extensive flora surveys and the mapping typology was based on the analysis of this information.

Before mapping began, each quadrat in the study area was assigned to a particular EVC. Species frequency data were then used to derive the characteristic species for each EVC. The habitat and landscape position of each EVC was then described. The habitat descriptions and character species lists were then used in combination with the two mapping methodologies to map the vegetation of the study area.

The modelling method involved driving all the roads in the study area and mapping the boundaries of EVCs. This information was then used to develop and continually update a model for the distribution and habitat of each EVC. This information, in combination with use of aerial photography, was then used to map the boundaries of EVCs in areas without road access. Remote area walks were conducted where necessary to verify mapping in areas that are inaccessible to vehicles. The API method used colour aerial photography to map areas remote from roads and which had not been sampled during the vegetation survey.

5.3.3 Data transfer EVC line work was transferred to stable base maps, and scanned and labelled for incorporation into the DNRE Geographic Information System at 1:100 000 scale.

5.3.4 Limitations and qualifications Large areas of land within the study area have been cleared for agriculture, and some communities that would once have been common are now confined to remnants at the edge of public land. Woodland communities dominated by grasses and forbs in particular, may be inadequately described due to a lack of sampling. Hence further sampling may reveal more vegetation classes where one EVC is now mapped.

Some minor changes may occur in future to the EVC names relating to heathy woodlands and herb-rich woodlands, as these communities have not been comprehensively sampled across the whole State.

A number of wetlands were identified in the NEOG study area, most of them were severely degraded by human use. This limited the number of sites that were sampled for the vegetation surveys. Wetlands were described and mapped as a single formation due to the limited sampling.

Severely degraded vegetation was not designated as an EVC because of the difficulty of ascertaining its original composition; thus it was mapped as disturbed. These disturbed areas occurred in a variety of situations in the study area. These included the margins of public land (especially where public land was cleared); in areas where weed invasion was significant; near urban areas; in and around ski resorts and ski runs; in mined areas, especially along streams; and in some cases, in recently harvested areas.

All available quadrat data from this study area were used in the analysis. The exceptions were quadrats where species representation was poor due to seasonal or other sampling constraints. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 13

5.4 Results

Thirty floristic entities were identified in the NEOG study area. These consisted of 24 EVCs, four mosaics, one formation and one complex. The EVC mapping covered 100% of public land in the study area. With the exception of Riverine Escarpment Scrub, all vegetation types have been described in previous studies (see Appendix One). Map 3 depicts the modelled distribution of the EVCs across the NEOG study area.

5.4.1 Plains Most of the plains country in the study area has been cleared, with the extant examples of plains vegetation being small remnants on the fringes of public land, road side verges or isolated stands (such as cemeteries). Most examples suffer from significant weed invasion. The distribution of vegetation in this landscape is primarily determined by soil characteristics, particularly drainage, and frequency of inundation. The EVCs in this landscape unit are shown in Table 5.1.

5.4.2 Valleys The broad flat valleys of the study area have also been cleared, particularly those approaching the northern plains. However those which are steep or narrow and located well into the foothills are still vegetated. The predominant EVCs are those associated with rivers, streams, drainage lines and their immediate environs. The distribution and extent of EVCs present is dependent on stream gradient and stream order which dictated the stream profile, and the level of development of alluvial flats, intensity, frequency and extent of flooding, soil composition and drainage. The EVCs in this landscape unit are shown in Table 5.1.

5.4.3 Low hills The low hills of the study area are located at the fringe of the plains and are often granitic with smaller areas of schists, gneisses and sedimentary geologies. Most of their flanks have been cleared and only the steeper, poorer areas remained on public land. The distribution of EVCs on this land unit are primarily dictated by parent geology and soil type. The characteristic ecological vegetation classes of this land unit are shown in Table 5.1.

5.4.4 Foothills The foothills country of the study area is predominantly sedimentary in origin, with smaller areas of acid volcanics and granites. The slopes are steeper than those of the previously described land units and the soils are generally more skeletal. The lower slopes are often cleared and constitute most of the marginal farmland in the area. The EVCs of this land unit are distributed according to aspect, parent geology, soil depth, fire regime and rainfall. The EVCs in this landscape unit are shown in Table 5.1.

5.4.5 Montane The montane area in North East Victoria is predominantly sedimentary in origin, with smaller areas of acid volcanics and granites. Very little of this country has been cleared although some of the EVCs were harvested for timber and/or grazed. The distribution of these vegetation types is dictated primarily by aspect, elevation, frequency of snow falls and proximity to streams. The EVCs in this landscape unit are shown in Table 5.1.

5.4.6 Sub-alpine The sub-alpine land unit in North East Victoria is predominantly sedimentary in origin, with smaller areas of granites. The scale and/or the pattern of vegetation is too complex in this country to be adequately represented at the presentation scale of 1:100 000. Consequently, many communities 14 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East were represented by mosaic mapping units. For detailed floristic mapping within this unit at a more appropriate scale see McDougall (1982a, 1982b, 1982c, 1984, 1985) and Walsh et al. (1983, 1984, 1986). Very little of this country has been cleared, although some vegetation is grazed in summer by domestic stock. Disturbance associated with urban and ski trail developments in alpine resorts at Mt Buller, Mt Buffalo and Falls Creek has also occurred. The distribution of these vegetation types is dictated primarily by elevation and exposure which regulate the depth and duration of snow cover. The EVCs in this landscape unit are shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5-1: Ecological vegetation classes by landscape unit.

Landscape Unit Plains Valleys Low hills Foothills Montane Sub-alpine Plains Valley Grassy Rainshadow Rocky Outcrop Montane Dry Sub-alpine Grassy Forest Grassy Woodland Shrubland/Herbland Woodland Woodland Woodland Mosaic

Creekline Riparian Forest Granitic Hills Grassy Dry Forest Montane Treeless Grassy Woodland Damp Forest Sub-alpine Woodland Mosaic

Gilgai Plain Swampy Riparian Box Ironbark Shrubby Dry Forest Montane Woodland/ Woodland Forest Riparian Wetland Thicket Mosaic

Wetland Riverine Clay Heathland Heathy Dry Forest Formation Escarpment Scrub

Riparian Shrubland Spring Soak Herb-rich Foothill Herbland Forest

Riparian Damp Forest Forest/Swampy Riparian Woodland/Riverine Escarpment Scrub Mosaic

Wet Forest

5.4.7 Poorly sampled vegetation Several mapping units are poorly characterised by this study because they have been severely depleted or are at the edge of their range in the study area. Reference details for descriptions of these vegetation classes can be found in the following text.

• Plains Grassy Woodland was described by Foreman (in prep.). However, the one remnant mapped in the study area was not sampled.

• Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland Mosaic only occurs within the study area at Reef Hills Regional Park. Because the environment is at the margins of the defined ecological boundaries of the study area, it was not sampled during this study. However, the sites within the study area were sampled during the Box Ironbark Study by Muir et. al. (1995) and were described in that report. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 15

• Creekline Grassy Woodland was recognised along ephemeral drainage lines in the Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park. This vegetation type was not well sampled in the study area, as most occurrences in this locality are too small to map.

• A series of wetland sites which occur in floodplain environments were identified during the study. This environment is at the margins of the defined ecological boundaries of the study area. Most sites are degraded and as a consequence only a few sites were sampled. Wetlands were therefore only described and mapped to the level of formation.

• At the foot slopes of granite hills in the Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park, Spring Soaks Herbland as defined in Cameron and Moorrees (unpubl.) was mapped where it occurs on public land. Only the larger examples of this important EVC were mapped because it generally occurs as areas of less than one hectare, which could not be adequately represented at the 1:100 000 scale.

• Clay Heathland is well known south of the Great Divide on the foothills and coastal plains in East Gippsland, Central and South Gippsland and in the Central Highlands. It was first described in Woodgate et al. (1994). Several small areas are located north of the Great Dividing Range in Mt Lawson State Park.

• Rainshadow Grassy Woodland was first characterised by Forbes et al. (1981) as Rainshadow Woodland where it occurs in the upper Snowy River valley and the lower valleys of the Deddick and Suggan Buggan Rivers. In the study area it has been largely cleared, with a few remnants along the Murray Valley, in the Bethanga district, and between Talgarno and Walwa.

• Riparian Shrubland generally occur on streams with rocky and sandy stream beds. The EVC was first described in East Gippsland by Woodgate et al. (1994), where it occurs primarily on the Snowy, Cann and Genoa Rivers. In the NEOG study area it occurs on smaller streams such as Reedy Creek and Eurobin Creek.

The proportion of each EVC on public land in the study area is summarised in Table 5.2. 16 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Table 5-2: Area (ha) and proportion of each EVC on public land. Total Area Total EVC Ecological Vegetation Class on Public Area as % on Land (ha)* Public Land Gilgai Plain Woodland/Wetland Mosaic 240 0% Gilgai Plain Woodland/Wetland/Heathy Dry Forest Mosaic 500 0% Box Ironbark Forest 3,170 0% Clay Heathland 10 0% Creekline Grassy Woodland 10 0% Damp Forest 45,890 4% Floodland Riparian Woodland 1,420 0% Granitic Hills Woodland 16,120 1% Grassy Dry Forest 95,700 8% Heathy Dry Forest 72,880 6% Herb-rich Foothill Forest 342,360 27% Low Rises Grassy Woodland 0 0% Montane Damp Forest 37,220 3% Montane Dry Woodland 138,160 11% Montane Riparian Thicket 970 0% Plains Grassy Woodland 40 0% Rainshadow Grassy Woodland 480 0% Riparian Forest 10,040 1% Riparian Mosaic - North East 2,130 0% Riparian Shrubland 700 0% Riverine Escarpment Scrub 420 0% Rocky Outcrop Shrubland/Herbland Mosaic 5,030 0.5% Shrubby Dry Forest 259,720 21% Spring Soak Herbland 40 0% Sub-alpine Woodland 35,730 3% Swampy Riparian Woodland 1,390 0% Treeless Sub-alpine Complex 20,210 2% Valley Grassy Forest 4,980 0.5% Wet Forest 5,840 0.5% Wetland Formation 30 0% Bare Rock/Ground 10 0% Cleared/Severely Disturbed 54,840 4% Cleared/Severely Disturbed - Power Easement 1,640 0% Conifer Plantation 55,510 4.5% Not Applicable/Outside Study 300 0% Unknown/Unclassified 14,250 1% Water Body 25,120 2% TOTAL 1,253,100 100% * Figures have been rounded to the nearest 10. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 17

6. FOREST DISTURBANCE

6.1 Introduction

This chapter outlines the disturbance factors known to have altered the primary attributes - floristics, structure and growth stage - of the public, native forests of North East Victoria. Disturbance can have natural or un-natural causes. Un-natural disturbances are the result of post-European settlement activities, such as grazing, mining, agricultural clearing or timber harvesting. Conversely, wildfire is considered to be a natural disturbance.

It was assumed that private forests were significantly disturbed and contained no old-growth forest. Most freehold land was extensively disturbed through agricultural clearing, selective harvesting and fire. In addition, the disturbance history on freehold land has not been recorded to the same extent as disturbance on public land. Therefore, it was not considered feasible to research the extent of disturbance on forested private land within the time-frame and resources of the present study. Therefore, private (or freehold) land was excluded from the study.

Detailed research was undertaken into five key disturbance themes - grazing, mining, agricultural clearing, timber harvesting and fire. Information was extracted from a variety of sources, including the archival records of the former Department of Crown Lands and Survey, the Department of Agriculture, Energy and Minerals and the Forests Commission of Victoria in order to determine the period and extent of disturbance in public forest. The data were then collated and entered into a GIS database. The extent of disturbance on forested public land is shown in Map 4. A more detailed history of forest disturbance in North East Victoria is presented in Appendix 2.

6.2 Grazing

Refer to Appendix 2 for a detailed history on grazing in the North East. Key events relating to grazing within the North East are:

• The first Europeans to settle the North East were ‘overlanders’ from NSW who came in search of pasture for their sheep and cattle.

• In 1835 William Wyse, one of the first settlers of the North East, established a squatting run at the junction of the Kiewa and Mitta Mitta Rivers (Andrews 1920). A decade later, squatters had encircled the rugged mountains of the Great Dividing Range (Cabena 1980).

• Alpine grazing commenced in the study area in the aftermath of the bushfires of Black Thursday, 1851. A regular pattern of high country grazing soon developed around the Dargo High Plains, Bogong High Plains, Upper Buchan and the Gibbo-Pinnibar country (Cabena 1980).

• A series of nineteenth century land acts made provision for grazing on unoccupied Crown land in Victoria. Extensive areas of forested land were thought to be more suited to intermittent grazing than to intensive agricultural settlement.

Information on grazing licences and leases was extracted from maps, parish plans and the archival records of the Department of Crown Lands and Survey, together with the Forests Commission of Victoria and their successors. Over 380 files were inspected, covering the period circa 1850 to the present. Some leases were grazed intermittently, abandoned, then grazed again during good seasons. Files were checked if the period of the lease or licence exceeded five years, if taken up before 1935; 18 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East or two years, if taken up after 1935. In addition, each lease had to exceed 640 acres (259 hectares) which was the average size of grazing blocks. The earliest grazing licences, the pastoral (or squatting) runs, were excluded from this study because of the inconsistency of available information and the poor quality of the data relating to the location of the runs.

Information on current and recent grazing licences, and agistments where documented, was gathered from files and maps held in local offices of DNRE, particularly the Wodonga office. Some grazing licences, notably those on the Bogong High Plains, have been continuous for many years, and so current files go back to before the turn of the century.

6.3 Mining

Refer to Appendix 2 for further historical information on mining in the North East. Key events relating to mining within the North East are:

•Alluvial gold was discovered in Victoria’s North East near the present site of Beechworth in 1852 (Flett 1970). New discoveries were made at: Yackandandah Creek; Pennyweight Flat; Madman’s Gully; and Woolshed Creek (Flett 1970).

•In 1853 diggers were searching for gold around Mt Buffalo and the Buckland River (Lennon 1992).

•Three years later, miners had opened the Upper Ovens goldfield around Bright and Wandiligong. New finds were made along the tributaries of the Mitta Mitta River and towards Benalla and Mansfield.

•By the end of the 1850s, miners had also penetrated the rugged hills near Omeo, leading to the discovery of new goldfields at Glen Wills and Wombat Creek (Christie 1993).

•Other commodities mined within the study area were: tin (Koetong and Cudgewa); antimony (Tallandoon); molybdenum (Stanley and Everton); tungsten (Barnawartha and Koetong); and copper (Tawonga and Bethanga) (LCC 1974).

Information was extracted from the records of the Department of Agriculture, Energy and Minerals and the Geological Survey of Victoria, and a range of secondary sources, in order to determine key areas of historic mining activity. Maps of the Geological Survey of Victoria were used to document the extent to which mineral prospecting, and subsequently mining, has taken place in the North East. In addition, significant mining sites were identified and recorded. Information was checked with local staff of the DNRE, who detected some omissions and provided relevant details.

6.4 Agricultural Clearing

Refer to Appendix 2 for further historical information on agricultural clearing in the North East. Key events relating to agricultural clearing in the North East are:

•Clearing of land for agriculture commenced in the North East during the gold rushes of the 1850s. Gold had brought new settlers into the region, creating a large domestic market for agricultural produce. Over the next decade, the Victorian government passed four major Land Acts which made provision for closer settlement through the selection of unoccupied Crown land. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 19

•Selection blocks were typically 120-160 acres (48-65 hectares). In forested districts, these blocks were remote and poorly served by roads and despite the best efforts of selectors, many were abandoned after only three or four years. Abandoned selections were reclaimed by the Crown.

Data relating to agricultural clearing were extracted from the archival records of the Department of Crown Lands and Survey, held at the Public Records Office. These records contained important information about the improvements carried out by individual selectors. Details, such as the extent of ringbarking and ‘grubbing’, were recorded by Crown Bailiffs.

Over 200 files were inspected, covering the period circa 1860 to circa 1980. Files were checked if the period of the lease or licence exceeded five years, if taken up before 1935; or two years, if taken up after 1935. The average period of occupation was 25-30 years, for blocks subsequently purchased by the selector, and five to 10 years, for blocks which reverted to the Crown. In the North East, over 100 blocks were abandoned, mostly on the northern slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Most of these selections are now situated in State forest or national park.

6.5 Timber Harvesting

Refer to Appendix 2 for a detailed history on timber harvesting in the North East. Key events relating to timber harvesting within the North East are:

•From the earliest days of settlement, timber has been taken from the forests of Victoria’s North East.

•Graziers and selectors used local timber to build houses, farm buildings, fences and yards and as fuel for heating and cooking.

•Miners used vast quantities of timber to support the underground network of shafts and tunnels. As the shafts went deeper, timber was also needed to feed massive boilers which powered the winding engines and stamp batteries.

•During the twentieth century, the Railways Department, the Melbourne Harbour Trust and the State Electricity Commission used a range of hardwood species for railway sleepers, piles for piers and docks, and electricity poles.

•Until the 1950s, sawlog production in the North East was small in comparison to the Central Highlands and the Midlands/Otway forests. Large-scale timber harvesting in the study area commenced after the Second World War. The Alpine Ash forests near Mt Stirling, Mt Skene, Mt Wills, Mt Pinnibar and Mt Torbreck were opened for harvesting during this period (Moulds 1991).

•Sawmills were established at conversion centres at Mansfield and Heyfield (LCC 1977). At Mansfield, mills were constructed in 1947 and 1948, timber supplies being drawn from the forests of the King, Howqua and Jamieson watersheds (LCC 1977).

•The Forests Commission of Victoria was able to directly influence the location of timber extraction and sawmilling through its log allocation system. Annual licences were granted to millers to remove specified volumes of timber from defined areas of State forest. Expansion of the timber industry was also assisted by the Commission’s roading program. 20 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

The sawlog allocation records of the former Forests Commission of Victoria were used to determine the extent of ‘historic’ timber harvesting in the North East. Covering the period circa 1936 to circa 1980, these records contained important information about the licences issued to timber companies to harvest areas of public forest. The records covered eight forest districts - Alexandra, Beechworth, Benalla, Bright, Corryong, Mansfield, Myrtleford and Tallangatta - and covered both clear felling and selective harvesting. However it should be noted that a licence for selective harvesting indicates that this type of harvesting took place, not its precise location or its distribution within a forest compartment.

6.6 Wildfire

Refer to Appendix 2 for a detailed history on wildfire in the North East. Major fires occurred in the study area in 1939, 1944, 1952, 1968, 1972, 1978 and 1985. These contemporary records were viewed as part of the old-growth project and the areal extent of wildfires were recorded on parish plans.

Since 1945, the Forests Commission of Victoria and subsequent forest management agencies, have mapped the outer boundary of most wildfires in Victoria. Fires were recorded if the area burned exceeded 640 acres (259 hectares).

6.7 Fuel Reduction Burns

Since the mid-1920s, the Forests Commission of Victoria (and its successors) has used fire to reduce the amount of flammable material on the forest floor and reduce the risk of intense wildfire. After the Second World War, fuel reduction burning was systematic, with aircraft and incendiary capsules replacing or supplementing spot ignition from ground teams (Pyne 1991).

Fuel reduction burns differ from wildfires. They are deliberately ignited on days that produce a cool burn. Fuel reduction burns remove ground litter, and generally cause minimal damage to the forest crown.

Fuel reduction burning records accessed for this project varied in quality, accuracy and completeness. While the records showed the area burnt, they seldom addressed the factors that vary and affect the disturbance level, such as fire intensity or the patchiness of the burn. Depending upon the weather and fuel conditions at the time of the burn, some of the planned area may remain unburnt. Therefore the recorded area for each fuel reduction burn should be considered as an indication of its extent.

6.8 Results

Due to the large quantity of detailed disturbance data collected, it was not possible to illustrate each disturbance type at a meaningful scale as part of this report. Unlike the East Gippsland study, where some disturbance themes were treated as present or absent on a two kilometre grid, the most accurate boundaries possible were used in this analysis. Disturbance data were stored in the GIS database, and can be accessed as necessary. Each data layer was transferred into the system at a scale of 1:100 000.

Area statements for each of the disturbance types (fire, contemporary and historic timber harvesting, mining, agricultural clearing and grazing) that have occurred on public land within the study area are shown in the tables below. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 21

Table 6-1: Area (ha) of public land disturbed by fire within the North East.

Area of Public Land Burnt (ha) * Years Fuel Reduction Burn Wildfire TOTAL 1986/7 to 1996/7 257,400 7,170 264,570 1976/7 to 1986/7 197,730 105,340 303,070 1966/7 to 1976/7 14,460 15,600 30,060 prior to 1966/7 13,840 13,840

TOTAL 469,590 141,950 611,540

* Figures have been rounded to the nearest 10.

Table 6-2: Area (ha) of public land disturbed by contemporary timber harvesting within the North East.

Area (ha) of public and disturbed by contemporary timber harvesting * Selective Harvesting Clearfell Harvesting Other TOTAL TOTAL of all years 103,820 10,460 12,080 126,360 (1966 - 96)

* Figures have been rounded to the nearest 10.

Table 6-3: Area (ha) of public land potentially disturbed by historic timber harvesting within the North East.

Area (ha) of public land potentially subjected to historic timber harvesting. * 689,330

* Figures have been rounded to the nearest 10.

Table 6-4: Number of mining sites recorded on public land within the North East.

Number of mining sites recorded on public land. * 190 * Figures have been rounded to the nearest 10.

Table 6-5: Area (ha) of public land potentially disturbed by grazing within the North East.

Area (ha) of public land potentially disturbed by grazing. * 832,730 * Figures have been rounded to the nearest 10.

Table 6-6: Area (ha) of public land potentially disturbed by agricultural clearing within the North East.

Area (ha) of public land potentially subjected to agricultural clearing. * 17,600 * Figures have been rounded to the nearest 10. 22 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

7. AGE OF FORESTS IN NORTH EAST VICTORIA

The question How old is old-growth forest? arises, and deserves consideration. However, no definitive answer exists, and the available information can only be explored briefly here. A more detailed treatment of this topic is found in Chapter 8 of A Study of the Old-growth Forests of East Gippsland (Woodgate et al. 1994).

As forest types mature at different ages, the chronological age of trees is not a universal and easily defined attribute of all old-growth forests. The counting of tree rings is the usual method of determining tree age. In eucalypt forests, this usually necessitates the falling of the tree to be studied, although advances are being made in taking cores from the radius of the standing tree using an increment borer. This technique is well-developed for softwoods, but more difficult and not as frequently used in hardwoods. False growth rings, and rot in the centre of the tree, increases the difficulty of accurately aging the tree.

Ring counts of Eucalyptus sieberi in Cobon block, near Cann River in East Gippsland, as part of the East Gippsland old-growth forest study, revealed one senescing tree to be 311 years of age, and it was not necessarily the oldest in the area. The same study looked at trees of mature crown form and concluded that the age ranged from 158 to 171 years. It was speculated that the transition from mature to senescing growth stage takes place at around 250 years of age.

A ring count study of two Mountain ash (E. regnans) trees in the O’Shannassy and Watts River catchments (Banks 1993) found these 1939 fire-killed trees to be 309 ± six and 459 ± eight years. The Central Highlands study interpreted age data to suggest that Mountain Ash have an immature growth stage lasting about 80 years, a mature phase for about 270 years, a senescing phase lasting for about 100 years, and finally a stag phase of about 50 years, making a lifespan of about 500 years.

Information from tree ring counting studies in North East Victoria were limited to trees felled in the summer of 1995-96 as part of the SFRI growth and yield study. The objective of this study was to quantify tree growth and predict future merchantable volume. The trees selected for felling were mature rather than senescing. High elevation mixed species and Alpine Ash (E. delegatensis) stands were sampled. The North East mixed species stands commonly appear to be multi-aged stands. The ash stands, however, are generally even-aged due to the regenerative effects of high intensity fires. The oldest E. delegatensis sampled in North East Victoria was 160 years, with many trees in the range of 120 - 130 years, and the oldest tree from a mixed species forest was 172 years. It may be concluded that the trees with a mature crown form in North East Victoria may be aged up to 160 - 170 years old. This is similar to the East Gippsland E. sieberi results, and not incompatible with Central Highlands E. regnans results, which exhibited a broader age range. No conclusion could be drawn about the age of the senescing crown form in North East Victoria, due to lack of sampling. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 23

8. ANALYSIS OF OLD-GROWTH STATUS

8.1 Introduction

The old-growth forest analysis process for this study was based on that used in East Gippsland and the Central Highlands. The analysis was predicated on a process of elimination. Areas of forest were eliminated through the identification of significant disturbances. The remaining undisturbed or insignificantly disturbed areas of forest dominated by their older growth stages are considered to be old-growth forest.

Validation procedures were a major part of this analysis and were based on two methods. The first validation procedure relied on the identification of logical inconsistencies between data items relating to a single place. For instance, the combination of a dataset indicating recent fuel reduction burning with another indicating an EVC such as Wet Forest (in which fuel reduction burns will generally not burn) is considered inconsistent. In such cases, the rule was to ignore the least reliable data source. In the second validation procedure, the analysis was run and maps of the modelled extent of old- growth forest were produced and then validated in the field. Inconsistencies and errors were investigated and new analysis rules were developed. This iterative process was carried out eight times before a satisfactory model was produced.

8.2 Method

The analysis process had four key steps: 1. Resources data input and validation to determine candidate old-growth areas. 2. Disturbance data input and validation to assign a disturbance impact rating. 3. Evaluation of candidate old-growth areas according to disturbance impacts. 4. Validation and field checking of the forest categories.

Figure 8.1 illustrates the flow of data through this process. 24 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Figure 8-1: Old-growth analysis data flow diagram.

Resource Data Input & Validation

Input & validate forest growth stage classes R U Candidate old-growth Input & validate EVC L unvalidated for E disturbance Input & validate structural vegetation S classes

Input & validate crown density classes

Disturbance Data Input & Validation Disturbance impact from fuel reduction burning

Input fire disturbance V Disturbance impact from A D wildfires L I Disturbance impact from I Input grazing disturbance grazing S D A FOREST T Disturbance impact from CLASSIFICATIONS Input EVC disturbance EVC information T U I Disturbance impact from O Input agricultural clearing disturbance R agriculatural clearing Validation & field N checking B Disturbance impact from Input mining disturbance A mining R N U Disturbance impact on Input disturbance due to private land L C private land E FOREST CATEGORIES E Disturbance impact from S historic harvesting Input timber harvesting disturbance

Disturbance from Interation & contemporary harvesting update

Minimum disturbance significance Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 25

8.2.1 Resource data input and validation Resource data input and validation involved the analysis of the forest growth stages, EVCs and structural vegetation classes to define areas of candidate old-growth forest. Candidate old-growth forest are areas of forest with sufficient old trees to qualify as old-growth forest, subject to the consideration of disturbances. Mature-and regrowth-dominated forests are forests dominated by the respective growth stages and will not become old-growth forest within the near future.

The resource data utilised were:

• EVCs - grouped according to whether or not Jacobsian growth characteristics were displayed. Appendix 3C contains the conversation table with the Jacobsian code given to each EVC.

• Forest growth stage classes- grouped into one of three classes according to the proportions of the crown forms.

• Structural vegetation classes - grouped as above and below 28 metres. This was considered when determining the Jacobsian/ non-Jacobsian growth characteristics.

Wherever possible datasets were validated against other datasets using rules to eliminate possible errors in the data. It should be noted that if any portion of these datasets were missing for a part of the study area, no analysis of old-growth forest was possible for that area. These were assigned an unknown disturbance level in the process described in Section 8.2.2.

For stands to be considered as candidate old-growth forests, the senescing growth stage must have a crown cover of at least 10% (ie dominant - see Section 4.1.3) and the regrowth growth stage must have a crown cover of less than 10%.

Depending on the EVC and the site quality of the area, a forest stand may not display a crown form which neatly related to the typical growth stage classes described by Jacobs (1955). It is for this reason (on areas with low site quality), where crowns were small and/ or atypical in their irregular crown form characteristics, the highly regular category for non-Jacobsian sites was translated into senescing (see Tables 4.4 and 4.5).

The rules for the determination of candidate old-growth forest are shown in Table 8.1. 26 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Table 8-1: Rules to create candidate old growth forest classes.

Potential EVC Crown form * Potential Forest Unvalidated growth form structure growth candidate (JACOBS) validation stage class old-growth class class (OGCLASS) (EM-FOREST) 0 non-vegetated – N/A N/A 0 non-vegetated/non-eucalypt forest/insufficient information 1 Jacobsian eucalypt 0 unknown N/A 0 unknown 0 non-vegetated/non-eucalypt forest EVC forest/insufficient information > 28m 1 irregular, moderately >28m 1 senescing 1 candidate old-growth forest regular, equally regular dominant 2 highly regular N/A 2 mature 2 mature-dominated forest dominant 3 regrowth N/A 3 regrowth 3 regrowth-dominated forest dominant 4 non-forest N/A 4 non-forest 0 non-vegetated/non-eucalypt forest/insufficient information 2 Non-Jacobsian 0 unknown N/A 0 unknown 0 non-vegetated/non-eucalypt eucalypt forest forest/insufficient information EVC 1 irregular, moderately <28m 1 senescing 1 candidate old-growth forest <28m regular, equally regular, dominant highly regular # 2 N/A # N/A 2 N/A N/A 3 regrowth N/A 3 regrowth 3 regrowth-dominated forest dominant 4 non-forest N/A 4 non-forest 0 non-vegetated/non-eucalypt forest/insufficient information 3 Unclassified N/A N/A N/A 0 non-vegetated/non-eucalypt non-eucalypt forest/insufficient information forest

* See Tables 4.4 and 4.5 for the comparison of SFRI crown forms and the forest growth stage classes. # See the discussion in Section 4.2.4.

8.2.2 Disturbance data input and validation Disturbance data were collected for the following themes: fuel reduction burning, wildfires, grazing, contemporary and historical timber harvesting, agricultural clearing and mining.

Evidence of the effect of disturbance was available from three primary sources: the existing disturbance record, API (crown form mapping and additional API mapping labels - such as selective logging) and the vegetation type (EVC and forest type). The principles adopted to validate the records is discussed in the following text.

The API was considered to be the most reliable record. When no API disturbance was evident the disturbance record was accepted, but it may have been overridden by the EVC. For example, the records may indicate selective harvesting in a heathland vegetation class. Obviously this EVC does not carry preferred species for selective harvesting. In the absence of any forest growth staging to confirm or refute a canopy disturbance, the record capable of inducing canopy disruption was given the benefit of the doubt and a negligible disturbance was assumed to be indicated.

Where the date of the aerial photography predated the recorded disturbance, the disturbance level could not be determined and was assigned as unknown. Note also that in this analysis only the ecological effect of the disturbance was taken into account, not the possible intangible effect. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 27

A model of slope based on 1:100␣ 000 topographic contours was used to further validate the grazing, selected historic harvesting and minor forest produce records.

8.2.2.1 Fuel reduction burn disturbance Analysis of the existing records was based on the recorded number, frequency, year, and perimeter of the burn, not the actual intensity or total area burnt. Because the records did not indicate the proportion of area burnt within the fuel reduced area, frequency data were not accurate. As a result generalised assumptions about the effect of fuel reduction burning may not be accurate across the extent of the record. For this reason, a temporary significant un-natural disturbance category was invoked, which acknowledged the effect of the fuel reduction burn, but not necessarily its spatial accuracy. Those EVCs which were considered to be less flammable (generally the wetter communities) were considered to be unaffected. See Appendix 3D for detail regarding the rules concerning fuel reduction burning.

8.2.2.2 Wildfire disturbance Wildfire was the only recorded disturbance collected as part of the study that was classed as natural. The effects of recent wildfires (1 - 10 years) were acknowledged by allocation to the significant natural disturbance category. See Appendix 3D for detail of the rules concerning wildfires. Regrowth forest occurring on steep slopes without any records of un-natural disturbance were assumed to be caused by wildfire.

8.2.2.3 Grazing disturbance Grazing disturbance was recorded from grazing lease records outlining the grazing lease area and the time period of the lease. Grazing records for the NEOG study area were very extensive with very few areas remaining without a grazing lease. Estimates of the actual area grazed were developed using slope, EVC and other relevant information. Where the year of grazing was unknown in both its commencement and conclusion a grazing record was ignored.

The impact of grazing depends upon the stock involved, stocking rates, grazing frequencies, the associated management of the grazed area (particularly the burning practices), the time since grazing ceased and the EVC involved. However, specific information was only available for the duration of the lease, the time since grazing ceased and the EVCs involved. Weed invasion and burning practices associated with grazing were assumed to constitute a significant disturbance to forests.

Field inspections revealed that the intensity of these activities and the resultant disturbance appeared to be associated with a slope threshold of 20°. On slopes of <20° weed invasion in association with these disturbance records is usually severe and considered to be a significant un-natural level of disturbance. Areas with a slope of >20° are considered to be negligibly disturbed because of the lower levels of weed invasion.

The final disturbance significance of grazing areas was assigned based on the palatability of the grazed EVC and the period over which it was grazed. Unpalatable EVCs were considered negligibly disturbed by stock, even when the grazing lease was current. The vegetation provides little or no sustenance, so the stock are likely to have occupied the areas for short periods with minimal damage. See Appendix 3D for detail regarding the rules concerning grazing palatability.

8.2.2.4 Other disturbance categories This disturbance theme was incorporated into the EVC dataset. The three additional disturbance categories were: conifer plantation, hardwood plantation and cleared/severely disturbed (where weeds constituted >50% of cover or 50% of species by composition). These categories were assigned a significant un-natural disturbance level. See Appendix 3D for rules concerning disturbed EVCs. 28 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

8.2.2.5 Agricultural clearing disturbance Not all agricultural leases were cleared. Verification of a clearing record was inferred from the date of the record and the time available for abandoned areas to regenerate. A surrogate for environmental quality was used to model the time taken for the forest to regenerate.

Areas thought to be cleared were classified as severely disturbed. Areas not cleared were given an insignificant un-natural disturbance level. See Appendix 3D for details of the rules concerning agricultural clearing.

8.2.2.6 Mining disturbance Disturbance due to mining can take many forms. Because of the lack of accurate records of the areal extent of direct and associated disturbance due to mining activities, only some disturbance forms were used.

The extent of disturbance due to mining was delimited by buffers of differing sizes around particular mining activities dependent on the assumed extent of the activity. In this case buffers of 100, 200 and 500␣ metres were used to indicate areas that would have been disturbed and the level of disturbance. One hundred metre buffers were used on areas of insignificant un-natural disturbance and 200 and 500␣ metre buffers for activities of significant un-natural disturbance. See Appendix 3B Table 7 for details of the rules concerning mining.

8.2.2.7 Disturbance from contemporary timber harvesting Disturbance due to timber harvesting was broken into three types: clearfelling, selective harvesting and minor forest produce. The time of harvesting was also recorded. Where possible, harvesting records were validated using API. Where this was not possible the areas were assigned an unknown disturbance level.

Where selective harvesting was recorded but the disturbance was considered unlikely due to the EVC, a negligible un-natural disturbance was assigned. See Appendix 3D for detail of the rules concerning contemporary harvesting.

8.2.2.8 Historical harvesting disturbance Historic harvesting records dated back to the 1800s, and contained information regarding the year, extent and the type of harvesting event that may have occurred. In general, historic harvesting records were less accurate than the contemporary records and required extensive validation.

Disturbance from historic harvesting and minor forest produce (sleeper cutting, poles and piles, fencing materials including posts, strainers and stays, and firewood collection) can result in changes to overstorey composition and weed invasion. The intensity of the resultant disturbance appeared to be associated with a slope threshold of 20°.

On sites with high site quality, the presence of mature (forest growth stage) dominated stands may have indicated that historic harvesting disturbance occurred. Because selective harvesting at low levels could be difficult to detect using API, selective harvesting records were assigned a significant un-natural disturbance where the crown cover was low (<30%) in EVCs which were not normally woodlands, even where there was no detectable crown form alteration. In such instances the thinning of the stand was assumed to have occurred without any regrowth developing. See Appendix 3D for detail of the analysis rules concerning historic harvesting. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 29

8.2.2.9 Private land disturbance For the purposes of this analysis it is assumed that all private land had been severely disturbed. Private land was defined using the 1:100␣ 000 land management database in DNREs corporate geospatial data library.

8.2.2.10 Input crown density data The crown cover density attribute of the forest growth stage dataset was used to create a mask of densities above and below 30%. This was used as a representation of usual density of the vegetation to validate selected disturbance regimes.

8.2.2.11 Summary The impact of a particular disturbance on a forested or non-forested area was determined through the assignment of disturbance level categories according to the rules, and were ranked in order of significance (see Table 8.2). The rules were constructed on expert ecological advice and used to validate the disturbance records and discount disturbance impact from probable data errors.

Table 8-2: Values assigned to disturbance regimes.

Disturbance Level Impact on Category old-growth potential Description 0 No recorded disturbance Candidate old-growth Where no records of disturbance are found. 1 Negligible natural disturbance Candidate old-growth Associated with mild or distant occurrence of wildfires. 2 Negligible ‘un-natural’ disturbance Candidate old-growth Areas of un-natural disturbance where the effect is thought to be negligible. 3 Significant disturbance type unknown Not old-growth Areas where disturbance is evident due to forest resource data but recorded disturbances were discounted. 4 Temporary significant ‘un-natural’ Candidate old-growth, given no Associated with the number of years since disturbance future disturbance the last fire event, typically 1 - 10 years. 5 Significant ‘natural’ disturbance Not old-growth Associated with severe or recent wildfires. 6 Significant ‘un-natural’ disturbance Not old-growth Areas of un-natural disturbance where the affect is thought to be significant. 7 Unknown (disturbance recorded Unclassified Lack of EVC, forest growth stage, or forest insufficient information to assign structure data, or disturbances after date of level) photography.

8.2.3 Evaluation of candidate old-growth areas This stage involved the validation of candidate old-growth classes according to the disturbance impacts. Due to insufficient information regarding the impact of multiple disturbance regimes, it was assumed that the highest disturbance rating of all disturbance themes was adequate to determine the impact of disturbance in an old-growth context for any particular area. The disturbance level categories were considered in order of record accuracy and the ability to validate the actual area of disturbance (which was often only a subset of the records’ area).

To assign a classification to the candidate old-growth forest classes identified in the analyses (shown in Tables 8.1 and 8.2), a further set of rules were applied (see Table 8.3). These rules combined the candidate old-growth forest classes and the disturbance values to give the forest classifications. 30 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Table 8-3: Rules to create forest classifications.

Unvalidated Maximum disturbance Forest old-growth class significance classification (EM-FOREST) (DIST-SIG) (OLDGROWTH) 0 non-vegetated/non-eucalypt N/A 99 unknown forest/insufficient information 1 candidate old-growth forest 0 No recorded disturbance 1 1 Negligible ‘natural’ disturbance 2 2 Negligible ‘un-natural’ disturbance 3 3 Significant disturbance, type unknown 4 Invalid, Logical Error* 4 Temporary significant ‘un-natural’ 5 disturbance 5 Significant ‘natural’ disturbance 6 6 Significant ‘un-natural’ disturbance 7 7 No recorded disturbance level can 8 be determined 2 mature-dominated forest 0 no recorded disturbance 9 1 Negligible ‘natural’ disturbance 10 2 Negligible ‘un-natural’ disturbance 11 3 Significant disturbance, type unknown 12 Invalid, Logical Error* 4 Temporary significant ‘un-natural’ 13 disturbance 5 Significant ‘natural’ disturbance 14 6 Significant ‘un-natural’ disturbance 15 7 No recorded disturbance level can be 16 determined 3 regrowth-dominated forest 0 No recorded disturbance 17 1 Negligible ‘natural’ disturbance 18 2 Negligible ‘un-natural’ disturbance 19 3 Significant disturbance, type unknown 20 4 Temporary significant ‘un-natural’ 21 disturbance 5 Significant ‘natural’ disturbance 22 6 Significant ‘un-natural’ disturbance 23 7 No recorded disturbance level can be 24 determined

* These validation categories are not considered in the subsequent steps in the analysis process.

8.2.4 Forest Categories The forest classifications (output from Table 8.3) were combined with land tenure, tree cover and study area boundaries to create the various forest categories (see Table 8.4). The area statements were then rounded (to the nearest 10) to remove all small areas of less than one hectare and areas of forest less than five hectares. Field checking of a limited number of stands validated the analysis process rules and the various forest categories.

The final step in the old-growth forest analysis was to apply buffers to the public-private land interface. The buffer distance was based on the presence of forest on the private land and the steepness of slope on the adjoining public land. A buffer was also applied to forest on public land if it was adjoining plantations or the Cleared/ Severely Disturbed EVC. Appendix 3E (Table A3.11) describes the proximity rules used to determine the buffer widths. This process was applied to take into account the disturbance arising from edge effects that management practices on private land may have on Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 31 public land, or effects from other adjoining disturbed land. Table 8.5 indicates which forest categories were affected by the proximity rules and shows how these were reassigned to altered forest categories. The reassignment was necessary because the disturbance data collected during the study did not account for the significant disturbance observed during field inspection along the public-private land interface.

Finally, iterative field checking of a limited number of stands was undertaken as validation of each version of the analysis. Eight iterations were undertaken for the study area across a range of land systems, forest types and EVCs.

Table 8-4: Rules to create the forest categories.

Forest Other Data Forest Category Forest (Map) Categories Classification (OG) δ (Correspond to areas shown (OLDGROWTH) in Map 5) 1,2,3 N/A 1 NOF Old-growth forest (Irregular crowns) 1 Old-growth Forest 6 2 IU Natural old forest (irregular, significant * understorey disturbance) 9,10,11 3 MN Natural mature forest (regular crowns) 2 Negligibly Disturbed Forest - (Mature Forest) # 14 4 MU Natural forest (regular, significant * understorey disturbance) 17,18,19,20,22 Steep slopes 5 RN Natural regrowth forest (regrowth crowns) 3 Significantly Disturbed (natural) Forest - (Regrowth Forest) + N/A Non-forest EVCs 6 NN Natural non-forest (bare rock, heaths, wetlands) 8 Non-forest N/A Non-forest EVCs 7 NS Natural disturbed non-forest 8 Non-forest 7 8 AO Altered old forest (irregular crowns) 4 Significantly Disturbed (un-natural) Forest ^ 15 9 MA Altered mature forest (regular crowns) 4 Significantly Disturbed (un-natural) Forest ^ 23 SFRI harvesting 10 RA Altered regrowth forest (regrowth crowns) 4 Significantly Disturbed records (un-natural) Forest ^ 5 11 SI Old forest (irregular crowns, transient 1 Old-growth Forest disturbance) 13 12 SM Mature forest (regular crowns, transient 2 Negligibly Disturbed disturbance) Forest - (Mature Forest) # 21 13 SR Regrowth forest (regrowth crowns, transient 3 Significantly Disturbed disturbance) (natural) Forest - (Regrowth Forest) + N/A TREE100 on 14 PF Private Forest 9 Freehold Land private land N/A TREE100 on 15 PN Private non-forest 9 Freehold Land private land N/A Softwood and 16 PL Plantations 5 Plantations Hardwood EVCs, Pines from SFRI N/A Non-forest EVCs 17 NA Significantly disturbed un-natural non-forest 8 Non-forest 17,19,20 Gentle slopes 18 RF Regrowth forest (cause unknown) 4 Significantly Disturbed (un-natural) Forest ^ N/A Non-forest EVCs 19 NU Non-forest (disturbance level unknown) 8 Non-forest 0,8,16,24 20 DU Unclassified (lack of mandatory dataset) 6 Unclassified N/A Cleared/Severely 21 DE Severely disturbed EVCs 7 Cleared/ Severely disturbed Disturbed

δ See Tables 4.4 and 4.5 for the comparison of SFRI crown forms and forest growth stage classes. * Insufficient area to show on map. # Mature forests with less than 10% of their oldest growth stage (usually senescing trees) and less than 10% of the youngest (regrowth) stage in the upper stratum, where the effects of any past disturbances are considered to be negligible. + Forests originating from natural disturbance (principally wildfire) with more than 10% of their youngest (regrowth) stage in the upper stratum. ^ Forests (regardless of forest growth stage) which have been subjected to un-natural disturbances thought to have had a significant effect on their naturalness. 32 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Table 8-5: Reassignment of forest categories according to their proximity to private land.

Forest Category (OG) δ Reassigned Forest Category (OG) *

1 NOF Old-growth forest (Irregular crowns) 8 AO Altered old forest (irregular crowns)

2 IU Natural old forest (irregular, significant 8 AO Altered old forest (irregular crowns) understorey disturbance)

3 MN Natural mature forest (regular crowns) 9 MA Altered mature forest (regular crowns)

4 MU Natural forest (regular, significant 9 MA Altered mature forest (regular crowns) understorey disturbance)

5 RN Natural regrowth forest (regrowth crowns) 10 RA Altered regrowth forest (regrowth crowns)

11 SI Old forest (irregular crowns, transient disturbance) 8 AO Altered old forest (irregular crowns)

12 SM Mature forest (mature crowns, transient disturbance) 9 MA Altered mature forest (regular crowns)

13 SR Regrowth forest (regrowth crowns, transient 10 RA Altered regrowth forest (regrowth crowns) disturbance)

δ See Tables 4.4 and 4.5 for the comparison of SFRI crown forms and forest growth stage classes.

* Appendix 3E (Table A3.11) describes the proximity rules whereby old-growth forest categories were downgraded. For map presentation purposes, these forest categories are combined into Significantly Disturbed (un-natural) Forest.

8.3 Results

8.3.1 Maps and Area Statements As part of the old-growth analysis, the following maps were produced: • Study area (Map 1); • Forest growth stages (Map 2); • Ecological vegetation classes (Map 3); • Composite disturbance (Map 4); and • Forest (map) categories (Map 5).

Area statements were produced showing: • Forest (map) category by area (see Table 8.6). • EVC by forest (map) category (see Table 8.7).

Forest (map) categories were derived from the forest categories and have been grouped for map presentation. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 33

Table 8-6: Area (ha) and proportion of forest (map) categories on public land and in study area.

% % Area (ha) Area (ha) Forest (Map) Category of Total of Public on Public in Study Study Area Land Land Area 1 Old-growth Forest 11% 21% 261,210 261,210 2 Negligibly Disturbed Forest - 11% 21% 261,960 261,960 (Mature Forest) 3 Significantly Disturbed (natural) 6% 10.5% 131,610 131,610 Forest - (Regrowth Forest) 4 Significantly Disturbed (un-natural) 17% 31% 392,360 392,360 Forest

5 Plantation 3% 5% 57,340 57,340 6 Unclassified * 3% 5% 67,420 67,420 7 Cleared/ Severely Disturbed 3% 4.5% 56,510 70,140 8 Non-forest 1% 2% 24,690 24,690 9 Freehold Land 45% 0% 0 1,049,990

TOTAL 100.00% 100.00% 1,253,100 2,316,720

* This category includes 25,110 ha of water bodies on public forested land. 34 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East % π % ha π % ha π % ha π % ha π productivity forests on dry sites and slopes, which were relatively unattractive for timber unattractive relatively were forests which on dry productivity sites and slopes, % ha π % ha Area (ha) and Percent ofArea (ha) and Percent (Map) Categories on Public Land Forest π % ha π Forest) Forest (Regrowth) (Mature Forest) - Natural Forest (un-natural) % ha Forest - Disturbed Forest Disturbed Disturbed Disturbed π Old-growth Negligibly Significantly Significantly Plantation Unclassified Cleared/Severely Non-forest TOTAL ha Ecological Vegetation Class Vegetation Ecological harvesting rounded to the nearest 10. Figures were Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland Mosaic Wetland Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland/Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Mosaic DryHeathy Forest 0 0% 0 0 0% 0% 0 0 0% 0% 0 240 0% 100% 500 0 100% 0% 0 0 0% 0% 0 0 0% 0% 0 0 0% 0% 0 240 0% 0% 500 0% Box Ironbark ForestBox HeathlandClay Creekline Grassy WoodlandDamp ForestFloodland Riparian Woodland* Granitic Hills Woodland 0 0 0 0% 4,320 0% 0 0% 27% 6,050 0 0% 0 20 200 13% 0% 0% 27,880 1% 1% 0 61% 2,810 0 0 0% 6,370 0 17% 0% 14% 0% 6,810 0% 0 4,620 3,130 42% 0 550 0% 10% 99% 39% 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0% 0% 0% 1,980 0% 0% 970 12% 40 0 850 2% 10 1% 0 0% 60% 100% 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0% 0% 0 0% 0% 0 0% 0 0 0 0 16,120 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 45,890 1% 3,170 1,420 10 4% 10 100% 0% 0% 0% 10 0% * Grassy Dry Forest Dry* Heathy Forest Forest Foothill * Herb-rich Rises Grassy WoodlandLow Montane Damp Forest* Montane Dry WoodlandMontane Riparian Thicket 59,680 16,910 22,270 17% 18% 0 31% 96,030 32,350 3,180 6,470 28% 0% 9,480 23% 31,990 3% 120 17% 13% 33,870 4,960 12% 4,540 9% 8,510 0 25% 146,160 23% 33,830 5% 0% 6% 350 12,910 43% 66,450 24% 35,050 36% 35% 69% 980 34,970 0 48% 8,560 25% 60 0% 410 140 0% 23% 7,510 6% 0% 0 0% 3,790 2% 0 0 1,400 420 0% 4% 43% 0% 0% 3,140 10 2% 770 0% 2% 0 0 0 0 2% 0% 0% 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 20 0% 0 0 0 342,360 0% 2% 0% 0% 0 27% 0% 95,700 0 72,880 0% 0 0 8% 138,160 6% 0% 0% 0% 11% 37,220 0 0 3% 0% 0% 970 0 0% 0% Plains Grassy Woodland Grassy WoodlandRainshadow Riparian Forest* Riparian Mosaic - North EastRiparian Shrubland Escarpment ScrubRiverine Outcrop Shrubland/Rocky Herbland Mosaic 0 0 0 160 0% 0% 0% 8% 30 0 0 470 190 10 6% 0 25% 0% 9% 0% 5% 70 0% 2,620 120 0 0 0 26% 15% 6% 0% 0% 0 0% 650 360 1,430 0% 75% 67% 6% 20 0 0 5,610 50% 0 0% 0 0% 0 56% 0% 0 0% 0% 0 0 0 0% 230 20 0% 0 0% 0% 11% 10 4% 960 0% 690 0 25% 19% 0 0 7% 0 0% 0% 0 0 0% 0% 150 0 0% 0% 0 36% 0 0% 0 4,070 0% 0 0% 81% 0 0% 0 2,130 0% 0% 5,030 480 0% 0 0% 0.5% 270 40 0% 10,040 0% 64% 0% 1% 700 100% 420 0% 700 0% * Shrubby Dry ForestSpring Soak Herbland* Sub-alpine Woodland Riparian WoodlandSwampy Sub-alpine ComplexTreeless Grassy ForestValley ForestWet 95,430 15,220 37% 280 0 72,550 43% 0 20% 28% 4,530 0% 25,510 0% 13% 0 10% 0 6,820 0 63,110 0% 0 19% 0% 24% 0% 1,480 0% 60 7,710 230 25% 80 22% 0 4% 0 0% 2,430 2% 1,030 0% 2,880 42% 0 0% 74% 30 1% 880 0% 40 100% 0 1% 1,450 15% 0 10 4,660 0% 4% 0% 920 0 0% 94% 16% 0% 20 0 0 10 0 0% 1% 0 0% 0 0% 0% 600 0% 259,720 200 0% 0 0 21% 130 3% 0% 4% 0% 0 2% 0 35,730 0% 0 0 0% 3% 0 0% 19,610 0% 0 0% 97% 1,390 0 0% 20,210 0 0% 0% 2% 40 0% 4,980 0% 5,840 0.5% 0.5% Wetland FormationWetland GroundBare Rock/ DisturbedCleared/ Severely Easement Disturbed - Power Cleared/ Severely Conifer PlantationNot Applicable/ Outside Study 0 UnclassifiedUnknown/ 0% 0 0 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0% 0% 0 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0% 0% 0% 0 0% 0 10 0 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0% 1,640 0% 0% 55,510 100% 0% 20 100% 50 10 300 0% 0 0 0% 33% 100% 54,820 0 14,160 100% 0% 0% 99% 0% 0 0 1,640 0 0 0% 30 0% 0 0% 0% 0% 0% 20 0% 0 54,840 10 67% 0 100% 0% 4% 0 0% 30 0% 300 10 14,250 0% 55,510 0% 0% 1% 4.5% Water BodyWater TOTAL 261,210 0 21% 0% 261,960 21% 131,610 0 11% 392,360 0% 31% 57,340 0 4.5% 67,420 0% 5% 56,510 0 4.5% 24,690 0% 2% 1,253,100 10 100% 0% 25,110 100% 0 0% 0 0% 25,120 2% Table 8-7:Table Area (ha) and proportion of each forest (map) category on public land. by EVC * and the mature growth the oldest growth stage stage was typically non-Jacobsian were attained. These typically lower were EVCs π Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 35

8.4 Advances and Limitations in Analysis

8.4.1Advances The following advancements were made to the standard analysis technique used in previous old- growth studies.

•A digital terrain model was used to generate slope information which was particularly useful in modelling the impact of grazing, harvesting for minor forest produce, and some types of historic harvesting. The use of a slope rule to eliminate steeper areas from the disturbance record recognised that the disturbance is not necessarily non-existent, but that the effect of the recorded disturbance is negligible.

•The impact of fuel reduction burn frequency was incorporated into this study. However, limitations in records of fuel reduction burning meant that other important ecological considerations in the application of fire (fire intensity, season of burn) could not be incorporated into the model.

•Detailed annotations of harvesting methods (clearfelling, selective harvesting, thinning, minor forest produce harvesting etc.) for both contemporary and historic harvesting records allowed more concise rules to be developed for different harvesting practices. This resulted in better characterisation and delimitation of impacts due to this type of disturbance.

•The use of 1:20 000 scale colour photography and the SFRI classification system improved the resolution of forest growth stage mapping.

8.4.2Limitations The limitations experienced in the analysis are similar to those encountered in previous old-growth analyses in Victoria. The forest category map is the result of combining input data according to a set of analysis rules. The disturbance records are not perfect and it is possible that some areas mapped as old-growth forest may be disturbed, while areas mapped as disturbed may be old-growth. A protocol has been established to enable field inspection and verification of old-growth mapping.

The disturbance resulting from the occurrence of more than one wildfire, and the effect of wildfire and fuel reduction burn in combination, were accommodated in the current analysis. However, the categories so derived have been amalgamated into the relevant severely disturbed category pending further debate on the validity of such modelling.

In some localities, severe weed invasion is known but disturbance records provided no cause or an inappropriate boundary, which prevented accurate modelling of disturbance. Disturbance modelling is only as accurate as the information available in records. In the North East, the lack of weed infestation records limited the analysis. Future detailed mapping of weed infestation may amend the extent of old-growth. Field inspection showed that forest alongside or close to cleared freehold land often contains a high level of weed invasion. The buffering of private land in the old-growth analysis goes some way to addressing this problem.

The impact of mining remains the weakest element of the analysis. Accurate areas of disturbance due to mining have not been modelled because of the difficulty of circumscribing the areal extent of mining activities. The present system of recording mining disturbance as points does not give a true representation of the extent of disturbance from activities such as alluvial mining. 36 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

9. CONCLUSIONS

The North East Old-growth Forest Study covered 1.25 million hectares of public land, and identified 260,000 hectares of old-growth forest. It must be kept in mind that the study produced an old-growth model and the results represent a snapshot in time. It was only possible to field-check a limited proportion of this forest to confirm the findings. Consequently ongoing field verification of old-growth stands is required.

The categories used in the old-growth mapping are: Old-growth Forest; Negligibly Disturbed Forest - (Mature Forest); Significantly Disturbed (natural) Forest - (Regrowth Forest); Significantly Disturbed (un-natural) Forest; Plantation; Unclassified; Cleared/ Severely Disturbed; Non-forest; Water Bodies; and Freehold Land. The study found that 21% of forest on public land in North East Victoria is old-growth forest. A further 21% is Negligibly Disturbed Forest - (Mature Forest).

There are 30 floristic entities identified in North East Victoria. They are: 24 EVCs; four mosaics; one complex; and one formation. Eleven EVCs, three mosaics and the complex and formation are either disturbed to the point that no old-growth remains or do not contain forest. This is not surprising, as very little of some EVCs remain on public land and some have been extensively cleared for agriculture in the past. Old-growth forest occurs in 13 EVCs and one mosaic found within the study area. Most of the old-growth in the North East is found in the dry forest EVCs, typically consisting of shorter, lower productivity forests, often undisturbed because of steep slopes. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 37

10.MANAGEMENT OF OLD-GROWTH FOREST

10.1Introduction

Whilst the study has modelled the current extent of old-growth forests in the North East it is important to understand that the results represent only a snap-shot in time. These and all other forests are dynamic entities and their distribution and composition will change over time as a result of both the forces of nature and of human intervention and management. Further, many of the values (fauna habitat, aesthetics, water catchment) usually associated with old-growth forests are not restricted to these types of forests. Management of these values will need to address more than just the management of old-growth forest.

One of the initiatives of the National Forest Policy Statement is that relevant management agencies will develop management plans to appropriately protect old-growth forests. Thus, the findings of the old-growth study are currently being interpreted for consideration in the various planning processes of both the State and Commonwealth Governments, and specifically in the management plans for State forest, National and State parks, and other reserves being prepared by DNRE.

10.2Land-use Planning - Land Conservation Council

Following government consideration of Land Conservation Council (LCC) studies in the North East, an extensive system of conservation reserves has been established across the region. These studies included general land use studies, reviews and thematic studies of rivers and streams and wilderness (LCC 1973, LCC 1974, LCC 1977, LCC 1979, LCC 1983, LCC 1986, LCC 1990, LCC 1991). The reserves cater for a wide range of natural and cultural values and provide protection for a significant area of old-growth forest.

The adequacy of the reserve system for protection of old-growth forest must be assessed against contemporary policy, most notably the National Forest Policy Statement. This is being achieved through the Victorian forest management planning process and the joint Commonwealth-Victorian Regional Forest Agreement process. These processes will establish a National Reserve system that protects a wide range of values including old-growth forest.

10.3Forest Management Planning

A system of integrated management planning required under Victorian Government policy is being implemented for land designated as State forest through a series of Forest Management Plans which address the requirements of the Forests Act 1958 and the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. The purpose of a forest management plan is to direct the management of State forest for the protection of environmental values while providing for the sustainable management of the natural resources. The requirements of the National Forest Policy Statement to protect old-growth forest will be addressed in the plan. A forest management plan is currently being prepared for the North East and will be an important input to the Regional Forest Agreement.

A feature of the planning process is the zoning of State forest to meet both conservation and timber production objectives. In meeting conservation objectives, each value, including old-growth forest, is examined in a regional context across all public land tenures, prior to determining appropriate conservation requirements within State forests. The zones adopted are defined according to the type of management that will be permitted: 38 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

•The Special Protection Zone will be managed for conservation, and timber harvesting will be excluded. It will include areas of special significance for flora and/or fauna, areas for protection of water quality and other values (such as rainforest, riparian vegetation and old-growth forest), and other areas of special significance (like special landscape and historic value). Such areas will be linked to the parks and reserve system where appropriate.

•The Special Management Zone will be managed to conserve specific features, while catering for timber production under certain conditions. These include areas where timber must be harvested in a different manner than is normal to protect particular values.

•The General Management Zone will be managed for a range of uses, but timber production will have a high priority. While forests in this zone will be managed for sustainable production of timber and other forest products, secondary aims will include protection of landscape, provision of recreation and educational opportunities, fire protection and conservation to complement adjacent zones.

10.4Conservation of Old-growth Forest

Conservation of old-growth forest is achieved through a reserve system comprising national parks, other reserves and the special protection zone in State forest. This integrated approach will ensure that viable and representative areas of old-growth in all forested vegetation classes are conserved across the North East.

For the long-term conservation of old-growth forest we must, however, look beyond those stands which currently constitute old-growth forest or forest with a senescing growth stage. There are many natural processes constantly shaping and re-shaping the extent and characteristics of these forests. New areas will be recruited as trees reach their older growth stages or as the effects of past disturbance become negligible.

The Forest Management Plan will also specify the representative conservation of the range of vegetation classes across the study area and preference will be given not only to old-growth forest but also to negligibly-disturbed younger forest and forest with a mature growth stage which has the potential to become the old-growth forest of the future. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 39

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A large number of staff of the Department of Natural Resources and Environment were involved in the project. They are attached to the Forest Resource Inventory Section of the Forest Management Branch of the Forests Service, to the North East Region, Arthur Rylah Institute, Flora Section of Flora, Fauna and Fisheries Division; Historic Places Section of Parks Victoria; and Natural Resource Systems, a business unit with DNRE.

Authors: Daniel Catrice, Adam Gilbee, Bill Peel, and Ted Stabb

Statewide Steering Committee: Rod Anderson, Daniel Catrice, Tony Edgar, David Parkes and Ross Penny

Local Steering Committee: David Adams, Tony Bartlett e, Tony Edgar l, Stephen Farrell e, Adam Gilbee l, David Parkes e, Bill Peel l, Ross Penny, Ted Stabb and Peter Woodgate e, e early in project; l later in project

Field Coordination: Ted Stabb

API Teams: Vanessa Ayres, Peter Baker, Simon Blanchfield, Paul Brockhoff, Rohan Carboon, Craig Chapman, Lucy Clausen, Justin Crowe, Philip Grey, Simon Hollis, Paul McKenzie, David Miralles, Bronwyn Ness, Kate Nolan, Matthew Pope, Brendan Rennison, Tony Rule, Jason Sali, Nicole Sprunt, Allistair Stephens, Kirsty Sutherland, Scott Ward, Karen Weatherill, and a particular mention to Brenda Galey for involvement for the duration of the project in a number of other additional tasks.

API Audit: Marjory Carmody, Kate Nolan and Brenda Galey

EVC mapping: Sue Berwick, Jane Dickins, Geoff Lucas, Cathy Molnar, Bill Peel, Geoff Sutter, Phil Timpano, Michelle Tumino and Lucille Turner

EVC descriptions: Bill Peel, Geoff Sutter and Lucille Turner

Disturbance and archival research: Daniel Catrice, Jane Coram, Chris Derrick, Clive Lynch, Paul Marsh and Ted Stabb

Geographic information systems and Spatial data: David Adams, Chris Derrick, Phil Gorey, Peter Baker, Rob Hanssen, Lise Ramsden and Bob Wilson

Project management and technical direction: Peter Black, Fred Cumming, Peter Elliott, Ross Penny, Mike Irvine, Helen Vaughan, Stephen Farrell and Jeff Walls 40 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Old-growth analysis: Adam Gilbee, Rick Frisina, Darren McKinty, Bill Peel, Milos Pelikan and Stephen Farrell

DNRE staff in North East Region: Staff of DNRE work centres at Alexandra, Beechworth, Broadford, Corryong, Mansfield Mitta Mitta, and Mt Beauty, for the support provided to SFRI air photo interpreters and EVC mappers. Also Forest Officers and Forest Planners at the above locations, and at Benalla Bright, Myrtleford, Wangaratta and Whitfield for assistance in locating disturbance records. Particular thanks to Terry Bailey*, David Buntine, Neale Cleeland, Ernie Cole, Allan Harrison, Terry Kingston*, Brian Pritchard*, Max McAleish, Lou Maher, Glenn Mawson*, Leith McKenzie, Dennis Moloney, Lloyd Patterson, Ron Patterson, Jeff Ross, Peter Scales, Jim Walker v, Pauline Weickhardt, Gary Wilson and Neil Wilson.

v Victorian Plantations Corporation, Benalla *Ranger with Parks Victoria

Report coordination: Ted Stabb

Comment on draft: Gerard O’Neill, Ian Miles and Brian Thompson

Editing: Caroline Polak Scowcroft (Agriculture Australia Consultants Pty Ltd) and Pamela Morrison Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 41

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Horton, D. (1992), ‘The Burning Question; Aborigines, Fire and Australian Ecosystems’ Mankind, vol. 13, no. 3. Howitt, A. W. (1853), Land, Labour and Gold, Lowden Publishing, Sydney. Irvine, C. J. (1939), The History of Fire Protection in Victoria, mss., Historic Places Section, Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne. Jacobs, M. R. (1955), Growth habits of the eucalypts, Forestry & Timber Bureau. Johnson, D. and Brownlie, J. (1976), Victoria’s North-East Corner, Algona Publications, Melbourne. Jones, G. (1979), People, Places and Things of the North-East, Charquin Hill, Wangaratta. Jones, R. (1969), ‘Fire Stick Farming’, Australian Natural History, no. 16. Kennedy, I. R., McKittrick, D. J. and Lodge, J. J. (1978), Sawmilling and Victorian Forests, Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Melbourne. LCC, (1973), Final Recommendations: North Eastern Study Area District 1, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1974), Final Recommendations: North Eastern Study Area District 2, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1974), Report on the North East Area District 3,4,5, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1977), Final Recommendations: North Eastern Study Area District 3,4 and 5, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1977), Report on the Alpine Study Area, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1979), Final Recommendations: Alpine Area, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1983), Final Recommendations: Alpine Area Special Investiagation, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1986), Final Recommendations: North-eastern Area (Benalla - Upper Murray) Review, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1990), Wildnerness: Special Invetigation Descriptive Report, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1991), Final Recommendations: Rivers and Streams Special Investigation, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. LCC, (1991), Melbourne Area, District 2 Review: Descriptive Report, Land Conservation Council, Victoria. Legg, S. M. (1977), The Location of the Log-Sawmilling Industry in Victoria 1939-1977, M.A. (Prelim.) Thesis, Department of Geography, Monash University, Melbourne. Lennon, J. (1992), ‘European Exploration’, in Cultural Heritage of the Australian Alps, ed B. Scougall, AALC, Canberra. LRRSA, (1974), Tall Timber and Tramlines: An Introduction to Victoria’s Timber Tramway Era, Melbourne. McDougall, K. (1982a), Alpine vegetation of the Bogong High Plains, Ministry of Conservation, Melbourne. McDougall, K. (1982b), Bogong High Plains: Vegetation map and guide to alpine flora-Pretty Valley, Victoria, Conservation Trust and Soil Conservation Authority, Melbourne. 44 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

McDougall, K. (1982c), Bogong High Plains: Vegetation map and guide to the alpine flora-Rocky Valley, Victoria, Conservation Trust and Soil Conservation Authority, Melbourne. McDougall, K. (1984), Bogong High Plains: Vegetation map and guide to alpine flora-Hotham, Victoria, Conservation Trust and Soil Conservation Authority, Melbourne. McDougall, K. (1985), Bogong High Plains: Vegetation map and guide to alpine flora-Bogong, Victoria, Conservation Trust and Soil Conservation Authority, Melbourne. McQuilton, J. (1979), The Kelly Outbreak 1878-1880: The Geographical Dimensions of Social Banditry, MUP, Melbourne. Moulds, F. (1991), The Dynamic Forest: A History of Forestry and Forest Industries in Victoria, Richmond. Muir, A M., Edwards, S.A. and Dickens, M. J. (1995), Descriptions and Conservation Status of the Vegetation of the Box Ironbark Ecosystem in Victoria, Flora & Fauna Technical Report No. 136. Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Melbourne. Natural Resources and Environment and Commonwealth of Australia, (1996), East Gippsland Comprehensive Regional Assessment Environment and Heritage Report, Commonwealth of Australia. Pook, A. and Caddell, R. (1990), North East Region Regional Fire Protection Plan (Draft), Department of Conservation & Environment. Powell, J. M. (1970), The Public Lands of Australia Felix: Settlement and Land Appraisal in Victoria, 1934-1891, Melbourne. Powell, J. M. (1976), Environmental Management in Australia, 1788-1914, Melbourne. Pyne, S. (1991), Burning Bush: A Fire History of Australia, North Sydney. Recher, M. F. (1991), ‘The conservation and management of eucalypt forest birds: Resource requirements for nesting and foraging’, in Conservation of Australia’s forest fauna, ed D. Lunney, Surry Beatty & Son, Sydney. Resource Assessment Commission, (1992), Forest and Timber Inquiry, Final Report, Canberra. Robertson, K. (1973), Myrtleford: Gateway to the Alps, Rigby, Melbourne. Rolls, E. (1969), They All Ran Wild: The Story of Pests on the Land in Australia, Sydney. Ross, J. H. (1993), A census of the vascular plants of Victoria, 3rd edn, National Herbarium, Victoria, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria. Shillinglaw, A. W. (1951), Development of Sawmilling in Victoria, mss., Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne. Smyth, R. B. (1979), The Goldfields and Mineral Districts of Victoria, facs. edn, Carlton. Spreadborough, R. and Anderson, H. (1983), Victorian Squatters, Melbourne. Stephenson, H. (1980), Cattlemen and Huts of the High Plains, Victoria. Supple, R. (1992), ‘Mining in the Victorian Alps’, in Cultural Heritage of the Australian Alps, ed B. Scougall, AALC, Canberra. Walsh, N. G., Barley, R. H. and Gullan, P. K. (1983), Alpine vegetation mapping stage II. Vegetation and sites of botanical significance in the Victorian Alps (excluding the Bogong High Plains), Ministry for Conservation, Melbourne. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 45

Walsh, N. G., Barley, R. H. and Gullan, P. K. (1984), The alpine vegetation of Victoria (excluding the Bogong High Plains region), Volumes 1 and 2, Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Melbourne. Walsh, N. G., Barley, R. H. and Gullan, P. K. (1986), ‘The alpine vegetation of Victoria excluding the Bogong High Plains region’, Muelleria, vol 6 pp 265-92. Walsh, N. G. and Entwisle, T. (eds.) (1994), Flora of Victoria. Volume 2. Ferns Allied Plants, Conifers and Monocotyledons, Inkata Press, Melbourne. Woodgate, P. and Black, P. (1988), Forest Cover Changes in Victoria, 1869-1987, Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, Melbourne. Woodgate, P. W., Peel, W. D., Ritman, K. T., Coram, J. E., Brady, A., Rule, A. J. and Banks, J. C. G. (1994), A study of the old-growth forests of East Gippsland, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Victoria. 46 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

APPENDIX ONE - ECOLOGICAL VEGETATION DESCRIPTIONS

Summary

The EVCs are grouped below into broad landscape zones based on elevation and landform. Within each landscape zone, the trend down the list is from drier to wetter sites.

Plains Low Rises Grassy Woodland Plains Grassy Woodland Creekline Grassy Woodland Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland Mosaic Floodplain Riparian Woodland Wetland Formation

Valleys Valley Grassy Forest Riparian Forest Swampy Riparian Woodland Riverine Escarpment Scrub Riparian Shrubland Riparian Forest/Swampy Riparian Woodland/Riverine Escarpment Scrub Mosaic

Low hills Rainshadow Grassy Woodland Granitic Hills Woodland Box Ironbark Forest Clay Heathland Spring Soak Herbland

Foothills Rocky Outcrop Shrubland/Herbland Mosaic Grassy Dry Forest Shrubby Dry Forest Heathy Dry Forest Herb-rich Foothill Forest Damp Forest Wet Forest

Montane Montane Dry Woodland Montane Damp Forest Montane Riparian Thicket Sub-alpine Sub-alpine Woodland Treeless Sub-alpine Complex Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 47

Descriptions

The descriptions begin with a character species table generated from floristic data which provides an average cover-abundance for the character species as well as information on elevation and weed composition. This is followed by a detailed description of the vegetation unit. (* indicates introduced species).

In the results and analysis sections of this report, the EVC table includes a list of categories which are not in fact EVCs, and are not described below. Their nature is evident from their title. These are: Bare Rock/Ground, Cleared/Severely Disturbed, Conifer Plantation, Unknown/Unclassified, and Water Body.

Plains The northern riverine plains mark the northern boundary of the study area and are comprised of silty and clayey alluvial deposits of low relief (generally less than 250 m) with a moderate to low rainfall in the order of 600-700␣ mm. These plains are bisected by a number of major river systems including the Broken, Ovens, Kiewa and King Rivers. Most of the plains are old river terraces that are above flood level but may become seasonally inundated, as the result of periods of heavy rain, because the soils are poorly drained. The currently active river terraces are restricted to lower lying areas adjacent to the rivers and old anabranches. The original vegetation is now largely cleared, but was once predominantly Plains Grassy Woodland on the old terraces and Floodplain Riparian Woodland on the currently active terrace.

Low Rises Grassy Woodland Refer to Muir et al. 1995 for a description of this EVC.

Plains Grassy Woodland Since there is only one remnant of this EVC mapped and no quadrat data for the stand were available, no character species table has been generated. This vegetation is severely depleted in the study area and across Victoria in general.

Only one site at Locksley is mapped and appears to be a floristic community of Plains Grassy Woodland referred to by Foreman (in prep.) as Eastern Wet Grassland. The site occurs at the extreme eastern edge of the Northern Plains where annual rainfall is 500 mm - 600 mm.

Grey Box E. microcarpa, White Box E. albens and Yellow Box E. melliodora are scattered across the site, with a sparse shrub layer of Golden Wattle Acacia pycnantha and Varnish Wattle A. verniciflua. The ground layer is dominated by a range of grasses, with forbs, sedges and lilies also present. The numerous graminoids include: Wallaby-grasses Danthonia spp., Windmill Grass Chloris truncata, Quaking-grasses *Briza spp. and Bromes Bromus spp., Tall Sedge Carex appressa and rushes of the genus Juncus. Wattle Mat-Rush Lomandra filiformis ssp. filiformis occurs in scattered pockets, while Black-anther Flax-lily Dianella revoluta var. revoluta is abundant. The only commonly reported forb is Grassland Wood-sorrel Oxalis perennans.

Other studies: Foreman (in prep.): Eastern Wet Grassland

Example: Nagambie 1 : 100 000, Locksley 1 : 25 000, small remnant near Alexandersons Road. 48 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Creekline Grassy Woodland

This EVC was mapped at only one site in the North East study area, on the flood plain of the King River near Wangaratta. Because no data have been collected from this site, a character species table for this EVC is not provided. For further species information see Muir et al. (1995). It is possible there are other occurrences within the study area that have not yet been identified. However, Creekline Grassy Woodland is a depleted EVC that in many cases would now only be present as disturbed vegetation. In this instance, the example was adjacent to both farmland and disturbed land, with a high proportion of weed species present. Seasonal inundation and alluvial soils provide high fertility and moisture availability which is reflected in the dominant species. River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis formed an open canopy, with a sparse to dense grassy ground layer dominated by Common Tussock-grass Poa labillardieri and Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides. Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata was present with patches of Hawthorn Bush *Cratageus monogyna. Rushes Juncus spp. and Flat-sedges Cyperus spp. were scattered throughout. Wood-sorrel species *Oxalis spp., Blackberry *Rubus fruticosus spp. agg., Rough Dog’s Tail *Cynosuros echinatus, Quaking-grasses *Briza spp. and Sheep Sorrel *Acetosella vulgaris are some of the most common weed species. The presence of this EVC in the Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park has been established subsequent to this study by field surveyors mapping pre-1750 extent of vegetation in the North East study area. Most occurrences were along ephemeral drainage lines. Other studies: Muir et. al (1995): Creekline Grassy Woodland Examples: In the southern section of Reef Hills Regional Park (under Red Gum).

Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland Mosaic The following description is based on that of Muir et al. (1995). Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland Mosaic only occurs within the study area in the Reef Hills Regional Park. Because no sampling was done in this study, a character species table and species list is not supplied. At Reef Hills Regional Park, Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland Mosaic occupies old alluvial terraces of silt and clay which are no longer flooded by the Broken River. However these heavy soils do become inundated after winter rains as indicated by the gleyed appearance of the soil profile. The overstorey is dominated by River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis. The understorey has scattered shrubs of Hedge Wattle Acacia paradoxa. The greatest diversity is in the ground layer which consists of an enormous number of herbs. Forbs are the dominant life form with perennial geophytes well represented. Forbs include Native Daisies Brachyscome spp., Goodenias Goodenia spp., Podolepis Podolepis spp. and Milkmaids Burchardia umbellata. Sedges, particularly Isolepis spp. and Juncus spp. are also well represented. Grasses are not common, but Wallaby-grasses Danthonia spp. and occasionally Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra with the weedy Hair Grasses *Aira spp. and Quaking-grasses *Briza spp. are present but not abundant. The stands of Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland Mosaic in the study area differ from those described by Muir et al. (1995) in that they have a complex series of shallow mini-wetlands within them. It is not clear whether these are a natural phenomena, or whether they are the result of disturbance (perhaps early timber-getting). Other studies: Muir et. al. (1995): A Community of Alluvial Terraces Herb-rich Woodland restrcited to Reef Hills Regional Park. Examples: Reef Hills Regional Park. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 49

Floodplain Riparian Woodland Refer to LCC 1991 for a description of this EVC.

Wetland Formation

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES *Cirsium vulgare 100 + Phragmites 100 3 Poa spp. 100 + australis

Cyperus gunnii 100 2 Poa labillardieri 100 1 Rorippa spp. 100 + ssp. gunnii

Eleocharis acuta 100 + Persicaria 100 + Rumex spp. 100 + hydropiper

Eucalyptus 100 1 Calystegia spp. 100 + camaldulensis

Juncus 100 + Lotus spp. 100 + subsecundus

NUMBER OF SITES: 1 STRUCTURE: Open Woodland or Herbland/Sedgeland ALTITUDE: Mean = 235m, Highest = 235m, Lowest = 235m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 13 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 8% of species, 1% of cover

The Wetland Formation is rare in the study area, largely due to the drainage of wetlands for agriculture. Very few, small localised examples remain. The formation described here occurs in billabongs with standing water and in soaks and depressions, often near a larger water body. The structure is an open woodland to a treeless sedge/forb and grass-rich vegetation in which the shrub layer is sporadic and mostly non-existent. Nearly all of the environment where it could potentially occur, has been dramatically altered and is invariably dominated by weed species.

The species common to undisturbed or little disturbed areas are River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Mountain Swamp Gum E. camphora. Shrub species may be present on the margins and include Prickly Tea-tree Leptospermum continentale, and Tree Violet Hymenanthera dentata. Common Reed Phragmites australis is often abundant and various sedge species including Flecked Flat-sedge Cyperus gunnii, Common Spike-sedge Eleocharis acuta and Bog-sedges Schoenus spp. are also abundant. Other ground flora include rushes, mainly Juncus spp., Water-pepper Persicaria hydropiper with Common Tussock-grass Poa labillardieri also common. The open water may support a carpet of Duckweed Lemna spp. and/or Pacific Azolla Azolla filiculoides. Weeds are often a prominent component, the most common species being Bitter-cress *Rorippa spp., Willow *Salix spp., Bird’s-foot Trefoil *Lotus spp., Dock *Rumex spp., Cat’s Ear *Hypochoeris radicata, Yorkshire Fog *Holcus lanatus and Blackberry *Rubus fruticosus spp. agg..

Other studies: LCC (1991): (i) Floodplain Riparian Woodland (ii) Floodplain Wetland Complex

Examples: In association with the Murray River, upstream of the Hume Dam north east of Corryong. The valley of Winding Creek near Longwood. 50 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Valleys A major feature of the study area is the broad valley system of the Broken, Ovens, Kiewa, Mitta Mitta and King Rivers and their associated tributaries such as Happy Valley, Tallangatta, Cudgewa, Corryong, Thowgla and Indigo Creek valleys. These areas have a gentle relief (generally less than 500␣ m) with a moderate rainfall in the order of 700-1000␣ mm. Similar land forms and vegetation are also associated with the low elevation plateaus (300-600 m elevation) of the Strathbogie Ranges and in the Beechworth area. The valleys are composed of an active riverine terrace which is subjected to regular flooding, small abandoned terraces and colluvial slopes associated with the footslopes of the surrounding hills. These environments are largely cleared today, but would once have supported Floodplain Riparian Woodland or Swampy Riparian Woodland on the active and regularly flooded terraces with Plains Grassy Woodland occurring on the abandoned terraces which have heavy soils. The colluvial valley slopes and fans are composed of generally well drained soil profiles which are often formed by landslips from the surrounding hills. This land form generally supports Valley Grassy Forest but on wetter sites such as seepage areas and springs, Spring Soak Herblands and Swampy Riparian Forest may have once been present. On poorly drained and low fertility sites in the more minor valleys, Clay Heathland was present.

Valley Grassy Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES *Hypochoeris 100 1 Hypericum 85 1 Geranium 71 + radicata gramineum solanderi Microlaena 100 2 *Holcus lanatus 78 1 Euchiton 71 1 stipoides var. stip gymnocephalus s.s.

Acacia dealbata 85 1 Schoenus apogon 78 2 78 2 *Briza maxima 85 + Eucalyptus 71 1 71 1 macrorhyncha ssp. m

NUMBER OF SITES: 14 STRUCTURE: Medium Open Woodland to Medium Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 353m, Highest = 650m, Lowest = 190m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 54 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 25% of species, 16% of cover

Relatively little Valley Grassy Forest remains in the study area, primarily due to clearing for agriculture. The combination of fertile soils, with good water retention capability, gently undulating lower slopes, and reasonable water availability have made such sites attractive for agriculture. Remaining examples therefore tend to be limited in extent and either adjacent to or near private land. This proximity to cleared agricultural land facilitates weed invasion and as a consequence, Valley Grassy Forest has a relatively high weed composition. The largest example (which is disturbed) occurs in Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park in the Corryong area, with other smaller, better quality sites being widely scattered across the study area.

The geology is generally colluvial or alluvial, of Quaternary age, and derived from a range of geologies: on river flats, terraces and valley floors and alluvial fans on valley sides. Other sites have soils which are colluviums derived from Devonian or Silurian igneous materials at the foot of slopes. Where organic matter and nutrients have been leached from upslope, soils are generally well developed, Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 51 gradational and brown organic silty clay loams. The upper horizons may become water-logged over winter as indicated by the gleyed appearance of upper horizons of the soil profile. Altitudes range from 220 m to 650 m and rainfall is less than 1000 mm per year.

Visually, this EVC is quite distinctive, set as it is on gentle undulating slopes with scattered eucalypts, a sparse shrub cover and, in season, a rich array of herbs, lilies and the usual grasses and sedges. At the drier end of the spectrum the ground layer may be sparse and slightly less diverse, but with the moisture-loving species still remaining. Upslope of Valley Grassy Forest, on the steeper gradients, the adjacent vegetation is usually Grassy Dry Forest or occasionally Shrubby or Heathy Dry Forest, with Herb-rich Foothill Forest in the nearby moister protected environments.

Yellow Box Eucalyptus melliodora is often present, in association with dry forest or woodland eucalypts such as Red Stringybark E. marcorhyncha ssp. macrorhyncha, White Box E. albens and Hill Red Gum E.␣ blakelyi. Taller shrubs such as Lightwood Acacia implexa, Silver Wattle A. dealbata or Cherry Ballart Exocarpus cupressiformis may be present, with the ubiquitous low shrubs Grey Guinea-flower Hibbertia obtusifolia or Daphne Heath Brachyloma daphnoides scattered in low numbers and cover throughout.

The ground layer has a high proportion (and usually good cover) of both native and introduced grasses and forbs. Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides, Common Plume Grass Dichelachne rara, Common Wheat Grass Elymus scabrus, and the tussock grasses Grey Tussock-grass Poa sieberiana var. sieberiana and Common Tussock Grass P. labillardieri are common. The usual native herbs are Kidney-weed Dichondra repens, Creeping Cudweed Euchiton gymnocephalus, Austral Cranesbill Geranium solanderi, Common Raspwort Gonocarpus tetragynus, Small St. John’s Wort Hypericum gramineum, Cotton Fireweed Senecio quadritentatus, Stinking Pennywort Hydrocotyle laxiflora and Sheep’s Burr Acaena spp.. Introduced species can be common and include Cat’s Ear *Hypochoeris radicata, Pimpernel *Anagallis arvensis, Common Centaury *Centaurium erythraea, Sweet Vernal-grass *Anthoxanthum odoratum, Large Quaking-grass *Briza maxima, Lesser Quaking-grass *Briza minor, Clovers *Trifolium spp. and Squirrel-tail Fescue *Vulpia bromoides. The ground layer has an average composition of 23% weeds which constitutes 16% of the cover. A variety of lilies, sedges and mat-rushes may occur, including Common Bog-sedge Schoenus apogon, Short-stem sedge Carex breviculmis, Chocolate Lily Arthropodium strictum, Wattle Mat-rush Lomandra filiformis ssp. filiformis, Yellow Bulbine Lily Bulbine bulbosa, Common Wood-rush Luzula meridionalis varieties and Finger Rush Juncus subsecundus.

At Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park near Beechworth a different floristic entity within this EVC occurs. This Valley Grassy Forest grows in the soaks or depressions within gently undulating areas of Grassy Dry Forest. Soils may become water-logged over winter but remain moist year round and are brown sandy to clay loams derived from Devonian igneous intrusive materials such as granite. Hill Red Gum is usually present in the overstorey, with But But E. bridgesiana and Long-leaf Box/Silver Bundy E. goniocalyx/nortonii. Shrubs such as Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata and Prickly Tea-tree Leptospermum continentale may form a sparse cover, with Five-awned Spear-grass Pentapogon quadrifidus, Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides, and Reed Bent-grass Deyeuxia quadriseta common in the grassy understorey. The introduced flora is unchanged, but some of the wetter ground species present also suggest a different floristic community. These may include Purple Bladderwort Utricularia dichotoma, Broad-leaf Rush Juncus planifolius, Varied Raspwort Haloragis heterophylla and Tall Sedge Carex appressa. Other studies: Woodgate et al. (1994): Herb-rich Forest LCC (1991): Valley Forest Muir et al. (1995): Valley Grassy Forest

Examples: Hinces Track for 2 kms west of Cudgewa North Road north of Corryong. Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park. Chiltern-Beechworth Road, between Maginess Road and Old Coach Road in Mt Pilot Multi Purpose Park. 52 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Riparian Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Blechnum nudum 100 3 *Prunella 90 1 Pteridium 80 1 vulgaris esculentum Coprosma 100 2 Rubus parvifolius 90 1 Viola hederacea 80 1 quadrifida Polystichum 100 2 Acaena novae- 80 1 Cassinia aculeata 70 1 proliferum zelandiae Acacia dealbata 90 1 Dicksonia 80 2 Clematis aristata 70 + antarctica Acacia 90 2 Euchiton 80 + Eucalyptus 70 2 melanoxylon gymnocephalus s.s. viminalis Carex appressa 90 2 Pomaderris 80 2 Microlaena 70 1 aspera stipoides var. st

NUMBER OF SITES: 10 STRUCTURE: Medium to Tall Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 776m, Highest = 1090m, Lowest = 580m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 47 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 9% of species, 4% of cover

Riparian Forest although widespread is relatively uncommon in the study area. This EVC is prone to weed invasion largely due to its fertile soils, abundant supply of water and the history of human and recurrent natural disturbance. Due to clearing for agriculture and the concentration of various forms of disturbance along rivers and creeks (such as mining and grazing), very few undisturbed examples remain. Riparian Forest grows along river flats and the larger creeks on Quaternary alluviums derived from a variety of parent geologies including Ordovician sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, Devonian granitoids, Lower Carboniferous and Cambrian sediments. The particle size of the soils is highly variable and can range from cobbles to silts that are randomly arranged in lenses as the result of floods. The majority of the soils’ composition consists of moderately deep silty loams that are rich organic material in the A horizon. Rainfall is of the order of 900-1800 mm per annum with elevation in the range 600-1000 m.

The only tree species which is strongly characteristic of Riparian Forest is Manna Gum Eucalyptus viminalis. Tree height is mostly between 30 and 40 m which is a strong indicator of the high environmental site quality of the habitat of Riparian Forest. Numerous other eucalypts can be present, the most common of which are Narrow-leaf Peppermint E. radiata s.l. and Eurabbie E. globulus ssp. bicostata. This EVC generally has a well developed secondary tree-layer which is indicative of high site quality, with Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon and Silver Wattle A. dealbata being common.

The shrub layer is dominated by Hazel Pomaderris Pomaderris aspera, Tree Lomatia Lomatia fraseri and Prickly Currant-bush Coprosma quadrifida. The ground layer is generally rich in herbs, grasses and ferns. The most common forbs are Seaf-heal *Prunella vulgaris, Ivy-leaf Violet Viola hederacea, Bidgee-widgee Acaena novae-zelandiae, Creeping Cudweed Euchiton gymnocephalus and Small-leaf Bramble Rubus parviflorus. Common grasses in disturbed sites include Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides, Common Hedgehog-grass Echinopogon ovatus and Yorkshire Fog *Holcus lanatus. Ferns characteristic of Riparian Forest include Fishbone Water-fern Blechnum nudum, Soft Water-fern B.␣ minus, Mother Shield-fern Polystichum proliferum and Soft Tree-fern Dicksonia antarctica. The Tall Sedge Carex appressa often dominates the high light environments such as stream banks and open areas free of shrubs. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 53

The common and seriously invasive weeds of this EVC are Willow *Salix spp., Blackberry *Rubus fruticosus spp. agg., Cat’s Ear *Hypochoeris radicata, Seaf-heal, Yorkshire Fog *Holcus lanatus, Musk Monkey-flower *Mimulus moschatus, and White Clover *Trifolium repens.

Other studies: Woodgate et al. (1994): Riparian Forest LCC (1991): Riparian Forest

Examples: Mountain Creek on Mountain Creek Track. King River south of Lake William Hovell. Jamieson River at Wrens Flat. Evans Creek along Evans Creek Track 3.5 km south of Lake William Hovell.

Swampy Riparian Woodland

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Acaena novae- 100 1 Acacia 80 1 Microlaena 80 1 zelandiae melanoxylon stipoides var. stip Cyperus lucidus 100 2 *Callitriche 80 + Polystichum 80 + stagnalis proliferum Hydrocotyle hirta 100 1 Carex appressa 80 2 *Prunella 80 1 vulgaris *Hypochoeris 100 1 Geranium 80 1 *Rubus fruticosus 80 1 radicata potentilloides spp. agg.

Rubus parvifolius 100 1 *Holcus lanatus 80 2 Oxalis spp. 80+

NUMBER OF SITES: 5 STRUCTURE: Medium Open Woodland ALTITUDE: Mean = 494m, Highest = 680m, Lowest = 370m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 57 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 21% of species, 19% of cover

Swampy Riparian Woodland is scattered widely in the study area, but is not common. This EVC grows in broad drainage lines with slight gradients, on lower slopes near streams and less commonly in gentle basins on valley slopes in association with permanent soaks or springs, not necessarily associated with permanent streams. Rainfall is in the range of 900-1500 mm per year and the elevation range is between 300 - 800 m. Soils are mostly silt-rich river sands and gravels, although sites with heavier clay soils may support Swampy Riparian Woodland. The soils are generally Quaternary alluviums in stream environments derived from a broad range of parent geologies which are mostly Cambrian and Ordovician marine sediments and metamorphosed sediments. Examples of this vegetation which occur in soaks away from in-stream habitats develop as gleyed soils derived from Silurian and Devonian granitoids and leucocratic granites. These soils are water-logged during much of winter and spring.

As the name suggests, the overstorey of this vegetation type has a woodland structure which often forms mosaics with wetter tree-less areas dominated by sedges, rushes and many other plants associated with riparian environments. Mountain Swamp Gum Eucalyptus camphora is the dominant overstorey species. A wide range of other eucalypts can be present, mainly as adventive species from the surrounding drier forests. 54 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

The understorey shrubs consist of Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon (as it rarely reaches tree-form in this community) and Prickly Current-bush Coprosma quadrifida. Common Cassinia Cassinia aculeata and Silver Wattle A. dealbata are also sporadically present as adventive species from the surrounding drier vegetation. The ground stratum is the most characteristic feature of this EVC and is normally dense with sedges such as Leafy Flat-sedge Cyperus lucidus and Tall Sedge Carex appressa competing for space with ferns like Fishbone Water-fern Blechnum nudum, Soft Water-fern B. minus and Mother Shield-fern Polystichum proliferum.

There are many other plants which also occur in the Riparian Forest which compete for space between the inter-tussock gaps of sedges and ferns. Species commonly present are Bidgee-widgee Acaena novae-zelandiae, Water Starwort *Callitriche stagnalis, Cat’s Ear *Hypochoeris radicata, Kidney-weed Dichondra repens, Cinquefoil Cranesbill Geranium potentilloides, Austral Brooklime Gratiola peruviana, Hairy Pennywort Hydrocotyle hirta, Musk Monkey-flower *Mimulus moschatus and Seaf-heal *Prunella vulgaris. The most common grasses (generally an uncommon life-form in this EVC) are Yorkshire Fog *Holcus lanatus and Common Hedgehog-grass Echinopogon ovatus. The Showy Willow-herb Epilobium pallidiflorum is a depleted species and was recorded at one site in this study.

The presence of introduced species is a significant threat, particularly blackberries which can completely destroy this EVC. This is caused by disturbance in or near the stream environment which facilitates the establishment of these weeds. These infestations quickly move down-stream (even in the absence of human disturbance) as a result of the natural recurrent disturbance associated with regular flooding. The construction of roads through or adjacent to this EVC allows introduced species to readily invade and often radically change the floristics and structure of the vegetation. Mean weed composition is 21% of species and 19% of cover.

Other Studies: LCC (1991): Swampy Riparian Forest

Examples: Gentle Creek crossing on Wabonga Track 2 km south of the junction with McMillans Track in the Wabonga Plateau State Park. Flats between the East Buffalo Road and the east branch of the Buffalo River upstream of Annie River. Diggers Creek 11 km west of Mitta Mitta township.

Riverine Escarpment Scrub

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES *Anagallis 100 1 Lomatia 100 2 Pomaderris 100 + arvensis myricoides aspera Euchiton 100 1 Luzula 100 1 Viola hederacea 100 1 gymnocephalus meridionalis var. s.s. flacc *Hypochoeris 100 1 Microlaena 100 1 radicata stipoides var. stip

NUMBER OF SITES: 3 STRUCTURE: Medium Closed Shrubland ALTITUDE: Mean = 347m, Highest = 400m, Lowest = 320m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 65 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 15% of species, 13% of cover Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 55

This EVC is described for the first time in this study although it is known from other areas south of the Divide. It is characterised by a medium to tall shrub layer which often limits the regeneration of overstorey trees to the natural gaps in the canopy and results in a sparse overstorey. The ground layer is often open due to heavy shading. Most sites occur on Ordovician sediments or various Devonian igneous rocks including granite, granodiorite, rhyolite, rhyodacite and basalt. The soils are loamy sands, often rocky and shallow in the A horizon merging to clayey sands at depth. The clays at depth may be palaeosols with the sandy soils of the A horizon representing more recent alluvial deposits associated with flood events of the adjacent stream.

Riverine Escarpment Scrub can be equally present on gentle slopes, alluvial terraces/levee banks and near-stream steep (lower) slopes associated with rivers and the larger creeks of the study area. This EVC is restricted to the lowland and foothill country elevations of 300-650 m. Rainfall varies from 1000 to over 1500 mm per year. The overstorey is mainly Candlebark Eucalyptus rubida which is the most common species followed by Narrow-leaf Peppermint E radiata s.l. and Manna Gum E.␣ viminalis. The shrub layer is dominated by Slender Tea-tree Leptospermum brevipes and Burgan Kunzea ericoides. Other species with a generally minor presence are Hazel Pomaderris Pomaderris aspera and Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata. Curiously, there is generally a suite of Pomaderris species with restricted distribution present in Riverine Escarpment Scrub. These include: Blunt-leaf Pomaderris Pomaderris helianthemifolia (the most common) and Prunus Pomaderris Pomaderris prunifolia.

The ground layer can range from low to high diversity (which may be dependent on the time since the last disturbance) and consists of forbs, grasses and sedges. The cover of these life forms is generally low. The ubiquitous forbs include Bidgee-widgee Acaena novae-zelandiae, Kidney-weed Dichondra repens, Bedstraw Galium spp., Cranesbill Geranium spp., Creeping Cudweed Euchiton gymnocephalus and Ivy-leaf Violet Viola hederacea. The common grasses are Common Hedgehog-grass Echinopogon ovatus, Common Wheat-grass Elymus scabrus and Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides. In sites that continue to the stream edge, sedges such as Common Bog-sedge Schoenus apogon and Carex spp. often occur. The other sedge frequently present is Variable Sword-sedge Lepidosperma laterale. Riverine Escarpment Scrub can have a high component of weeds in places where it extends to the stream bank. This arises from disturbances in the upstream catchment and direct disturbance by floods or human action.

Other studies: Not previously described, although it was obliquely referred to in the description as a riverine form of Rocky Outcrop Scrub in Woodgate et al. (1994). Riverine Escarpment Scrub as defined for the first time in this study, is however known from similar habitat throughout Gippsland and the Central Highlands.

Examples: Lower slopes immediately adjacent to Buffalo River where Camp Creek Track meets the Abbeyard Road 2 km south of the junction with Lake Cobbler Track. Dartmouth Road 8 km from the Junction with Omeo Highway. On east side of Wheelers Creek on Wheelers Logging Road. 56 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Riparian Shrubland

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Acacia 100 1 Lomatia 100 1 *Rubus fruticosus 100 + melanoxylon myricoides spp. agg. Calochlaena 100 1 Luzula 100 + Rubus parvifolius 100 1 dubia meridionalis var. flacc Euchiton 100 + Micrantheum 100 1 Poa spp. 100 1 gymnocephalus hexandrum s.s. *Hypochoeris 100 + Microlaena 100 1 radicata stipoides var. stip Lepidosperma 100 + Prostanthera 100 + laterale rotundifolia

NUMBER OF SITES: 2 STRUCTURE: Low Open Shrubland ALTITUDE: Mean = 370m, Highest = 420m, Lowest = 320m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 52 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 16% of species, 15% of cover

The stream beds of minor creeks in a restricted part of the study area were observed to have Riparian Shrubland present. However it could well be more common than is delineated on the maps due to the inaccessibility of substantial sections of rivers and creeks in the study area. The soils are generally infertile coarse sands and rock bars. The environment is one of periodic and severe disturbance as a result of floods. Adult eucalypts only inhabit the margins of this vegetation although saplings may be transitory in the river beds.

The overstorey is dominated by a diverse array of shrubs able to withstand frequent flooding or those able to regenerate rapidly after such disturbance. Ubiquitous species include Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon, Musk Daisy-bush Olearia argophylla, Burgan Kunzea ericoides, Prickly Currant-bush Coprosma quadrifida, Victorian Christmas-bush Prostanthera lasianthos, River Lomatia Lomatia myricoides and in the moist sites Austral Mulberry Hedycarya angustifolia and Alpine Pepper Tasmannia xerophila. Forbs and grasses either survive between severe floods on bare sand or in cracks of rocks or regenerate rapidly from seed. These include Glandular Willow-herb *Epilobium ciliatum, Clustered Cudweed Euchiton gymnocephalus, Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides and Common Blown Grass Agrostis avenacea.

Other Studies: Woodgate et al. (1994): Riparian Shrubland

Examples: Most of Reedy Creek between Beechworth and Eldorado. Eurobin Creek just downstream of car park on Mt Buffalo Tourist Road. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 57

Riparian Forest/Swampy Riparian Woodland/Riverine Escarpment Scrub Mosaic Riparian Mosaic is a mapping unit used when predictability of mapping in riparian situations was low, more than one type of riparian vegetation was assumed to be present using API, or where the size of different EVCs could not be adequately represented at the 1:100 000 mapping scale. As a consequence, no character species table is supplied. It is employed where riparian sites are narrow, or where their characteristics rapidly change causing the quality and nature of the riparian vegetation to be likewise variable. Additionally such sites are usually inaccessible. Combinations of Riparian Forest, Swampy Riparian Woodland, Riverine Escarpment Scrub, Riparian Shrubland, and disturbed vegetation may be present where Riparian Mosaic has been mapped.

Low Hills The low hills are generally confined to the footslopes of the Great Divide in the northern portion of the study area. Their geology is variable, with Devonian and Silurian granites and granodiorites the most usual, Ordovician schists and gneisses and acid volcanics common and Ordovician sediments rare. The rainfall is 600-900␣ mm, with a gradient from highest to lowest in a northwards direction. The topography varies from gently rolling to steep hill country depending on the geology.

West of the Ovens River this landscape unit encompasses the low hills to the south of Euroa (Devonian acid volcanics), and the Ordovician sediments that form the southern extension of the Warby Range (south of the Hume Freeway). Between the Ovens and Kiewa Rivers there are the Devonian granites and granodiorites of the Beechworth-Eldorado-Springhurst district, the Chiltern- Cheesely Hills (Ordovician sediments), with the hills to the south of Wodonga consisting of a diverse geology which includes Silurian granite, gneissic granodiorite, biotite gneiss, high grade phyllites and mica schists. East of the Kiewa River, the hills between Tallangatta and the Murray River comprise high grade phyllites and mica schists, as do those at Burrowye and to the west of Walwa. Silurian granites and granodiorites occur in the Granya-Bungil district, Devonian granite north of Mount Lawson and Pine Mountain and at Mount Mittamatite. Devonian-Silurian granites and granodiorites occur to the south of Mount Alfred and between Walwa and Tintaldra.

With the exception of the more fertile geologies (granodiorites, gneisses and schists) these hills are still largely vegetated. The vegetation present on this landscape unit is largely dictated by the underlying geology. Rainshadow Grassy Woodlands occur on the most fertile geologies (granodiorites, gneisses, schists and phyllites) and small creeks with low gradients generally carry Creekline Grassy Woodland. The granitic hills are generally steeper than the aforementioned geologies and carry Granitic Hills Woodland on the slopes, Rocky Outcrop Shrublands where soils are shallow (sometimes with overstoreys of Cypress Pine especially in the Beechworth district), and as yet undescribed Rainshadow Grassy Woodland EVC which occurs on the outwash at the bases of these hills, mostly on private land. The hills composed of Ordovician sediments are vegetated by Box Ironbark Forest on the gentler lower slopes, whilst on the steeper slopes, Grassy Dry Forest occurs on sheltered aspects and Heathy Dry Forest develops on the more exposed northern and western aspects.

Rainshadow Grassy Woodland The characterisation of Rainshadow Grassy Woodland in the North East is problematic because only one site, which was invaded by weeds, was sampled. As a consequence, a character species table has not been produced. The information relating to the mapped locations does not have a strong correlation in terms of this single site sampled and the species recorded there; however the environment (exposed sites, geology and rainfall) is correlated. Rainfall for all sites is <700 mm per year. The parent geologies include Ordovician metamorphic rocks (primarily gneisses) and Devonian granitoids. Soils are sandy clay loams of moderate to high fertility which are deep brick red in colour. 58 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

The overstorey species are variable in their dominance between Hill Red Gum Eucalyptus blakelyi and White Box E. albens (although Red Box E. polyanthemos was more common in remnants cleared for agriculture), with Lightwood Acacia implexa, Daphne Heath Brachyloma daphnoides and Nodding Blue-lily Stypandra glauca being commonly present in the understorey. Most sites are grassy with a medium to high cover of weedy herbs. Species commonly present (based on mapping) include: Five-awned Spear-grass Pentapogon quadrifidus, Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra, Wallaby-grasses Danthonia spp., Elegant Hair-grass *Aira elegans, Quaking-grasses *Briza spp., Squirrel-tail Fescue *Vulpia bromoides and Bromes *Bromus spp.. Forbs include Hairy Pink *Petrorhagia velutina, Erect Chickweed *Moenchia erecta, Pimpernel *Anagellis arvensis and Wall Speedwell *Veronica arvensis.

Addition mapping of pre-1750s extent shows Rainshadow Grassy Woodland to have once been extensive on the hills north of Tallangatta in the Bethanga-Talgarno area, and on the hills immediately south of Wodonga. The geology south of Wodonga consists of granitoids and schists. Additional species from this mapping include Red Wattle Acacia rubida, Dean’s Wattle A. deanii, Currajong Brachychiton populneus, Red Stringybark Eucalyptus marcorhyncha ssp. macrorhyncha, Spear-grasses Stipa densiflora, and S. scabra, and Cane Wire-grass Aristida ramosa.

Other studies: Woodgate et al. (1994): Rainshadow Woodland. The name has been changed to Rainshadow Grassy Woodland in recognition that the Rainshadow Woodland of East Gippsland is the same EVC as Box Woodland on the Northern Plains, as described in LCC 1991.

Examples: Upper slopes of Vincents Flora Reserve, Murray Valley Highway 1.5 km west of the turnoff to Jingellic.

Granitic Hills Woodland

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES *Hypochoeris 100 1 Gonocarpus 76 1 *Briza minor 57 + radicata elatus Cheilanthes 92 2 Callitris 69 2 Gonocarpus 57 + austrotenuifolia endlicheri tetragynus Eucalyptus 84 1 Geranium 65 + Luzula 57 + blakelyi solanderi meridionalis var. flacc Stypandra glauca 84 1 Calytrix 61 2 Crassula 57 + tetragona sieberiana ssp. tetra *Vulpia 84 1 *Cerastium 61 + bromoides glomeratum Daucus 76 + *Aira elegans 51 glochidiatus

NUMBER OF SITES: 26 STRUCTURE: Low to Medium Open Woodland ALTITUDE: Mean = 415m, Highest = 760m, Lowest = 210m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 50 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 24% of species, 16% of cover Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 59

Granitic Hills Woodland is mostly restricted to intrusive igneous geologies in the north and west of the study area with occasional examples on acid volcanics (which have the same composition but a different origin). Parent geologies include Devonian leucocratic granites, micaceous granite and Devonian rhyodacite. The EVC occurs on the granite country of Mt Pilot, Mt Lawson, Mt Wombat, Mt Granya and Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park. The largest occurrence on acid volcanics is also in the Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park. The soils which result are brown and sandy, ranging in texture from a gritty sand to a sandy clay loam. Therefore the water-holding capacity and hence moisture availability is low.

Spurs and rocky outcrop slopes with a north east to westerly aspect are favoured by this EVC. Slopes vary widely from 0 to 45 degrees. The altitude range is somewhat broad, from 220 to 760 m. Rainfall can reach up to 1000 mm per annum but characteristically shows a high variation from year to year. Outcropping rock is common in any given locality, in either slabs or as tors, covering on average 45% of sites. It is not uncommon for Granitic Hills Woodland to be interspersed with Rocky Outcrop Mosaic, the delineation of the two vegetation types dependent upon the degree of soil development, with the latter having the more skeletal soils.

Two broad floristic entities emerged within this EVC, one from the relatively intact and not recently fire-affected sites at Mt Lawson, Mt Granya and Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park, and the other from the more disturbed and weedy sites across the study area, with varying fire histories. The level of weed invasion seems to be partly a measure of the distance of the site from sources of disturbance and weed propagules.

The overstorey of both entities is commonly a low woodland to 15 m of Hill Red Gum Eucalyptus blakelyi, but other dry forest eucalypts such as Red Stringybark E. macrorhyncha ssp. macrorhyncha, and Long-leaf Box/Silver Bundy E. goniocalyx/nortonii can also be present. Black Cypress Pine Callitris endlicheri is normally found in uncleared and fire-sheltered rocky areas where it can be structurally dominant, but virtually absent in sites that have suffered a history of fire and grazing. It can however occur in both floristic entities.

Understorey species of Granitic Hills Woodland include the small tree Drooping Sheoke Allocasuarina verticillata, and the forbs Cotton Fireweed Senecio quadritentatus, Nodding Blue-lily Stypandra glauca, Austral Carrot Daucus glochidiatus, Tall Raspwort Gonocarpus elatus and Common Raspwort G. tetragynus. Acacia species are common in all Granitic Hills Woodland sites, including Varnish Wattle Acacia verniciflua, Currawang A. doratoxylon and Red-stem Wattle A. rubida. Dense growth of Common Fringe Myrtle Calytrix tetragona can result from fires or drought and sometimes gives the appearance of a monoculture. Small rock-loving species are often present including Australian Stonecrop Crassula sieberiana ssp. tetramera and Green Rock Fern Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia. Common introduced species include Elegant Hair-grass *Aira elegans, Lesser Quaking-grass *Briza minor and Squirrel-tail Fescue *Vulpia bromoides.

An important feature of rocky granite country on which Granitic Hills Woodland occurs is the high cover of bryophyte and lichen species usually present on both rocks and soils. Triquitrella papillata, Leptodontium paradoxum and Bryum spp. are the common mosses forming the soil crust. The Coral Lichens Cladia aggregata and C. retiphora are frequently present, sometimes forming an almost continuous ground layer amongst the vascular plants. On the rock surfaces moss species such as Grimmea laevigata, Campylopus bicolor, Hedwigia integrifolia and Breutelia affinis can be present, with the liverwort Frullania probosciphora sometimes epiphytic on tree trunks. After rain, liverworts including Asterella drummondii and Fossombronia spp. may be evident as a part of the soil crust. Great expanses of rock may be covered with the many species of the lichen genus Parmelia. 60 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Black Cypress Pine was normally present in the first floristic community, which includes all except one of the Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park sites. Hairy Geebung Persoonia rigida is typical, along with some of the rarer Grevillea species such as Green Grevillea Grevillea jephcottii, Crimson Grevillea G. polybractea and Fan Grevillea G. ramosissima. Species of the family Fabaceae are represented by Smooth Parrot-pea Dillwynia glaberrima, Small-leaf Parrot-pea D. phylicoides, Showy Parrot-pea D. sericea and the Heathy Bush-pea Pultenaea procumbens. The minimal level of weed invasion in this floristic entity may be partly due to decreased possibilities for weed growth with an increase in shrub cover, the generally poor soils and the steep topography which have preserved this EVC from clearing and fragmentation. Spider Orchids Caladenia spp. and Greenhood Orchids Pterostylis spp. are much more frequently recorded and in greater diversity than in the ‘more disturbed’ floristic community. Introduced species comprised less than 7% of cover and 18% of species.

In the second floristic entity Black Cypress Pine was only present in either uncleared or unburnt sites where regeneration was able to take place. The most notable difference apart from the lack of many of the shrub and orchid species, is the inclusion of many more introduced species eg. Large Quaking-grass *Briza maxima, Hare’s Foot Clover *Trifolium arvense, Common Mouse-ear Chickweed *Cerastium glomeratum, Hop Clover *T. campestre, Dwarf Rush *Juncus capitatus and Tiny Flat-sedge *Cyperus tenellus. Weeds constitute 22% of the cover and 31% of the species. Rock Isotome Isotoma axillaris is often present amongst the rocks.

Other studies: Muir et al. (1995): Granitic Hills Woodland

Examples: Western section of Moss Road between Old Coach Road and Back Eldorado Fire Track in Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park. Flaggy Creek Track 7.0 km north of junction with Thologolong Track in Mt Lawson State Park. Pine Mountain Creek Track 0.8 km north from junction with Sandy Creek Road in Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park.

Box Ironbark Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES *Hypochoeris 91 1 Dianella revoluta 31Lomandra 66 + radicata var revoluta multiflora *Briza maxima 91 2 Arthropodium 83 1 Stipa scabra 62 1 strictum Gonocarpus 83 1 Acacia pycnantha 70 1 Eucalyptus 62 2 tetragynus microcarpa Lomandra 83 1 Chionochloa 70 1 Rhytidosperma 62 1 filiformis ssp fil. pallida spp.

NUMBER OF SITES: 24 STRUCTURE: Medium Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 199m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 39 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 14% of species, 14% of cover

The following description is based on that of Muir et al. (1995). Box Ironbark Forest only occurs within the study area in the Chiltern Box Ironbark National Park and is one of three communities of this EVC. The community that occurs in the study area is Box Ironbark Forest (North East Hills) and is restricted to the Chiltern Box Ironbark National Park and Reef Hills Regional Park. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 61

Box Ironbark Forests in the North East are found on undulating rises and low rolling hills of Ordovician sediments. These soils are often stony and have low fertility and poor water-holding capacity.

These forests differ from those of the Goldfields (further west) in the development of a much denser cover of grasses, commonly about 30%. This could be attributed to the higher rainfall this area receives. There is also a more developed litter layer which may provide more amenable growing conditions for plants. Mean floristic richness is 39 species per quadrat, and mean weed composition is 14% of species and 14% of cover.

The most obvious species difference compared with the Goldfields communities is the replacement of Red Ironbark Eucalyptus tricarpa with Mugga E. sideroxylon. Common Goldfields species such as Yellow Gum E. leucoxylon, Gold-dust Wattle Acacia acinacea, Spiky Guinea-flower Hibbertia exutacies and Cranberry Heath Astroloma humifusum are absent or uncommon in the North East, and species such as Grey Guinea-flower Hibbertia obtusifolia and Dense Spear-grass Stipa␣ densiflora become prominent. The remnant nature of these north-eastern forests, in combination with slightly better site quality, has made them susceptible to weed invasion by species such as Cat’s Ear *Hypochoeris radicata and Large Quaking-grass *Briza maxima.

Box Ironbark forest mapped south of the Hume Highway on the low hills of Reef Hills Regional Park is Sub-community 22.2 of Muir et al. (1995). Red Box Eucalyptus polyanthemos is the most common tree species, with Red Stringybark E. marcorhyncha ssp. macrorhyncha and Mugga E. sideroxylon also occurring. Silky Guinea-flower Hibbertia sericea and Showy Parrot-pea Dillwynia sericea are the most frequent shrubs present. Silver-top Wallaby-grass Chionochloa pallida, Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra and Small St. John’s Wort Hypericum gramineum are common plants in the ground-layer.

Sub-community 22.3 (Muir et al. 1995), which is confined to Chiltern Box-Ironbark National Park within the study area, is characterised by the dominance of Mugga Eucalyptus sideroxylon with Grey Box E. microcarpa as the sub-dominant tree. The dense shrub layer often contains Cat’s Claws Grevillea Grevillea alpina, Narrow-leaf Bitter-pea Daviesia leptophylla, Daphne Heath Brachyloma daphnoides and Erect Guinea-flower Hibbertia riparia. Grey Tussock-grass Poa sieberiana var. sieberiana, Rough Spear-grass Stipa scabra ssp. falcata, Shiny Everlasting Bracteantha viscosa and Ivy Goodenia Goodenia hederacea are common elements of the ground layer.

Other studies: Muir et al. (1995): Box Ironbark Forest

Examples: Chiltern Box-Ironbark National Park. Reef Hills Regional Park. 62 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Clay Heathland

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Acaena novae- 100 + Gompholobium 100 + Pultenaea 100 2 zelandiae huegelii procumbens Acrotriche 100 + Gonocarpus 100 1 Schoenus apogon 100 1 serrulata tetragynus *Aira 100 + Helichrysum 100 1 Senecio tenuiflorus 100 1 caryophyllea scorpioides Banksia 100 1 Hovea linearis 100 1 Stylidium 100 1 marginata graminifolium *Briza minor 100 + Hydrocotyle 100 + Tetratheca ciliata 100 1 laxiflora Burchardia 100 + Hypericum 100 + Themeda triandra 100 + umbellata gramineum Cassinia aculeata 100 + *Hypochoeris 100 1 Viola 100 + radicata betonicifolia ssp.beton Cassytha 100 1 Leptospermum 100 3 Xanthorrhoea 100 + pubescens s.s. continentale australis *Centaurium 100 1 Leucopogon 100 1 Dichelachne rara 100 1 erythraea virgatus Deyeuxia 100 + Lomandra 100 + Boronia nana 100 1 quadriseta longifolia var.hyssopifolia Dillwynia 100 2 Lomandra 100 + Danthonia pilosa 100 1 phylicoides multiflora ssp. var. paleacea multi Dipodium 100 + Microlaena 100 1 Dianella revoluta 100 + punctatum stipoides var. stip var. revolut Echinopogon 100 + Monotoca 100 + Omandra 100 + ovatus scoparia filiformis ssp. filif Eucalyptus dives 100 1 Opercularia varia 100 + Pimelea linifolia 100 1 ssp. linifol Eucalyptus 100 + Oxalis perennans 100 + Poa sieberiana 100 1 macrorhyncha var. sieberiana ssp. m Eucalyptus 100 + Platylobium 100 1 Poaceae spp. 100 + mannifera formosum Euchiton 100 + Poranthera 100 + Thelymitra spp. 100 + gymnocephalus s.s. microphylla

NUMBER OF SITES: 1 STRUCTURE: Low Open Woodland to Low Open Shrubland ALTITUDE: Mean = 580m, Highest = 580m, Lowest = 580m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 51 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 8% of species, 5% of cover Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 63

Clay Heathland is found in the northern section of the Mt Lawson State Park at four very restricted locations, with patch size being no more than 200m x 200m each and often much less. This vegetation is also of very limited extent in the Victorian context with the closest known location being in lowland East Gippsland. Most of the occurrences are on northern and western aspects on gentle lower slopes adjacent to or near small streams which is analogous with several sites in East Gippsland. The underlying geology is leucocratic granite and the rainfall is between 760-890 mm per year. The soil (investigated at only one site in North East Victoria) was a pale yellowish brown in colour with a texture of clayey sand with quartz grains being prominent in the A horizon, becoming more compact in the B horizon and changing to a distinct white colour. The soils appear to have a water impeding capacity which often leads to the soil profile being sodden in winter and spring, however the soils appear to dry out quickly over summer. This is consistent with sites supporting this EVC in East Gippsland.

Dry forest tree species often invade over long dry periods, only to die or die back during wet phases. Trees when present are stunted and commonly less than 20 m in height. The presence of species from both dry and moist environments may be a product of these soil characteristics which cause individual patches to have fluctuating boundaries associated with climatic fluctuations.

The overstorey consists of the ubiquitous eucalypts from the surrounding dry forests including Broad-leaved Peppermint Eucalyptus dives, Red Stringybark E. marcorhyncha ssp. macrorhyncha and Brittle Gum E. mannifera. The structure of Clay Heathland is characterised by a dense shrub stratum consisting of Prickly Tea-Tree Leptospermum continentale and Silver Banksia Banksia marginata. Species more typical of the dry surrounding forest occur as a result of the small patch size such as Small-leaf Parrot-pea Dillwynia phylicoides and Heathy Bush-pea Pultenaea procumbens.

Some of the forbs, grasses and small shrubs are also present in the surrounding vegetation and include Narrow Groundsel Senecio tenuiflorus, Grass Trigger Plant Stylidium graminifolium, Pink-bells Tetratheca ciliata, Common Plume Grass Dichelachne rara, Velvet Wallaby-grass Danthonia pilosa var. paleacea, Slender Rice-flower Pimelea linifolia ssp. linifolia and Grey Tussock-grass Poa sieberiana var. sieberiana. These species can tolerate seasonally wet soils, however there are a suite of species which are not common in the surrounding vegetation which prosper on wet soils, but can tolerate dry conditions over summer. These species include Dwarf Boronia Boronia nana var. hyssopifolia, Milkmaids Burchardia umbellata, Common Hedgehog-grass Echinopogon ovatus, Prickly Tea-tree Leptospermum continentale, Violet Kunzea Kunzea parvifolia, Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides, Common Bog-sedge Schoenus apogon, Kangaroo Grass Themeda␣ triandra and Showy Violet Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia. This flora combines to produce the characteristic composition and appearance of Clay Heathland.

Introduced species are generally low in cover and diversity, probably due to the seasonally water-logged soils and the dense cover of the shrub stratum. Track construction in the vicinity of this class may have a detrimental effect by altering the drainage patterns influencing these sites.

Other Studies: Woodgate et al. (1994): Clay Heathland

Examples: Thologolong Track 0.5 km north and 1 km south of the junction with Houstons Track in the Mt Lawson State Park. 64 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Spring Soak Herbland

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Acacia genistifolia 100 + Dillwynia 100 + Lomandra 100 1 cinerascens filiformis ssp. fil Acacia implexa 100 1 *Dittrichia 100 + Lythrum 100 1 graveolens hyssopifolia Acacia pycnantha 100 + Drosera 100 + *Poa annua 100 + glanduligera Acacia verniciflua 100 1 Drosera peltata 100 1 *Romulea rosea 100 2 ssp. peltata var. australis *Aira 100 + Eragrostis 100 1 Siloxerus 100 1 caryophyllea brownii multiflorus * Anagallis 100 + Glossostigma 100 1 Schoenus apogon 100 2 arvensis elatinoides Aphelia gracilis 100 1 Gnaphalium 100 + Solenogyne 100 1 indutum dominii *Arctotheca 100 + Gonocarpus 100 + *Soliva sessilis 100 + calendula tetragynus Aristida ramosa 100 + Goodenia 100 2 Stipa scabra ssp. 100 + macbarronii falcata Astroloma 100 + Triptilodiscus 100 + Stipa scabra 100 + humifusum pygmaeus *Briza minor 100 1 Hydrocotyle 100 + Thelymitra 100 1 callicarpa pauciflora s.l. Cassinia arcuata 100 1 Hypericum 100 1 *Vellereophyton 100 + gramineum dealbatum Centrolepis 100 + Hypericum 100 1 *Vulpia 100 1 aristata japonicum bromoides Centrolepis 100 1 *Hypochoeris 100 1 Wahlenbergia 100 + strigosa ssp. stri glabra gracilis s.l. *Cicendia 100 + *Hypochoeris 100 1 Drosera peltata 100 1 filiformis ssp. fil. radicata *Cicendia 100 1 *Isolepis hystrix 100 1 Hypoxis vaginata 100 + quadrangularis *Crassula 100 + Isotoma fluviatilis 100 1 Hypoxis vaginata 100 + decumbens var. ssp. austr var. brevisti decumb *Cyperus tenellus 100 + *Juncus capitatus 100 1 Microtis spp. 100 1 Rytidosperma 100 1 Juncus planifolius 100 + *Trifolium spp. 100 + auriculatum Rytidosperma 100 + Juncus 100 1 setaceum remotiflorus Arthropodium 100 + Levenhookia 100 + strictum dubia

NUMBER OF SITES: 1 STRUCTURE: Herbland ALTITUDE: Mean = 202m, Highest = 202m, Lowest = 202m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 61 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 31% of species, 30% of cover Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 65

Spring Soak Herbland is rare and very localised in the study area. It is a seasonal wetland community dominated by indigenous herbaceous perennials. It is completely dependent on the continual availability of a reliable water supply and is threatened by changes to the hydrological regime, stock trampling and weed invasion. Intact and relatively weed-free stands are now rare and of regional significance (Cameron and Moorrees unpubl.).

Spring Soak Herbland is a herbland; however many other life forms such as sedges and rushes are common. The character species listed for this EVC are from a site which is outside the study area. The common herbaceous species include the vulnerable Narrow Goodenia Goodenia macbarronii which is characteristic of this EVC, Common Onion Grass *Romulea rosea, Square Cicienda *Cicienda quadrangularis, Pale Sundew Drosera peltata ssp. peltata, Small Mud-mat Glossostigma elatinoides, Swamp Isotome Isotoma fluviatilis, Small St. John’s Wort Hypericum gramineum, Matted St. John’s Wort H.␣ japonicum, Smooth Cat’s Ear *Hypochoeris glabra, Cat’s Ear *H.␣ radicata, Small Wrinklewort Rutidosus multiflora, and Solenogyne Solenogyne dominii. The common sedges include Common Bog-sedge Schoenus apogon, Awned Club-sedge Isolepis hystrix and Slender Aphelia Aphelia gracilis. Rushes are represented by common species such as Dwarf Rush *Juncus capitatus, and Juncus sp. sensu L. Johnson. Grasses are mostly weed species like Lesser Quaking-grass *Briza minor and Squirrel-tail Fescue *Vulpia bromoides.

Other Studies: Cameron and Moorrees (unpubl.); Muir et al. (1995): Spring Soak Herbland

Examples: Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park north of Mt Barambogie.

Foothills The Foothills form the lower slopes of the Great Divide in the southern half of the study area. Because the rainfall in this area is higher than elsewhere in the study area (1000-1400␣ mm) the importance of geology diminishes and aspect and rainfall become the driving factors for the distribution and composition of vegetation. As with the Low Hills landscape unit the geology is variable and includes Devonian and Silurian granites and granodiorites, Ordovician sediments, schists and gneisses, Carboniferous and Silurian sediments and Devonian acid volcanics. The topography is generally moderate to steep. Rivers flowing through this landscape unit only rarely develop small terraces because they are mostly flowing on too steep a gradient to do so. At the drier end of the rainfall range in areas such as that between Carboor, Edi and Myrrhee, the most exposed northern and western aspects carry Heathy Dry Forest, whilst the eastern aspects and broad ridges generally have Grassy Dry Forest and the southern aspects and deep gullies produce environments suitable for Herb-rich Foothill Forest. Under moderate rainfall regimes for this landscape unit, in areas like the ranges between Porepunkah and Tawonga, the northern and western aspects generally carry Shrubby Dry Forest, and the eastern aspects and shallow gullies have Herb-rich Foothill Forest. In this section of the landscape unit, in the deepest gullies and on the southern aspects Damp Forest will be found. Under the highest rainfall regimes such as in the East and West Kiewa valleys upstream of Mount Beauty, the northern and western aspects are clothed in Herb-rich Foothill Forest, while the eastern aspects carry Damp Forest especially where there is low insolation because of shading by surrounding high peaks. In these areas, the southern aspects and deepest gullies are optimal for the development of Wet Forest. Only the steepest sites and the tops of ridges have Shrubby Dry Forest present. 66 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Rocky Outcrop Shrubland/Herbland Mosaic

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Hypochoeris 100 1 Hypericum 87 1 Stypandra glauca 75 2 radicata gramineum Euchiton 87 + Calytrix 75 2 gymnocephalus s.s. tetragona Gonocarpus 87 1 Cheilanthes 75 1 tetragynus austrotenuifolia

NUMBER OF SITES: 8 STRUCTURE: Low Open Woodland to Low Shrubland ALTITUDE: Mean = 677m, Highest = 1040m, Lowest = 400m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 46 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 18% of species, 13% of cover

Rocky Outcrop Shrubland/Herbland Mosaic occurs mainly in the low to moderate elevations (␣ 400-1000 m ) in areas such as the northern Strathbogie Ranges, Mt Wombat, Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park, Mt Lawson State Park and Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park. The EVC occurs mostly on Devonian igneous substrates; primarily granites, but less commonly also on acid volcanics and rarely on the Carboniferous conglomerate on the escarpments of the Wabonga Plateau. The soils are generally skeletal and moisture availability is generally very low, except in the cracks between rock surfaces. Rainfall is generally less than 1000 mm per year. Most sites have between 50-90% exposed rocky substrate, which with the absorption of sunlight become extremely hot, particularly in summer.

The structural characteristics of the EVC are generally the presence of low shrubs, occasional eucalypts, a low ephemeral ground cover and high bryophyte cover. Introduced species form a significant component of this class, with 18% of species and 13% of cover.

Eucalypts may or may not be present. The most common eucalypt is Hill Red Gum Eucalyptus blakelyi. Any of the eucalypts from the surrounding dry forest can be present. In the Mt Pilot area, Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park and Mt Lawson State Park, Black Cypress-pine Callitris endlicheri can be an overstorey component. The shrub stratum is often dense, except in sites with higher cover of outcropping rock. The common species are Common Fringe-myrtle Calytrix tetragona, Shiny Cassinia Cassinia longifolia , Nodding Blue-lily Stypandra glauca and Varnish Wattle Acacia verniciflua. Daphne Heath Brachyloma daphnoides is an ubiquitous species of Rocky Outcrop Shrubland/Herbland Mosaic in Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park. The cover of ferns, forbs and grasses is generally low and the dominant species are Green Rock Fern Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia, Elegant Hair-grass *Aira elegans, Rock Isotome Isotoma axillaris, Common Centaury *Centaurium erythraea, Creeping Cudweed Euchiton gymnocephalus, Austral Cranesbill Geranium solanderi, Common Raspwort Gonocarpus tetragynus, Small St. John’s Wort Hypericum gramineum and Spoon Cudweed Stuartina muelleri. Tiny Daisy Brachyscome ptychocarpa and the Hairy Hop-bush Dodonaea boroniifolia are both rare species recorded in Rocky Outcrop Shrubland/Herbland Mosaic.

Other studies: LCC (1991); Woodgate et al. (1994): Rocky Outcrop Shrubland

Examples: Mt Wombat west of the Strathbogie Ranges. Southern section of Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park south of the Beechworth-Eldorado Road. Summit of Mt Lawson and numerous exposed upper slopes in the Burrowa-Pine Mountain National Park. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 67

Grassy Dry Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Hydrocotyle 100 1 *Centaurium 75 1 Acrotriche 57 + laxiflora erythraea serrulata *Hypochoeris 100 1 Gonocarpus 67 1 *Aira elegans 57 + radicata tetragynus Eucalyptus 92 2 Chionochloa 64 2 *Briza minor 57 + macrorhyncha pallida ssp. m Luzula 89 1 Microlaena 64 1 Cheilanthes 57 1 meridionalis var. stipoides var. stip austrotenuifolia flacc Hypericum 85 1 Poa sieberiana 64 2 Drosera peltata 57 + gramineum var. sieberiana ssp.auriculat Eucalyptus 82 1 *Briza maxima 60 + Lomandra 57 + goniocalyx/ filiformis ssp.coria nortonii Geranium 78 1 Euchiton 60 1 solanderi gymnocephalus s.s. Poranthera 78 1 Senecio 60 1 microphylla quadridentatus

NUMBER OF SITES: 28 STRUCTURE: Low to Medium Open Forest or Woodland ALTITUDE: Mean = 583m, Highest = 870m, Lowest = 375m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 55 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 15% of species, 12% of cover

Grassy Dry Forest is scattered throughout the North East in areas which receive moderate annual rainfall (700-1000 mm). Extensively cleared for agriculture, what remains of this EVC occurs mostly on lower slopes along the northern edge of the public land in close proximity to farmland. Much of this marginal farmland at the foot-slopes of the Divide was once Grassy Dry Forest. Although less fertile than the northern plains, these areas do have higher effective precipitation. In these localities Grassy Dry Forest usually occurs on the drier northern or western aspects with gentle slopes. On the adjacent steeper slopes and rocky hill tops Heathy Dry Forest develops. However, in areas of lower rainfall and poorer fertility, Heathy Dry Forest occupies the northern and western aspects and Grassy Dry Forest more commonly grows on the moister eastern or north-eastern aspects. Overall, Grassy Dry Forest occurs on a variety of gradients and altitudes ranging from 300 m on gently undulating terrain to 850 m mostly on steeper slopes. In the higher elevation areas, Grassy Dry Forest can also occur on broad gentle ridges, and occasionally on isolated knolls such as Mt Big Ben at 1000 m.

Grassy Dry Forest can occur on a range of geologies, provided the resultant soils are moderately fertile and well developed with good soil moisture-holding capacity. Geologies can be Ordovician mudstone and siltstone, Silurian metamorphics such as schist or gneiss with Devonian granite and rhyodacites also common. Soils tend to be gradational sandy to clay loams which are brown in colour with moderate organic content.

Grassy Dry Forest is a low to medium height forest, mostly 15 to 20 m, sometimes resembling a woodland, with a sparse to densely grassy ground layer. At the moister sites this vegetation has a 68 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East high diversity and cover of forbs and grasses. Shrub cover and diversity tends to be low. Close proximity to farmland and moderate fertility often result in the presence of weeds, averaging 15% of diversity and 12% of cover. The most common eucalypts in Grassy Dry Forest are Red Stringybark Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, Long-leaf Box/Silver Bundy E. goniocaly /nortonii and Broad-leaved Peppermint E. dives. Shrubs present may include Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata, Honey Pots Acrotriche serrulata, Common Hovea Hovea linearis, Grey Guinea-flower Hibbertia obtusifolia, Slender Rice-flower Pimelea linifolia ssp. linifolia and Cherry Ballart Exocarpus cupressiformis. The ground layer constitutes most of the species diversity for this EVC, with up to 60 species in this stratum. Common grasses include Silver-top Wallaby-grass Chionochloa pallida, Velvet Wallaby-grass Danthonia pilosa var. pilosa, Common Plume-grass Dichelachne rara, Common Wheat-grass Elymus scabrus, Grey Tussock-grass Poa sieberiana var. sieberiana, Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides, var. stipoides and weedy grasses such as Large Quaking-grass *Briza maxima, Elegant Hair-grass *Aira elegans, Yorkshire Fog *Holcus lanatus. Common herbaceous species include Stinking Pennywort Hydrocotyle laxiflora, Common Woodrush Luzula meridionalis var. flaccida, Small St. John’s Wort Hypericum gramineum, Austral Cranesbill Geranium solanderi, Small Poranthera Poranthera microphylla, Common Raspwort Gonocarpus tetragynus, Creeping Cudweed Euchiton gymnocephalus, Cotton Fireweed Senecio quadritentatus, Tall Sundew Drosera peltata ssp. auriculata and the ubiquitous weedy species Cat’s Ear *Hypochoeris radicata. One species, Southern Tick-trefoil Desmodium gunni occurs sporadically in Grassy Dry Forest but rarely in any other EVC in the study area. Other studies : LCC (1991): Dry Sclerophyll Forest Woodgate et al. (1994); Muir et al. (1995): Grassy Dry Forest

Examples: In the Gapsted area, along McGeehans Track between the transmission line and West End Track. Lake Nillahcootie area, on eastern slopes of the Strathbogie Ranges for the first kilometre of Nillahcootie Track. Big Ben State forest, Gap Flat Track between Gap Flat Road and Simpson Road. Shrubby Dry Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Eucalyptus dives 95 2 Poranthera 77 1 Persoonia 63 1 microphylla chamaepeuce Gonocarpus 95 1 Lomandra 77 1 Dianella revoluta 63 1 tetragynus longifolia ssp. var. revolut exili Platylobium 95 2 Eucalyptus 72 + Cassinia aculeata 59 + formosum mannifera Chionochloa 81 2 Hardenbergia 72 + Luzula 59 + pallida violacea meridionalis var. flacc Hibbertia 77 1 Stylidium 68 1 Dichelachne 59 + obtusifolia graminifolium sieberiana s.s. Hypochoeris 77 1 Acrotriche 63 + radicata serrulata

NUMBER OF SITES: 22 STRUCTURE: Low to Medium Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 884m, Highest = 1040m, Lowest = 550m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 40 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 4% of species, 2% of cover Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 69

This common and widespread EVC favours exposed aspects in the higher altitudes, generally from 550 - 1100 m. Medium to steep eastern, northern and western upper slopes commonly support Shrubby Dry Forest, as do ridge lines and near-ridge southern aspects that are marginally protected. Rainfall is frequently less than 1000 mm per annum, but the class can occur in areas which receive up to 1500 mm. However the effective rainfall on all sites is low as a result of the exposed aspects, shallow soils and often steep sites.

Shrubby Dry Forest exists on a range of geologies, predominantly Ordovician sediments, but Ordovician metamorphic schists and Devonian-Silurian igneous materials are also common. Resultant soils range from brown to dark brown sandy loams to clay loams, often rocky and usually quite shallow.

The height of the overstorey varies greatly, from 8 to 40 m, though 20-25 m is the most common. Compared to other dry forest EVCs, the trees in Shrubby Dry Forest have a good form. The understorey consists of a moderately dense shrub layer up to 2 m and a very sparse ground layer of drought-tolerant grasses, herbs and lilies. It is characteristically a non-weedy vegetation class because of its generally remote occurrence and moderate to low environmental site quality.

The dominant overstorey trees are Broad-leaved Peppermint Eucalyptus dives and Brittle Gum E.␣ mannifera. Red Stringybark E. marcorhyncha ssp. macrorhyncha is a more common component in the driest sites, and Mountain Gum E. dalrympleana ssp. dalrympleana occurs at the higher altitudes near the boundary of this EVC with Montane Dry Woodland.

The shrubby understorey commonly comprises Dwarf Geebung Persoonia chamaepeuce, Rough Coprosma Coprosma hirtella, Slender Rice-flower Pimelea linifolia ssp. linifolia, Common Cassinia Cassinia aculeata, Handsome Flat-pea Platylobium formosum, Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata and Gorse Bitter-pea Daviesia ulicifolia. Hop Bitter-Pea D. latifolia can be dominant as a result of frequent burning. Low shrubs such as Heath Pink-bells Tetratheca bauerifolia, Pink-bells T. and Grey Guinea-flower Hibbertia obtusifolia are also frequently present. Two shrubs, Heath Milkwort Comosperma ericinum and Rough Star-hair Astrotricha asperifolia occur sporadically in Shrubby Dry Forest, but rarely in any other EVC in the study area.

If burnt very frequently, or left unburnt for long periods, the ground layer may have Silvertop Wallaby-grass Chionochloa pallida as the dominant species. Other grasses include Common Plume-grass Dichelachne rara, Plume-grass D. sieberiana s.s., and the rare grass Soft Ledge-grass Poa hothamensis var parviflora. The drought and fire-tolerant mat-rushes, sedges and lilies present can include Wattle Mat-rush Lomandra filiformis ssp. filiformis, Cluster-headed Mat-Rush L. longifolia ssp. exilis, Black-anther Flax-lily Dianella revoluta var. revoluta and Common Woodrush Luzula meridionalis var. flaccida. Though not present in large numbers the consistently represented forbs include Common Raspwort Gonocarpus tetragynus, Creeping Cudweed Euchiton gymnocephalus, Small Poranthera Poranthera microphylla and Stinking Pennywort Hydrocotyle laxiflora. The Purple Coral-pea Hardenbergia violacea and Grass Trigger-plant Stylidium graminifolium are also common.

In the altitudinal sequence of North East Victoria, Shrubby Dry Forest often grades into Heathy Dry Forest at lower elevations (approximately 500-600 m) and Montane Dry Woodland at montane elevations (approximately 1000 m). However, on very exposed aspects in montane situations (up to 1200 m) Shrubby Dry Forest can persist but can abruptly become Montane Dry Woodland with a slight decrease in insolation allowing snow to persist.

Other studies: LCC (1991): Montane Dry Woodland (in part); Woodgate et al. (1994): Shrubby Dry Forest 70 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Examples : On Log Bridge Spur Track 1 km north of the junction with WabbaTrack. Scotchman Creek Track 3.5 km north of Buffalo Range Track. Big Hill Fire Track 2.0 km north of Big Hill Tower.

Heathy Dry Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Gonocarpus 100 1 Hydrocotyle 72 1 Thelymitra spp. 68 + tetragynus laxiflora Eucalyptus 95 2 Senecio tenuiflorus 72 1 *Briza maxima 59 + macrorhyncha ssp. m Hibbertia 86 1 Brachyloma 68 1 Dillwynia 59 1 obtusifolia daphnoides phylicoides Hypochoeris 81 1 Grevillea alpina 68 1 Hypericum 59 + radicata gramineum Chionochloa 77 2 Hardenbergia 68 + pallida violacea Hovea linearis 77 1 Poa sieberiana 68 2 var.sieberiana

NUMBER OF SITES: 22 STRUCTURE: Low to Medium Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 407m, Highest = 680m, Lowest = 190m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 45 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 8% of species, 5% of cover

This EVC is widespread and common throughout most of the study area, particularly from low to moderate elevations (200-1000 m) on exposed northern and western slopes and ridge tops. The free-draining soils are derived from Ordovician sediments, Devonian granitoids and Rhyolite. The nutrient levels of these soils are low due to their generally sandy texture and low levels of organic matter. Rainfall is generally less than 1000 mm per annum. In higher rainfall areas, Heathy Dry Forest grows on sites that have a low effective rainfall.

The overstorey is characteristically low (mostly 15-20 m), but can reach 30 m on exceptional sites with higher rainfall. The overstorey mostly consists of Red Stringybark Eucalyptus marcorhyncha ssp. macrorhyncha and Long-leaf Box/Silver Bundy E. goniocalyx/nortonii. These ubiquitous species combine with Broad-leaved Peppermint E. dives in some situations and with Red Box E. polyanthemos in higher environmental site quality locations, grading into Grassy Dry Forest on less exposed aspects.

The shrub layer is the most characteristic and dominant stratum which gives Heathy Dry Forest its name. Ericoid and small-leaved shrubs, often of low stature (rarely exceeding 0.5 m) include Small-leaf Parrot-pea Dillwynia phylicoides and Daphne Heath Brachyloma daphnoides. Less common species are Silky Guinea-flower Hibbertia sericea, Common Wedge-pea Gompholobium huegelii, Austral Grass-tree Xanthorrhoea australis, Heathy Bush-pea Pultenaea procumbens and Urn Heath Melichrus urceolatus. The Cat’s Claws Grevillea Grevillea alpina and Hairy Geebung Persoonia rigida are common, with Grey Bush-pea Pultenaea cunninghamii dominant in the Whitfield-Buffalo River area, mainly on acid volcanics. Other geology types include Lower Carboniferous and Ordovician sediments. There are a few species which sporadically occur in Heathy Dry Forest which do not generally inhabit other EVCs in the study area. These species are Thin-leaf Wattle Acacia aculeatissma, Ploughshare Wattle A. gunnii and Hairy Plume-grass Dichelacne hirtella. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 71

There are few grasses or forbs in this EVC, although Silvertop Wallaby-grass Chionochloa pallida is usually present. Herbs present are drought-tolerant. Ground layer species commonly include Black-anther Flax-lily Dianella revoluta var. revoluta, Large Quaking-grass *Briza maxima, Common Hovea Hovea linearis, Variable Stinkweed Opercularia varia, Stinking Pennywort Hydrocotyle laxiflora, Many-flowered Mat-rush Lomandra multiflora, Narrow Groundsel Senecio tenuiflorus and Grass Trigger-plant Stylidium graminifolium. Weeds are generally not a major component of this EVC. However, due to edge effects, sites near disturbed land can have a significant presence of weeds.

Many observations throughout the study area have indicated the critical importance of fire regimes in maintaining the shrub component of Heathy Dry Forest. A single fire at the wrong stage in the reproductive cycle of species in Proteaceae (particularly in the Genus Grevillea), can completely remove that species from a site. On granitic geologies repeated burning was observed to have produced a quantum shift in the floristics from Heathy Dry Forest to Grassy Dry Forest as the fire-sensitive shrub species (Monotoca, Brachyloma, Grevillea, Persoonia, Banksia, Gompholobium and Dillwynia) were eliminated and a diverse range of grasses and forbs established. This is particularly evident in the Mt Pilot Multi-Purpose Park, where Heathy Dry Forest appears to be in severe decline in favour of Grassy Dry Forest as the result of past burning. Similarly, frequent burning in Heathy Dry Forest on sedimentary or acid volcanic (rhyodacite) geology appeared to lead to a loss in species from these genera as well. However, in contrast to those sites on granitic geologies, these sites did not develop a diverse array of grasses and forbs, but were often only dominated by Silvertop Wallaby-grass Chionochloa pallida. This floristic entity is described separately below.

Other Studies: LCC (1991); Woodgate et al. (1994); Muir et al. (1995):Heathy Dry Forest

Examples: Rose River Road 5 km north of the junction with the Upper Rose River Road. Lighting Ridge Track 1 km north of the junction with Pearce Road in the Strathbogie Ranges. Schulz Road 2 km south of O’Dea Road junction near Tatong. Granite Creek Road 1 km south of Mt Stanley Road.

The second floristic entity was encountered over substantial areas but in only four locations in the north and west of the study area and was generally not on granitic geology. Structurally this entity is a low open forest with a sparse shrub cover, the outstanding feature of which is the dominance of Silvertop Wallaby-grass Chionochloa pallida. Large tussocks of Silver-top Wallaby-grass can crowd out most other ground layer species, often having a cover-abundance of over 50%. Consequently this entity is very species poor.

Aspects seem to vary for this form of Heathy Dry Forest, but most are exposed, north eastern to western slopes. Slopes range from gentle to steep, with most sites on a gentle gradient. Altitude varies from 220 m to 680 m. Soils tend to have a high component of sand or rock with low to moderate nutrient status and poor moisture-holding ability.

Characteristic eucalypts are always dry forest species, namely Red Stringybark Eucalyptus marcorhyncha ssp. macrorhyncha, Long Leaved Box/Silver Bundy E. goniocalyx/nortonii, Broad-leaved Peppermint E.␣ dives and Brittle Gum E. mannifera. Shrub species, if present, can include Grey Guinea-flower Hibbertia obtusifolia, Common Hovea Hovea linearis, Trailing Ground-berry Acrotriche prostrata, Narrow-leaf Bitter-pea Daviesia leptophylla and Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata. Other species which may occur are Spiny-headed Mat-rush Lomandra longifolia, Grassland Daisy Brachysome angustifolia, Nodding Blue-lily Stypandra glauca and Long-hair Plume-grass Dichelachne crinita. Weedy species have a low cover and diversity. 72 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Other Studies: Not previously described. Examples: Unnamed track on western slopes of Byrne Gully (a tributary of Reedy Creek) 7km WNW of Beechworth. On north edge of the southern section of Mt Granya State Park 5 km west along Jarvis Creek Road from the Talgarno-Old Tallangatta Road.

Herb-rich Foothill Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Acaena novae- 95 2 Senecio tenuiflorus 65 + *Cirsium vulgare 44 + zelandiae Pteridium 91 2 Coprosma 63 1 Danthonia 43 + esculentum quadrifida penicillata Viola hederacea 89 1 Coprosma hirtella 60 + Hydrocotyle 43 1 laxiflora *Hypochoeris 82 1 Dianella 59 + Oxalis spp. 43 + radicata tasmanica Microlaena 81 2 Dichondra repens 59 1 Galium migrans 42 + stipoides var.stip Acacia dealbata 76 1 Elymus scabrus 56 + Lomatia fraseri 42 1 Stellaria pungens 76 1 Geranium 56 + Carex breviculmis 39 + solanderi Luzula 75 1 Gonocarpus 56 + Olearia erubescens 39 + meridionalis var. tetragynus flacc Cassinia aculeata 72 1 Poranthera 56 + Viola betonicifolia 39 + microphylla ssp. beton Lagenifera 72 1 Hypericum 53 + Acacia 37 + stipitata gramineum melanoxylon Tetratheca ciliata 71 1 Echinopogon 52 1 Epilobium 37 + ovatus billardierianum ssp. Asperula scoparia 68 1 *Centaurium 50 + Geranium 36 + erythraea potentilloides Glycine 68 1 Eucalyptus 50 2 Lomandra 36 + clandestina radiata s.l. longifolia ssp. exili Platylobium 68 1 Polystichum 50 1 Acrotriche 34 + formosum proliferum serrulata Euchiton 66 1 Cymbonotus 49 + Ajuga australis 34 + gymnocephalus s.s. preissianus Rubus parvifolius 66 1 Stylidium 49 + Hydrocotyle hirta 34 + graminifolium Clematis aristata 65 + Poa sieberiana 49 1 Carex spp. 34 + var. sieberiana

NUMBER OF SITES: 69 STRUCTURE: Medium Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 770m, Highest = 1180m, Lowest = 300m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 54 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 8% of species, 5% of cover Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 73

Herb-rich Foothill Forest is widespread and common throughout the study area except at the lowest elevations (200-300m) and at higher elevations (>1200 m). The EVC grows mostly on sheltered aspects, and the occurrences on exposed sites are generally on lower slopes which afford sufficient protection, through afternoon shading by surrounding hills, or persistent high humidity such as along river or creek valleys. There are extensive areas of this EVC on plateau landforms such as in the Strathbogie Ranges, Whitfield and Freeburgh districts where higher rainfall and persistent cloud cover replaces the need for topographic protection. The rainfall is wide ranging from 760-1600 mm per annum. Under the lowest rainfall regimes this EVC is entirely restricted to gullies and valley sides with southern or eastern aspects. This EVC exists on an extremely wide range of geological types which include outwash alluviums, Ordovician sandstones and metamorphics, Devonian and Silurian granitoids and Cambrian greenstone/diabase. It appears aspect and moisture availability are the primary environmental determinants for this EVC. The consequent soil types vary from sandy loams to medium clays. On the drier sites, tree height is 20-25 m and on the moister sites is commonly 40-50 m. The structure is an open forest with a sparse to very dense shrub layer and commonly high cover of herbs in the ground layer. Austral Bracken Pteridium esculentum may tend to dominate following frequent disturbance, particularly by fire. The diversity is moderate to high with mean floristic richness being 54 species per site (higher elevation sites have lower diversity). The most common overstorey species are Narrow-leaf Peppermint Eucalyptus radiata s.l. and less commonly Eurabbie E. globulus ssp. bicostata, often on granitic geology; Mountain Gum E.␣ dalrympleana ssp. dalrympleana, more prominent at higher altitudes; and Broad-leaved Peppermint E. dives at drier localities. The shrub layer consists of sparse to dense Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata, Common Cassinia Cassinia aculeata, Prickly Currant-bush Coprosma quadrifida and Tree Lomatia Lomatia fraseri, prominent in the moist sites; while Handsome Flat-pea Platylobium formosum, and Pink-bells Tetratheca ciliata are more abundant in the drier examples of Herb-rich Foothill Forest.

The forbs and grasses are the most distinctive floristic and structural indicator for Herb-rich Foothill Forest because of their generally high cover and diversity. Common species are Bidgee-widgee Acaena novae-zelandiae, Ivy-leaf Violet Viola hederacea, Prickly Woodruff Asperula scoparia, Kidney-weed Dichondra repens, Austral Bear’s-ears Cymbonotus preissianus, Common Lagenifera Lagenifera stipitata, Common Woodrush Luzula meridionalis var. flaccida and the Tasman Flax-lily Dianella tasmanica.

Grasses are the other conspicuous life form, the most common species being Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides, Common Wheat-grass Elymus scabrus, Common Hedgehog-grass Echinopogon ovatus and Grey Tussock-grass Poa sieberiana var. sieberiana. Austral Bracken occurs in almost all sampling sites and Mother Shield-fern Polystichum proliferum is often present in moist sites. Climbers are represented by Twining Glycine Glycine clandestina and Mountain Clematis Clematis aristata, particularly in moist sites with a moderate to dense shrub layer. The rare species Soft Ledge-grass Poa hothamensis var. parviflora appears to be largely restricted to Herb-rich Foothill Forest.

This vegetation can be adversely affected by disturbances, which lead to weed invasion, the most serious weed species being Blackberry *Rubus fruticosus spp. agg..

Other studies : LCC (1991): Herb-rich Foothill Forest; Woodgate et al. (1994): Herb-rich Forest (in part).

Examples : Rose River Road 7 km north of the crossing of the Rose River. Mt Burrowa Track 5 km north of the intersection with Black Mountain Track. Granite Creek Track 1 km north of Mt Stanley Road. 74 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Damp Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Acacia dealbata 75 1 Luzula 100 1 Pteridium 100 1 meridionalis var. esculentum flacc Clematis aristata 87 1 Microlaena 75 1 Viola hederacea 100 1 stipoides var. stip Coprosma 100 2 Olearia 100 3 quadrifida argophylla Hydrocotyle hirta 75 1 Polystichum 75 1 proliferum

NUMBER OF SITES: 8 STRUCTURE: Medium to Tall Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 731m, Highest = 860m, Lowest = 580m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 41 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 4% of species, 2% of cover

Damp Forest is widespread, but not common in the study area. It grows in gullies or on sheltered southern and south eastern slopes and is often restricted and localised in extent, except in the highest rainfall areas. The elevation range is from 600-1000 m and the rainfall ranges from 900-1600 mm per annum. The parent geologies are wide ranging and include Devonian and Silurian igneous rocks, Ordovician metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, and Cambrian, Lower Carboniferous and upper Devonian sediments.

The soils are generally deep loams with medium to high levels of humus which are colluvially formed and are well structured. Moisture availability is generally good due to the high rainfall and the development of good peds in the regolith. The height of the overstorey varies from 30-50 m. Damp Forest is characterised by a moderate to dense broad-leaved shrub layer, the tree stratum consisting of species from moist environments and the ground layer normally mostly ferns with grasses and herbs being a minor component.

The overstorey is mostly represented by Messmate Eucalyptus obliqua, Narrow-leaf Peppermint E.␣ radiata s.l. and Eurabbie E. globulus ssp. bicostata. There is consistently a medium to tall shrub layer of Musk Daisy-bush Olearia argophylla, Hazel Pomaderris Pomaderris aspera, Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon and Blanket Leaf Bedfordia arborescens. The most common species of the ground layer consists of ferns with Common Ground-fern Calochlaena dubia, Fishbone Water-fern Blechnum nudum and Austral Bracken Pteridium esculentum being common. Some herbs and grasses are usually present, at low level of abundance, and include Ivy-leaf Violet Viola hederacea, Kidney-weed Dichondra repens, Cinquefoil Cranesbill Geranium potentilloides, Common Woodrush Luzula meridionalis var. flaccida and Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides.

Other studies: LCC (1991): Damp Sclerophyll Forest; Woodgate et al. (1994): Damp Forest.

Examples: Gully on Barjarg Road 0.3 km south of Lighting Ridge Track near Mt Strathbogie. Mountain Creek Road north of Mountain Creek. Eskdale Spur Track 8 km north of Mt Tawonga. In the catchment of Surveyors Creek north east of Mt Pinnibar. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 75

Wet Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Dicksonia 100 4 Polystichum 90 2 Blechnum nudum 72 1 antarctica proliferum Acacia 90 1 Sambucus 90 + Pomaderris 72 1 melanoxylon gaudichaudiana aspera Coprosma 90 1 Australina 81 1 Rubus parvifolius 72 1 quadrifida pusilla ssp. muelle Olearia 90 2 Urtica incisa 81 1 argophylla

NUMBER OF SITES: 11 STRUCTURE: Tall Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 893m, Highest = 1070m, Lowest = 730m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 30 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 2% of species, 1% of cover

This EVC is relatively uncommon and occurs at moderate elevations (500-1300␣ m). It is characterised by a tall eucalypt overstorey, scattered understorey trees, a tall broad-leaved shrubby understorey and a fern-rich ground layer that is usually dominated by a dense layer of tree-ferns. It is largely restricted to protected sites in gullies and on southern aspects. Rainfall is high, ranging from 1200-1800 mm per year. The parent geologies are variable, the common types being Ordovician sediments, followed by Silurian metamorphic and igneous rocks, Devonian igneous and Lower Carboniferous sediments.

Soils are deep gradational clay or sandy clay loams rich in humus. Moisture availability is high due to the high rainfall and moisture retaining ability of the humus and litter layer component of the soils. Trees are generally very tall when present, often surrounding or overhanging from an adjacent EVC. Within Wet Forest, there are very localised occurrences of Cool Temperate Rainforest species such as Southern Sassafras Atherosperma moschatum, which rarely coalesce to form patches with a continuous canopy.

The overstorey of Wet Forest is the tallest of any EVC in the study area and may attain heights of 70 m. The dominant overstorey species are Alpine Ash Eucalyptus delegatensis and Mountain Gum E. dalrympleana ssp. dalrympleana with Manna Gum E. viminalis and Narrow-leaf Peppermint E.␣ radiata␣ s.l. occurring less frequently. There is usually an understorey of small trees such as Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata and Blackwood A. melanoxylon. The tall shrub layer is dominated by Austral Mulberry Hedycarya angustifolia, Musk Daisy-bush Olearia argophylla, Hazel Pomaderris Pomaderris aspera and Blanket-leaf Bedfordia arborescens. Beneath these there is nearly always a dense layer of Soft Tree-fern Dicksonia antarctica.

The groundlayer is dominated by ferns, with Fishbone Water-fern Blechnum nudum, Mother Shield-fern, Polystichum proliferum, Mother Spleenwort Asplenium bulbiferum, Bat’s Wing-fern Histiopteris incisa and Hard Water-fern Blechnum wattsii the most usual. There may be a scattering of herbs where light can penetrate to the forest floor. The common forbs include Ivy-leaf Violet Viola hederacea, Shade Nettle Australina muelleri, White Elderberry Sambucus gaudichaudiana and Forest Starwort Stellaria flaccida. The species described thus far are common in undisturbed forests. After disturbance a thick profusion of pioneer species clothe the groundlayer. These species grow and reproduce quickly, then largely die out. Such species include the shrubs Common Cassinia Cassinia aculeata, Victorian Christmas-bush 76 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Prostanthera lasianthos, the forbs Golden Everlasting Bracteantha bracteata, Fireweed Groundsel Senecio linearifolius and Raspwort Gonocarpus sp.. Blackberry *Rubus fruticosus spp. agg. can be a serious weed in disturbed areas.

Other Studies: LCC (1991): Wet Sclerophyll Forest; Woodgate et al. (1994): Wet Forest

Examples: Bogong Creek and tributaries along the East Kiewa Fire Track. Tributaries of Shady Creek south of Mt Pinnibar Hut. East branch of Buffalo River 3 km east of Buffalo River Road.

Montane The montane landscape zone occurs between 1000-1200 m elevation. The distribution of vegetation is primarily mediated by aspect (as for the Foothills) and low temperatures during winter and regular short periods of snowfall. On exposed northern and western aspects, the dominant vegetation is Montane Dry Woodland, whilst on the more sheltered southern and eastern aspects (especially in gullies) Montane Damp Forest is characteristic. Examples of this pattern are evident on the ranges between Tawonga and Mitta Mitta. Where montane elevations straddle gently undulating plateaus that have streams with a low gradient and wet sodden soils, Montane Riparian Woodland becomes the dominant riverine vegetation type. Extensive examples can be seen on the montane plateau between Nariel and Dartmouth to the north east of the Dartmouth Dam.

Montane Dry Woodland

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Coprosma hirtella 84 1 Stellaria pungens 73 1 Acacia dealbata 65 + Platylobium 84 1 Stylidium 73 1 Cassinia aculeata 61 + formosum graminifolium Olearia 76 1 Asperula scoparia 69 1 Eucalyptus 57 2 erubescens delegatensis s d Eucalyptus 73 + Daviesia latifolia 69 2 Lomandra + dalrympleana longifolia ssp. exil ssp. d Gonocarpus 73 1 Viola betonicifolia 69 1 tetragynus ssp. beton

NUMBER OF SITES: 26 STRUCTURE: Medium Open Woodland to Medium Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 1156m, Highest = 1320m, Lowest = 920m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 36 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 3% of species, 1% of cover Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 77

Montane Dry Woodland occurs on dry and exposed mid to upper slopes at montane elevations (>1000␣ m), often extending onto the ridges. In the highly dissected terrain where Shrubby Dry Forest can exist at marginal montane levels on warm aspects where snow does not persist, Montane Dry Woodland develops on the adjacent slightly colder aspects where snow can remain for substantial periods. Influences from surrounding topography, particularly cloud and cold air drainage, can also be significant in terms of the amount of snow fall and its persistence. Generally, Montane Dry Woodland is widespread and common in the southern or highland part of the study area, up to 1350 m altitude. Precipitation is generally around 1000 mm, but reaching up to 1500 mm at Mt Buffalo and 2000 mm at Mt Bogong. Much of this precipitation outside the summer months falls as snow. Geologies are predominantly Ordovician sediments, although there are also areas of Devonian igneous materials and Silurian metamorphics. Soils range from brown sandy loams to loamy clays, often tending to be shallow and rocky but sometimes better developed.

Montane Dry Woodland has a variable structure, from an open woodland to an open forest with a denser shrub stratum. The overstorey structure may be a result of past disturbance such as frequent burning which can increase tree density in this EVC (Woodgate et. al. 1994), or the structure may be site specific. Trees can attain heights of 40-45 metres, although generally less, in sheltered positions. The weed abundance is low, averaging 3% of species and 1% of cover. Species diversity is also low for this study area, with a mean diversity of 36 species per site.

Broad-leaved Peppermint Eucalyptus dives and Mountain Gum E. dalrympleana ssp. dalrympleana are common overstorey trees at the lower elevations within this class, whilst Alpine Ash E. delegatensis ssp. delegatensis is usual at higher altitudes or simply on more protected sites affording greater moisture availability. It is not uncommon for Snow Gum E. pauciflora to be present in the overstorey on sites which are particularly cold and exposed, mostly towards the upper limit of the elevation range.

The understorey is an unusual combination of species which tolerate exposed montane conditions and species which enjoy the increased moisture available from cloud and fog drip. The generally shrubby understorey may have combinations of Hop Bitter-pea Daviesia latifolia, Rough Coprosma Coprosma hirtella, Moth Daisy-bush Olearia erubescens, Mountain Hickory Wattle Acacia obliquinervia, Tree Lomatia Lomatia fraseri, Common Cassinia Cassinia aculeata, Elderberry Panax Polyscias sambucifolia, Mountain Pepper Tasmannia lanceolata, Alpine Oxylobium Oxylobium alpestre and Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata. If frequently burnt, Austral Bracken Pteridium esculentum and Hop Bitter-pea can dominate. The ground layer is rarely high in grass and forb cover; however some of the more typical grass species are Sword Tussock-grass Poa ensiformis, Tasman Bent-grass Deyeuxia rodwayi, Mountain Bent-grass Deyeuxia monticola, Common Wheat-grass Elymus scabrus and various Wallaby-grasses Danthonia spp. and Tussock grasses Poa spp.. Herbaceous species include Grass Trigger-plant Stylidium graminifolium, Showy Violet Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia, Narrow Groundsel Senecio tenuiflorus, Prickly Woodruff Asperula scoparia, Derwent Speedwell Derwentia derwentiana, Prickly Starwort Stellaria pungens, Australian Caraway Oreomyrrhis eriopoda and Mountain Cotula Leptinella filicula. The Tasman Flax-lily Dianella tasmanica is often present.

Other studies: LCC (1991); Woodgate et al. (1994): Montane Dry Woodland

Examples: North face of Mt Bogong-Trappers Gap Track between Mountain Creek Road and Granite Flat Spur. Omeo Highway between Wombat Creek and Razorback Track (aspect driven with Montane Damp Forest). 78 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Montane Damp Forest

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Eucalyptus 100 3 Olearia 76 1 Poa ensiformis 47 2 delegatensis ssp. d phlogopappa var.phlog. Dianella 97 1 Senecio 65 1 Lomatia fraseri 45 1 tasmanica linearifolius Coprosma 95 1 Geranium 63 1 Ranunculus 45 + hirtella potentilloides plebeius/scapi Polystichum 91 2 Asperula 60 1 Wahlenbergia 45 + proliferum euryphylla gloriosa Derwentia 89 2 Lagenifera 58 1 Stackhousia 43 + derwentiana stipitata monogyna Rubus parvifolius 86 2 Olearia 58 1 Leptinella filicula 41 + phlogopappa var. phlog Acaena novae- 84 1 Pteridium 56 1 *Hypochoeris 41 + zelandiae esculentum radicata Viola betonicifolia 84 1 Daviesia latifolia 54 1 Pimelea axiflora 41 + ssp. beton Stellaria pungens 82 1 *Picris 54 + Acacia dealbata 39 2 hieracioides spp. agg. Clematis aristata 80 1 Poa hothamensis 52 2 Elymus scabrus 39 + Polyscias 80 1 Viola hederacea 52 + Helichrysum 39 1 sambucifolia rutidolepis s.

NUMBER OF SITES: 46 STRUCTURE: Medium to Tall Open Forest ALTITUDE: Mean = 1193m, Highest = 1480m, Lowest = 910m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 36 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 4% of species, 1% of cover

Montane Damp Forest is widespread and common in the moderate to high elevation (900-1500 m) forests of the southern half of the study area. Rainfall is as low as 1000 mm, increasing to 2000 mm per year. Montane Damp Forest is most common on sheltered south-western, southern and south-eastern slopes and in gully heads. It can also develop on small montane plateaus. In these localities cold air drainage has not had a chance to pool and depress minimum temperatures for substantial periods, so that periods of low temperature are only associated with late autumn, winter and early spring. Montane Damp Forest grows on a wide range of parent geologies including Ordovician sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, Devonian Silurian igneous rocks, and Silurian and Lower Carboniferous sediments. The soils are generally deep friable well-drained loams. Moisture availability is high due to the high rainfall. Trees are generally tall, mostly 30-45 m. The general appearance of this EVC is of a tall open forest with a varying shrub density and a normally dense ground layer of ferns, herbs and grasses.

The overstorey is dominated by Alpine Ash Eucalyptus delegatensis with Mountain Gum E.␣ dalrympleana ssp. dalrympleana and Broad-leaved Peppermint E. dives less common, occurring in the drier more exposed sites. Snow Gum E. pauciflora occurs on the areas exposed to coldest conditions at the Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 79 higher altitudinal limits for Montane Damp Forest. The understorey often has an understorey tree layer of Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata. There is usually a well developed shrub-layer of Rough Coprosma Coprosma hirtella, Dusty Daisy-bush Olearia phlogopappa var. phlogopappa, Elderberry Panax Polyscias sambucifolia and Tree Lomatia Lomatia fraseri. Hop Bitter-pea Daviesia latifolia is common, particularly in frequently burnt sites.

The ground layer is dominated by grasses, forbs and ferns. The common grasses are Ledge Grass Poa hothamensis, Sword Tussock-grass P. ensiformis and Tall Tussock-grass P. helmsii. Some of the common herbs include Bidgee-widgee Acaena nova-zelandiae, Showy Violet Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia, Ivy-leaf Violet V. hederacea, Prickly Starwort Stellaria pungens, Cinquefoil Cranesbill Geranium potentilloides, Broad-leaf Woodruff Asperula europhylla and Common Lagenifera Lagenifera stipitata. The most abundant fern is Mother Shield-fern Polystichum proliferum. The Tasman Flax-lily Dianella tasmanica is present at most sites. This EVC generally has a low cover and diversity of weeds, except in specific areas where some form of disturbance has occurred. A major weed threat to this EVC in the Bogong High Plains area is English Broom *Cytisus scoparius whose seed can be spread in the mud attached to the hooves of cattle which are grazed there during the warmer months of the year. The rare Velvety Geebung Persoonia subvelutina was recorded from Montane Damp Forest.

Other studies: LCC (1991); Woodgate et al. (1994): Montane Damp Forest

Examples: Possum Spur Track near Lake Guy. 0.5 km north west of Turnback Creek on the Bogong High Plains Tourist Road. 1 km west of Telephone Box Junction on the Stirling Ring Road. On the small montane plateau north of Mt Pinnibar and west of Mt Bobuck.

Montane Riparian Thicket

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Leptospermum 100 3 Carex appressa 84 2 Acaena novae- 69 1 grandifolium zelandiae Polystichum 92 2 Blechnum nudum 76 2 Dianella 69 + proliferum tasmanica Blechnum 84 2 Rubus parvifolius 76 1 Geranium 69 1 penna -marina potentilloides

NUMBER OF SITES: 13 STRUCTURE: Medium to Tall Closed Shrubland ALTITUDE: Mean = 1115m, Highest = 1520m, Lowest = 700m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 39 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 4% of species, 1% of cover

Montane Riparian Thicket is mostly found along the riparian zones of Montane Damp Forest. It is occasionally found within non-montane areas where cold air drainage mimics the climate of higher montane elevations. The restricted nature of habitat of this class means that it has a restricted occurrence within the study area. The soils are colluviums or alluviums and are generally silty to sandy clay loams with a high organic matter content, often resembling a peaty texture and are generally water-logged. This EVC reaches its best development on slow flowing streams with gentle gradients in broad valleys. Streams although small are generally permanent. The elevation range is from 500 m in cold air drainage sites to 1400 m, sometimes extending into Sub-alpine Woodland. Rainfall is in excess of 1000 mm per year. 80 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Montane Riparian Thicket characteristically has a thicket structure with a dense tall shrub layer which often significantly reduces the amount of light reaching ground level. The overstorey mostly consists of eucalypts from montane environments such as Alpine Ash Eucalyptus delegatensis and Mountain Gum E.␣ dalrympleana ssp. dalrympleana, however other species occur at lower levels. In such cases the most common lower elevation species are Narrow-leaf Peppermint E. radiata s.l. and Manna Gum E.␣ viminalis. The characteristic thicket species is Mountain Tea-tree Leptospermum grandifolium.

Under this is a sparse to dense layer of ferns, forbs and grasses. The common species include Fishbone Water-fern Blechnum nudum, Alpine Water-fern B. penna-marina, Mother Shield-fern Polystichum proliferum, Bidgee Widgee Acaena novae-zelandiae, Cinquefoil Cranesbill Geranium potentilloides, Forest Mint Mentha laxiflora, Small-leaf Bramble Rubus parviflorus, Tall Tussock-grass Poa helmsii and Ledge-grass P. hothamensis. The shrubs Dusty Daisy-bush Olearia phlogopappa var. phlogopappa and Mountain Pepper Tasmannia lanceolata are common. The Tall Sedge Carex appressa is frequently present.

Weeds are not generally a problem, however if disturbance has occurred in the catchment, weeds such as Blackberry *Rubus fruticosus spp. agg. can become established. Road construction often leads to weed invasion as a result of the disturbance to the dense shrub canopy which can normally limit the growth of most weed species.

Other studies: LCC (1991); Woodgate et al. (1994): Montane Riparian Thicket

Examples: North branch of the Howqua River. Surveyors Creek near the Murray River. Doughty Road 3.2 km north east of Mt Timbertop.

Sub-alpine There are extensive areas of the Sub-alpine landscape zone in the south of the study area. This landscape unit is generally characterised by gently rolling terrain (plateaus and plains) above 1200 m elevation with precipitation in excess of 1400␣ mm, a large proportion of which falls and remains as a persistent snow cover. The vegetation is characterised by extensive stands of Sub-alpine Woodland at altitudes up to 1400 m (and sometimes higher on sheltered aspects) and a range of grasslands, herblands and heaths (mapped as Sub-alpine Treeless Complex) at elevations of >1400 m. The most extensive example of these types of vegetation on the Sub-alpine landscape is on the Bogong High Plains.

Sub-alpine Woodland

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Eucalyptus 87 3 Dianella 62 1 Helichrysum 58 1 pauciflora tasmanica rutidolepis s.l. Viola betonicifolia 83 1 Oreomyrrhis 62 1 Poa hothamensis 58 2 ssp. beton eriopoda Oxylobium 70 2 Stellaria pungens 62 1 Stylidium 66 1 alpestre graminifolium Tasmannia 62 1 xerophila

NUMBER OF SITES: 24 STRUCTURE: Low to Medium Open Woodland ALTITUDE: Mean = 1521m, Highest = 1720m, Lowest = 980m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 27 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 5% of species, 2% of cover Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 81

Sub-alpine Woodland grows on a wide range of geologies within the study area and has been sampled at elevations ranging from 1300-1720 m above sea level. It is reasonably common in the high mountainous areas of the study area with Montane Damp Forest, Montane Dry Woodland and Treeless Sub-alpine Complex the most common nearby EVCs. Soil types are variable, but mostly free-draining skeletal sandy clay loams with a rich humus layer at or near the soil surface (although this may be reduced on exposed ridges and northern or western aspects).

Sub-alpine Woodland can occur equally on any aspect in the upper end of the altitudinal range, but is mainly restricted to the exposed western and northern aspects nearing its lower altitudinal limits. Annual precipitation is very high for the study area, ranging from 1200 mm east of Mt Pinnibar to around 2400 mm per year at Falls Creek Alpine Village. A large proportion of this precipitation falls as snow that persists for many months at a time. The average winter and summer temperatures are substantially lower than those in the rest of the study area.

The overstorey mostly consists of Snow Gum Eucalyptus pauciflora. At the lower end of the altitudinal range Alpine Ash E. delegatensis and Mountain Gum E. dalrympleana ssp. dalrympleana may have a minor presence.

The understorey varies from grass and forb-dominated with scattered shrubs to a dense shrub stratum. The understorey shrub species which commonly occur are Leafy Bossiaea Bossiaea foliosa, Dusty Daisy-bush Olearia phlogopappa var. phlogopappa, Alpine Oxylobium Oxylobium alpestre and Alpine Pepper Tasmannia xerophila. The ground-layer is rich, the most common species include Bidgee Widgee Acaena novae-zelandiae, Sheep Sorrel *Acetosella vulgaris, Mountain Woodruff Asperula gunnii, Tasman Flax-lily Dianella tasmanica, Pale Everlasting Helichrysum rutidolepis s.l., Australian Carraway Oreomyrrhis eriopoda, Prickly Starwort Stellaria pungens, Grass Trigger Plant Stylidium graminifolium, Showy Violet Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia and Royal Bluebell Wahlenbergia gloriosa.

Sub-alpine Woodland generally has a low open woodland structure except when frequently burnt. This may lead to altered species composition with Hop Bitter-pea Daviesia latifolia dominating in the lower altitudinal range in some areas. Cattle grazing has had detrimental effects such as weed introduction, trampling of delicate vegetation particularly in creek lines and reducing the cover and abundance of herbs in heavily grazed areas such as on the Bogong High Plains.

Other studies: LCC (1991); Woodgate et al. (1994): Sub-alpine Woodland

Examples: Along the Bogong High Plains Tourist Road 1 km north west of Falls Creek Alpine Village and 3 km west of Trapyard Gap. The Monument 4 km north east of Mt Stirling. The summit of Mt Pinnibar. 82 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Treeless Sub-alpine Complex

CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A CHARACTER %FRQ C/A SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES Carex 52 1 Ranunculus 40 + Asperula gunnii 35 + breviculmis graniticola Craspedia glauca 41 + *Acetosella 38 + spp. agg. vulgaris Poa fawcettiae 41 2 Stellaria pungens 36 +

NUMBER OF SITES: 95 STRUCTURE: Herblands, Grasslands and Shrublands ALTITUDE: Mean = 1539m, Highest = 1810m, Lowest = 130m MEAN FLORISTIC RICHNESS: 18 species per site MEAN WEED COMPOSITION: 5% of species, 3% of cover

This Mosaic is restricted to the cold air drainage sites at sub-alpine elevations (1200-1700 m) and the highest peaks and alpine plateaus of the study area where it is common but small in overall area. It consists of a number of floristic communities often closely associated with the alluvial flats and associated nearby slopes. The Mosaic also exists towards the summits of mountains over 1500-1830 m in height where the local exposure or poor drainage is too severe for Snow Gum Eucalyptus pauciflora to be present. The overall altitudinal range for the complex is from 1400-1986 m and the rainfall varies from 1500-2400 mm per year.

The EVCs within this complex were not mapped during the study, and more detailed information can be found in McDougall (1982a, 1982b, 1982c, 1984, 1985); and Walsh et al. (1983, 1984, 1986). Broadly, there is a range of dry and wet classes including open and closed heathlands and grasslands/ herblands, feldmark, fens and bogs. The geology is diverse and consists of Quaternary alluviums, Carboniferous, Silurian and Ordovician sediments, and Devonian igneous and Ordovician metamorphic rocks. There is a wide variety of soil types, ranging from coarse lithosols, through alpine humus soils to peats and snow patch soils (Gibbons and Rowan (1993)).

Research into plant succession suggests that certain sub-communities are possibly grazing and/or fire induced variants. The original character and distribution of the Kunzea heathlands have been significantly modified by grazing and fires. Some modification of the alpine vegetation has occurred as a result of clearing and/or revegetation of downhill ski-slopes (Flora of Victoria Vol. 1). Weeds can be prominent in disturbed sites, particularly the moist areas where cattle faeces introduce weeds from the lowlands. Sheep Sorrel *Acetosella vulgaris is widely spread and common in this mosaic.

Other studies: LCC (1991): (i) Dry Sub-alpine Shrubland (ii) Damp Sub-alpine Heathland (iii) Wet Sub-alpine Heathland Woodgate et al. (1994): Sub-alpine Treeless Complex

Examples: Bogong High Plains Tourist Road at turnoff to Cope Hut. The Bluff, Mt Lovick. Treeless valleys alongside the Mt Buffalo Tourist Road 1 km south west of Tatra Inn. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 83

APPENDIX TWO - FOREST DISTURBANCE

Introduction

Victoria’s North East embraces a large area of land bounded on the north by the Murray River, on the west by the Hume Freeway and on the south by the broad sweep of the Australian Alps. The region is characterised by different ecosystems which have shaped a unique human history. Geology, climate, topography and natural resources such as minerals and timber defined Aboriginal and European settlement and contributed to the emergence of a variety of land-use systems, ranging from Aboriginal ‘fire-stick’ farming to high country grazing, cereal cultivation and timber harvesting.

The Great Dividing Range marks the southern boundary of the study area. Here, a series of foothills and ridges culminate in a scattered belt of highland peaks. This alpine area, because of a vegetation cover of Snow Gum woodland with dense grass and herb understorey and treeless alpine herbfields, was subject to the seasonal migration of humans and livestock. Below the snow-line, heavily forested areas attracted miners in search of alluvial gold. The foothills, especially those to the west around Beechworth, Yackandandah and Bright, were auriferous and, from 1852, these townships sustained large mining populations. In the valleys of the region’s four major river systems - Kiewa, Mitta Mitta, Ovens, Broken - lies the best agricultural land. The Ovens River, and its three major tributaries, the Buckland, the Buffalo, and the King, support a variety of agricultural activities, including cereal production, dairying and market gardening. To the north and west lie the Riverine Plains, the flat eastern edge of the Murray River Basin. Here, poorer soils were more suitable for mixed farming and grazing.

In the following discussion of disturbances, units of measurement are cited from referenced sources, and have not been converted to metric.

Aboriginal occupation

Victoria’s North East is the traditional land of several Aboriginal tribes - the Minjambuta, Jaitmathang, Ngarigo, Taungarong, and Braiakaulung. Approximately 2 000 Aborigines occupied the alpine region prior to European invasion (Gardner 1992). These tribes lived most of the year in the valleys flanking the mountains, but during summer entered the alpine region to search for the Bogong Moth (Flood 1992). This small brown moth migrates each year from breeding grounds in Queensland and New South Wales to the high peaks of the Australian Alps. Roasted, the moths provided a rich, high protein diet which encouraged large numbers of Aborigines to gather in the Alps each summer.

This landscape bore the imprint of Aboriginal habitation. Timber and bark were used to make shelters, weapons and tools. Fire was used throughout the region to coax a more bountiful harvest from Nature. Fire encouraged regeneration, particularly of edible plant foods and exposed edible roots. It encouraged a ‘green pick’ to attract kangaroos and other herbivores and aided hunting by driving game from scrub and bracken. Fire cleared undergrowth to improve access and visibility and created areas of open, park-like country which, to European eyes, suggested natural pasture (Boutland 1988).

Some observers acknowledged that the Aborigines had shaped their environment. Edmond Curr, speaking of the ‘constant and extensive conflagrations’ caused by Aborigines, doubted ‘whether any section of the human race has exercised a greater influence on the physical condition of any large 84 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East portion of the globe than the wandering savages of Australia’ (Curr 1883). Major Thomas Mitchell, who passed through the region in 1836, thought: ‘the Australian woods probably contained as thick jungle as those of New Zealand or America instead of open forest’ (cited in Bolton 1992).

Nevertheless, the Aborigine trod softly upon the earth. Unlike the graziers who came into the North East after 1835, and adopted similar fire regimes, the Aborigines burned to select from indigenous flora. Their fires had to conform to the rhythm and flow of seasons. Fires also had to conform to certain geographic boundaries. In the alpine region, Aborigines burned grassland in the lower elevations favoured by kangaroos, but it is doubtful that the high country experienced systematic burning (Pyne 1991).

Grazing

Explorers passed through the North East in the 1820s and 1830s. In 1824, Hume and Hovell crossed the Murray River near Bonegilla, then travelled through the lower reaches of the Mitta Mitta and Kiewa Rivers. In 1835, George MacKillop explored the country between Monaro and Omeo, and in the following year Thomas Mitchell, returning from south-west Victoria, travelled through present-day Springhurst (Lennon 1992: 145).

Squatters followed the explorers into the North East. In 1835, William Wyse established the Mungarbareenah run, on the present site of Albury (Andrews 1920). Several weeks later, he crossed the Murray River and established Bonegilla at the junction of the Kiewa and Mitta Mitta Rivers. Wyse was not long without neighbours. Charles Huon formed the Wodonga run, south of the Murray River. John Jobbins established Talgarno, east of Huon’s run, at the junction of the Mitta Mitta and Murray Rivers (Andrews 1920).

Mitchell’s reports of rich pasture beyond the Murray River initiated a rush by land-hungry graziers. The route taken by these ‘overlanders’ followed a variation of Mitchell’s route known as the Major’s Line. Some, attracted by the grass, water and plentiful supply of unclaimed land, settled in the North East. Initially the valleys of the Kiewa and Mitta Mitta were favoured, but by 1838, the Ovens and King valleys were occupied and runs were established near Euroa, Benalla and Mansfield (McQuilton 1987). The rugged mountains of the Great Dividing Range halted the pastoral advance. James MacFarlane penetrated the sub-alpine woodlands around Cobberas-Tingaringy and established grazing runs on the lower reaches of the Mitta Mitta River (Holth 1992).

New arrivals during this period included James Wyse, brother of William, who established the Noorengong run in 1837 (Andrews 1920). In the following year, Joseph Docker settled at Bontherambo Plains. Another prominent figure, David Reid, selected land north of the Ovens River (Andrews 1916).

By 1840, over seventy runs had been established. Over the next three years drought and depression slowed the pastoral advance (McQuilton 1987). After 1843, good rains and rising wool prices prompted a further squatting rush. By 1847, squatters had claimed all but the most inaccessible land (Cabena 1980).

Rivers determined the pattern of European settlement. Squatters selected runs which promised a permanent supply of water for livestock (Duncan 1982). They followed the rivers and creeks until they found a suitable area of unclaimed land. Water also determined the location of the first townships - Wangaratta on the Ovens River, Wodonga on the Murray. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 85

Alpine grazing commenced in the North East in the aftermath of the bushfires of Black Thursday 1851. The fires denuded the countryside of grass, forcing many squatters, like George Gray, to search for forage for their cattle. With James Brown, John Wells and several others, Gray travelled via Lockhart’s Gap and the Gibbo Range and found good grassland at Cobungra. Stockmen, James Brown and John Wells, tended Gray’s stock and, while investigating a more direct route to Beechworth, discovered the Bogong and Cobungra plains. Gray acquired the first alpine grazing licence in June 1851 (Lennon 1992). Soon, other graziers penetrated the mountains, followed the main water courses and stocked the adjoining grassy flats.

Initially, alpine grazing was confined to the Snowy Ranges, near Mt Wellington and the Bennison Plains. By the 1860s, cattle were grazing the Nunniong Plateau (Cabena 1980). A decade later, a regular pattern of high country grazing had developed around the Dargo High Plains, the Bogong High Plains, Upper Buchan and Gibbo-Pinnibar (Cabena 1980).

Several factors contributed to the development of high country grazing. The Land Act of 1869, which opened the entire region for selection, forced graziers into the high country. Snow Gum and high country grasslands offered green feed during summer months, leaving low country paddocks for the cultivation of hay for winter feeding (Holth 1992). Changes to squatting tenure during the 1870s also encouraged migration. From 1873, the government issued grazing licences for new or forfeited runs without the usual requirements for residence or cultivation. Another factor was the invasion of lowland pastures by rabbits, which created renewed interest in high country grazing (Cabena 1989).

Grazing had a profound impact on the natural environment. The hooves of sheep and cattle compacted the delicate vegetation and soil, muddied and eroded precious watercourses, and introduced and spread new grasses (Resource Assessment Commission 1992). Cattle selected the most palatable species, which led to a decline in the density and diversity of native plants. They devoured the fine fuels that carried fire, perhaps contributing to the invasion of native grasslands by scrub. They spread exotic weeds in fur and dung. They removed seed heads and flowers, which disrupted plant reproduction. In forested areas, cattle reduced vegetation structure, particularly mid-storey shrubs and small trees.

Graziers also introduced new fire regimes. Like Aborigines, they used fire to encourage a ‘green’ pick, to tease scarce nutrients from the soil, and protect themselves from wildfire. Fires were started along ridge lines, with low-level flames moving down into gullies. By these means, tussocks and bracken were cleared from the forest floor.

European fire practices had a major environmental impact. Repeated burning caused chaotic regeneration and coppicing. Burning, combined with overstocking, meant that indigenous plants were also more susceptible to disease and pests. In the high country, pastoral fires disrupted sub-alpine biota. Snow Gums were sensitive to grazing and burning. If grazed, they failed to regenerate from lignotubers; if burned, they only re-sprouted, intermingled with flammable pyrophytes (Pyne 1991).

In the mid-twentieth century, growing concern about the effect of grazing on the capacity of mountain soils and vegetation to absorb and release water for irrigation and power-generation encouraged research into the ecology of alpine areas (Gillbank 1992). Initially, scientific investigation was prompted by concern about water quality and soil erosion. Later, ecological studies focused on the effect of grazing on alpine plant communities (Griffiths and Robin 1994). Detailed ecological work by ‘Maisie’ Fawcett and Professor John Turner led to the curtailment of alpine grazing around Mt Hotham, Mt Loch, Mt Feathertop and Mt Bogong (Gillbank 1992). 86 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Mining

Gold brought new settlers into the North East. In 1852, alluvial gold was discovered on David Reid’s ‘Woorajay’ run, near the present site of Beechworth (Flett 1970). Optimistic diggers flocked to the new field. From Beechworth, prospectors searched the region’s rivers and tributaries. In 1852-53, gold was discovered at Yackandandah Creek, Pennyweight Flat, Madman’s Gully and Woolshed Creek (Flett 1970).

Miners followed the Ovens River south towards the Alps. James Clow, the Goldfields Commissioner at Beechworth, reported in 1853 that diggers were searching for gold around Mt Buffalo. In the same year, diggers rushed the Buckland River. Miners from Gippsland used the track cut by the stockmen James Brown and John Wells to reach the Buckland and Harrietville goldfields (Lennon 1992). By 1856, the miners had opened the Upper Ovens goldfield around Morses’s Creek (Bright) and Growler’s Creek (Wandiligong).

Alluvial mining extended into other areas of the North East. New finds were made at Sebastopol and Napoleon (Reedy Creek, Beechworth) in 1855 and Eldorado in 1856. Other fields were located to the east, along the tributaries of the Mitta Mitta River, or west, near Benalla and Mansfield. In the late 1850s, the Victorian Government voted £30 000 for exploration, prospecting new areas and rewards for new discoveries (Lennon 1992). Government prospecting parties brought miners to the rugged hills near Omeo, leading to the discovery of new goldfields at Glen Wills and Wombat Creek (Christie 1993).

Three forms of mining activity were used on the North East’s goldfields: shallow alluvial mining, deep lead mining and quartz reefing.

Alluvial mining occurred throughout the North East. A broad sweep of auriferous country ran through the central and eastern part of the region, beginning at the source of the Ovens and curving through Harrietville, Bright, Beechworth, Yackandandah and Chiltern. Rich alluvial deposits were also mined in the hills adjacent to the Mitta Mitta River and in the areas around Benalla and Mansfield.

Alluvial mining was inextricably linked to the location of water. Miners used water for sluicing operations to separate gold from the gravels which were found in stream beds, river flats or in the terraces above the streams. Sluicing made the North East distinctive throughout Victoria. Hydraulic sluicing, using high pressure hoses to wash gold-bearing gravels, took place on Livingstone Creek and the Ovens, Mitta Mitta, Dargo and Crooked Rivers (LCC 1977).

Another form of alluvial mining, dredging, occurred on the Livingstone Creek and the Upper Ovens River (LCC 1977). Between 1898 and 1955, 46 dredges worked parts of the Ovens and Buckland valleys (LCC 1974). Bucket dredges, like Cock’s Eldorado Dredge, also operated in the Beechworth, Woolshed Creek and Reedy Creek areas (LCC 1974).

Deep lead mining took place at several locations in the study area. Buried alluvial leads (or ancient river beds) were mined at Eldorado between 1856 and 1901 (LCC 1974). Deep leads were also mined in the Indigo Creek valley near Chiltern and Rutherglen. Mining towns were established, first on the Indigo Lead and at New Ballarat Lead, then at Mt Pleasant, Cornishtown, Durham and Christmas Town (Flett 1970).

Deep lead mining - through deep, wet ground - required powerful pumping machinery and relied on heavy timbers for underground workings. Forests were cleared in order to supply the timber that lined the shafts and fuelled the steam boilers. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 87

Quartz reefing occurred in the North East after 1860. Reefing was characterised by tunnelling at different levels down a spur to trace the reefs at increasing depths. In the mountainous and heavily timbered forests of the North East, prospectors burned the spurs to make visible the surface quartz deposits. Prospecting by shallow shafts and narrow trenches (or costeans) was widespread, but most claims were abandoned because of poor prospects. In the North East, quartz mining was centred on a few, payable reefs.

Large reef mines were operating at Cassilis and Glen Wills during the 1880s, and in the following decade, seven mines were operating near the township of Sunnyside (Christie 1993). Resurgence of activity in the 1930s saw the Maude and Yellow Girl Co. formed from two separate leases. Between 1932 and 1953, the company produced approximately 163 330 ounces of gold (Christie 1993).

In the Omeo Division, gold production reached a peak in the 1900s due to the prosperity of several quartz reef mines at Mt Wills (Supple 1992). In the Buckland Division, the United Miners Co. produced large yields. In the Mitta Mitta Division, smaller companies worked reefs to the water table, approximately 60 feet (Supple 1992). Production reached a peak in 1889 when 2 009 ounces were produced.

Other metals were mined in the North East. Stream tin was mined on the Koetong, Dry Forest, Burrowye and Cudgewa Creeks from the 1870s. Extensive tin lodes were also located on the Mitta Mitta and Glen Wills goldfields. Tin was mined at Mt Wills from 1888, prompting the development of a township, Glen Wills. Tin was also mined at Pilot Range, north of Beechworth and at Tallandoon-Eskdale, on the Mitta Mitta goldfield, from 1891. During this century, stream tin was found in Surveyor’s Creek, a tributary of the Indi River on the Indi (Upper Murray) goldfield.

Other metals to be mined in the study area included antimony at Tallandoon, molybdenum at Stanley and Everton, tungsten at Barnawartha and Koetong, and copper at Tawonga and Bethanga (LCC 1974).

Government assistance for track construction was a significant stimulus for mining activity in the region, particularly in the mountainous regions of the Great Dividing Range. During the 1880s and 1890s, mining tracks were constructed throughout the region. Improved access encouraged prospecting. The quartz reefs of Mt Wills were discovered in the 1890s. Soon, thirty-seven mines were operating in the Sunnyside-Glen Wills area. To the east, government prospectors located gold along the Gibbo River and Saltpetre Creek. The claims - Mountaineer, Golden Treasure, Lone Hand - were worked until circa 1900. Few additional tracks were constructed after 1909. Tracks were cleared and maintained by the Mines Department until 1925.

New villages were established to supply services to the large goldfields population in the North East. A township was surveyed at Beechworth in 1853. Three years later, Beechworth was the regional capital of North Eastern Victoria. Other townships were established at Yackandandah, Chiltern, Myrtleford, Bright and Harrietville. Other settlements - Black Springs, Woolshed, Cornishtown, Wooragee, Christmastown - did not survive the abandonment of the field when the gold was ‘worked out’.

Mining caused severe localised ecological damage. Creeks and rivers were re-routed in order to mine auriferous soil. Stream beds were sluiced, river flats were dredged. Fire was used to clear dense scrub and to aid prospecting. Travelling through the Ovens goldfields in 1853, A.W. Howitt observed miners who ‘contrive, wherever they appear, to destroy every trace of these qualities in the landscape: setting fire to the grass and bushes, knocking down the trees, and tearing up the earth’ (Howitt 1853). 88 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Most significant of the mining-related disturbances was the clearing of forests. Trees were cut to provide timber for pit props and to feed the boilers that powered the winding engines and stamp batteries. Of the diggers’ propensity for felling trees, Howitt reported: ‘No sooner have [the diggers] finished their day’s work than they commence felling trees, which you hear falling continually with a crash, on one side of you or the other’ (Howitt 1853). Around Chiltern and Rutherglen, the dense ironbark forests were almost cleared by the late 1880s. A similar story was told wherever mining took place. In 1907, E.J. Dunn of the Geological Survey of Victoria wrote of the Bethanga goldfield: ‘At one time the whole country around was covered with valuable timber, but these forests have been so devastated that only remnants now survive’ (cited in Bannear 1995).

Agricultural clearing

Agricultural clearing commenced in the North East during the 1850s in response to the growth of townships. Gold facilitated this growth. It created townships. It created new domestic markets for agricultural and other produce. It introduced a radical element into Victorian politics which sought to end the dominance of the squatter and ‘unlock the lands’ for cultivation and settlement.

New land regulations attracted farmers to the North East. In 1854, land was released for auction in selected parishes close to the goldfields. Six agricultural districts were established between 1855 and 1860 - Beechworth, Belvoir (Wodonga), Benalla, Euroa, Mansfield and Ovens. Acreage increased from 1 805 acres to 22 045 acres (McQuilton 1987). The Beechworth district, located between the Kiewa and Ovens Rivers, was the first agricultural district to be established, but soon lost its importance to Belvoir and Ovens. The former developed to meet the demands of the Yackandandah goldfield. The latter, the largest district in North Eastern Victoria, was close to the region’s major goldfields and boasted rich soils and a good water supply.

Initially, the agricultural districts were concentrated on the production of grain crops, particularly wheat and oats (McQuilton 1987). Flour, and mutton, were the traditional and staple diet of the first generation of European settlers. Later, each district diversified their production to suit market and environmental conditions. Along the routes to the diggings, farmers concentrated on hay crops. At Mansfield, a cool and moist climate favoured potatoes and oats. In the Beechworth district, the limited area of agricultural soils encouraged dairying. Near Wangaratta and Bright, farmers grew tobacco and hops (Angus and Forster 1970). At Rutherglen a moderately dry climate and friable soils encouraged production of wine grapes (Johnson and Brownlie 1976).

Other districts, such as Belvoir and Ovens, produced a greater variety of crops, including maize, millet, potatoes, vegetable and orchard crops, sown pasture, oats and wheat. In alpine areas, climatic factors, such as low temperatures in winter and inadequate soil moisture during summer, limited the growing season for agricultural produce.

During the 1860s, four major Land Acts transformed the region from a grazing to an agricultural economy. Between 1860 and 1862, 46 000 acres were alienated under the selection provisions of the Nicholson and Duffy Land Acts (McQuilton 1987). Land was made available to selectors in established agricultural districts and adjacent parishes. In 1865, over 200 000 acres were alienated under the provisions of the Grant Land Act. The established districts accounted for 69 per cent of acreage alienation (McQuilton 1987). Four years later, the entire region was opened for selection.

Selection prompted a shift in population from the goldfields to the western plains; a trend hastened by the completion of the North Eastern Railway in 1874. The area under cultivation increased from 22␣ 045 acres in 1860 to 163 070 acres in 1883 (McQuilton 1987). Benalla, the centre of a grain Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 89 growing district from 1854, emerged as a rival to Beechworth in the 1860s (Griffiths 1987). Wangaratta, proclaimed a borough in 1863, prospered with the growth of mixed farming. Belvoir, renamed Wodonga in 1876, benefited greatly from its role as a river port and, after 1874, as the terminus of the North-Eastern railway.

The best land was settled during the 1860s and 1870s. By the mid 1880s, all that remained was marginal forest country, ‘potential’ agricultural land that proved unsuitable for cultivation. The Department of Crown Lands and Survey persevered with their attempts to make the forests yield to the plough. The Land Act of 1884 encouraged the selection of land in areas of marginal quality. It provided for the classification of lands according to their productive capabilities. Rents were based on stock carrying capacity or productive value.

In forested districts, selection blocks were typically 120 to 160 acres. Often these blocks were remote and poorly served by roads and despite the best efforts of selectors, many were abandoned after only three or four years. Abandoned selections were reclaimed by the Crown, mostly by the Forests Commission of Victoria who managed the blocks for timber production.

Selectors were required to make ‘improvements’ to their blocks. Depending on the quality of the land, improvements to the value of 5 to 20 shillings per acre for a residential licence and 1 to 6 shillings per acre for a non-residential licence. Improvements meant clearing for cultivation, the building of fences and the construction of buildings and dams.

Pioneers cleared land with tremendous zeal, spurred by the need to render every acre productive. Ringbarking was the cheapest form of clearing. A strip of bark was cut from the circumference of the trunk and the tree left to die. Eventually, the tree was cut, burnt or pulled down and the stump was dug out and burnt. Like graziers, selectors turned to fire as an implement. Farmers used fire to dispose of native vegetation. Large trees were felled and burned or ringbarked and allowed to dry for subsequent burning. Undergrowth and scrub was cleared and burnt with the remains of the ringbarked trees. Often, the ash was used to fertilise the soil.

Homesteads were erected - one, two, or three rooms with verandah. If the selector was successful, he or she added various outbuildings, including dairies, sheds and stables. Fences were also built, together with dams. In the major agricultural districts of the North East - the districts dissected by the North Eastern Railway and the Hume Freeway - selectors created an ordered partitioned landscape. In forested areas, the selectors’ occupation was often temporary. Over time, their ‘improvements’ have been reclaimed by the bush.

Timber utilisation

In the mid-nineteenth century, humans were overtly and directly dependent on native flora to satisfy a range of human needs. Forests were recognised as important sources of timber, oil and resin (Gillbank 1992). Graziers, miners and selectors felled vast quantities of bush timber, government authorities used hardwood species for railway sleepers, piles for piers and docks, and electricity poles, and timber companies processed a range of forest products, including eucalyptus oil and wattle-bark.

The large area of forest insured that most took the inexhaustibility of timber supplies for granted (Bolton 1992). Timber was a commercial asset to be exploited, not a resource to be conserved. Initially, the greatest demands came from graziers and farmers, but after 1852 miners were the most avaricious users. Whole forests were felled to supply timber for shafts, pit props and poppet legs. Timber was also required to feed the massive boilers which were an essential source of steam power. 90 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

During the gold rushes, the number of sawmills in Victoria increased from thirty in 1850 to sixty-four in 1860. By 1870, there were 127 mills (Dargavel 1988).

During this period, Splitters Range near Omeo and the forests around Brookville and Cassilis were extensively harvested (LCC 1974). Further west, sawmills were operating in the Ovens River region at Porepunkah in the 1870s (LCC 1974). Traditionally, these mills were erected on Crown land in return for payment of an annual licence fee. The timber was felled by axe and cross cut saw, then sawn into manageable sections for transportation to the mill by horse and bullock teams or timber tramway. The first sawmills were located close to their log supply. Power was supplied by steam using stationary traction engines. Each mill comprised a saw bench on which logs were broken down into flitches, then sawn to the required dimension. From the mill, sawn timber was transported to the most accessible road where it was transferred to road vehicles and forwarded to its ultimate destination.

Following the decline in mining activity in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, harvesting was limited to small quantities of timber for fencing and farm buildings. Nevertheless, splitters worked unhindered in the forests, no restrictions being placed on species, size or quantity of timber (Woodgate et al. 1993).

The first legislation enabling the government to reserve forested areas for the protection of timber resources was granted under the Land Act of 1862, which empowered the Governor-in-Council to proclaim reserves for the ‘preservation and growth of timber’ (Moulds 1991). By 1867, 116 000 acres had been declared State forest and timber reserve. Nevertheless, legislation brought no effective measures for the conservation of forests. For example, the Land Act of 1869 included provision for the reservation of Crown land specifically for timber production, but with limited security of tenure, and with the timber needs of the mining industry as the critical factor (Carron 1985).

In 1871 local boards were established to oversee the management of the reserves. These local boards lacked the legislative authority to control forest utilisation throughout Victoria. Timber reserves were intended to ensure supply for firewood and fencing. The boards were abolished in 1876, replaced by a central board of three members who were no more effective in halting the indiscriminate harvest (Moulds 1991).

Each initiative was undermined by various caveats and clauses. The Land Act of 1884 provided the legislative power to prohibit the alienation of State forest or timber reserves, but the provision was weakened by a clause which enabled the Governor-in-Council to alter the area of the reserves. Similarly, in 1888, G.S. Perrin was appointed Victoria’s first Conservator of Forests, but with limited powers over the utilisation of forest resources.

Throughout the nineteenth century there were no effective restrictions on timber-felling. Although a series of bills specifically for forest legislation were introduced into parliament, in 1879, 1881, 1887 and 1892, none were enacted. Finally, in 1907 a Forests Act was passed, which provided for the establishment of a State Forests Department under a Minister of Forests. A Conservator of Forests was appointed, with appropriate supporting staff and power to declare permanent forest reserve (Moulds 1991). Over the next decade, several initiatives were undertaken, including improvement works on the forest estate, the establishment of hardwood and softwood plantations and improved fire protection measures (Carron 1985).

Proper management of forests commenced after 1919 with the establishment of a Forests Commission with powers, and with the revenue to protect, conserve and develop the indigenous forest and maintain an adequate area of softwood plantations. In the first decade of its operation, Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 91 the Forests Commission added 118 757 acres to the area of reserved forest (Moulds 1991). In the North East, Forest Districts were established at Benalla, Beechworth, Tallangatta, Mansfield, Myrtleford, Corryong and Bright.

During this period sawlog production in the North East was small in comparison with the Central Highlands and East Gippsland. Mountain Ash was the mainstay of timber production in Victoria. Alpine Ash was regarded as a good substitute for Mountain Ash, but it was not expected to take a leading role (Moulds 1991). Nevertheless, several firms operated in the region. In 1918, McCashney & Harper Pty. Ltd. opened a mill at Toombullup and in the 1920s, two firms, Carter’s of Benalla and George Bell, built mills near Tatong (Moulds 1991).

Significant sawlog harvesting commenced in the 1930s, when harvesting commenced near Mt Baldhead, Mirimbah and Mt Wills (LCC 1974: 187). A notable sawmiller in this period was P.V. Christenson, who established a mill at Mirimbah in 1935 (Dargavel 1993).

The Alpine Ash forests of the North East escaped the worst of the devastating ‘Black Friday’ bushfires of 1939. The need to salvage fire-killed ash timber served to concentrate milling activity in the eastern and central highlands. However, with salvage operations completed, loggers turned their attention to the Alpine Ash forests around Mt Stirling and Mt Skene for high quality building and joinery timber. Other factors which encouraged timber utilisation during this period included the significant demand for timber as a result of post-war migration and the housing boom, and restrictions on the importation of timber.

In Victoria the number of sawmills increased from 332 in 1946 to 636 in 1956 (Carron 1985). The North East saw renewed harvesting activity in this period. Alpine Ash forests near Mt Wills, Mt Pinnibar, Nunniong Plateau, Mt Torbreck and Mt Margaret were opened for harvesting (Moulds 1991: 130). Sawmills were established at Swifts Creek, Omeo, Heyfield, Bullumwaal, Buchan and Ensay (LCC 1977). In Mansfield, mills were constructed in 1947 and 1948, timber supplies being drawn from the forests of the King, Howqua and Jamieson watersheds (LCC 1977). At the same time, Heyfield emerged as an important sawmilling centre, with log allocations in the Connors Plain area (LCC 1977). The management practice adopted for alpine ash forests was clear-cutting with retention of seed trees either singly, in groups or in strips along ridge-tops (Moulds 1991).

The Forests Commission was able to directly influence the location of timber extraction and sawmilling through its log allocation system. Annual licences were granted to millers to remove specified volumes of timber from defined State forest. Similarly, expansion of the timber industry was assisted by the Commission’s roading program.

After the Second World War changes in cutting and sawmilling technology led to a dramatic increase in the volume of timber harvested in Victoria. Tractors for snigging, and motor vehicles for hauling logs and sawn timber, replaced bullock teams and timber tramways. Diesel and electric power replaced steam at the mills. Crawler tractors fitted with dozer blades facilitated road-making, which gave access to previously inaccessible areas, and bulldozers with winches snigged logs from deep gullies. Chain saws revolutionised cutting practices. At the mills, powered saws like the portable drag saw for cross-cutting logs and the circular power saw (or ‘swing’ saw) increased output and efficiency.

By 1970 the boom had come to an abrupt end. The construction industry entered a period of instability. Increasingly, buildings were being made in concrete and metal. Demand for native 92 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East hardwoods fell, accompanied by a steady increase in the use of softwoods in applications as varied as furniture and house frames. By 1980 softwoods represented 40 per cent of the market for sawn timber (Dargavel 1988). At the same time, forests came to be valued for reasons other than timber utilisation. Values such as flora and fauna, water catchments and historic places emerged as a result of new community expectations and needs.

Wildfire

Fire has always been part of the Australian environment, and many Australian plant communities are adapted to survive and recover from fire. Prior to human habitation, we can assume that lightning started fires as it still does today. For vast periods of time before the arrival of Europeans, Aborigines used fire as a tool for managing hunting and access, and it is speculated that this was frequent, low intensity fire, though perhaps occasionally fires escaped to become high intensity burns.

From the 1830s fire was used extensively by settlers to consume ringbarked and felled timber and make way for agriculture and grazing.

The population of the North East grew rapidly in the mid to late 1800s. With European settlement came a variety of disturbances ranging from grazing to agriculture and mining. While the fire regimes associated with these disturbances are not well documented, it is speculated that high intensity fires were not uncommon and that little effort was made to control fires beyond the outskirts of the settlements. Much of the forest area will have been affected by fire in the past, but it will have recovered to some extent through time, though its composition may or may not have changed depending upon factors including fire frequency, intensity and season of burning.

Wildfire occurred frequently in the North East. The first notorious and, perhaps, most devastating fire event documented was the ‘Black Thursday’ fires of 1851. Rolf Bolderwood thought ‘the whole colony of Port Phillip was on fire at the same time, from the western coast to the Australian Alps, from the Snowy River to the Murray’ (cited in Pyne 1991). Major wildfires also occurred in 1898 and 1911. Even after the Forests Act of 1918, foresters had only marginal control over fires. In 1926, fires ravaged farms, fields and forests in the North East, killing sixty persons (Pyne 1991). In 1939, areas of Alpine Ash burnt along the upper reaches of the Ovens, Kiewa and Mitta Mitta Rivers (LCC 1977).

The 1939 fires burnt much of the Great Dividing Range of eastern Victoria, and also into the foothills and close to towns including Mansfield, Whitfield, Bright, Mt Beauty, Mitta Mitta and Corryong. The authors could locate no detailed large scale maps of the 1939 fires. However, it is clear from the growth stage mapping that regrowth alpine ash of 1926 and (mostly) 1939 origin is scattered across the high country in patches. Apparently fire intensity varied, and in some places was sufficient to kill all standing trees and encourage complete regeneration. Elsewhere stands were fire-damaged to a lesser degree, perhaps as fire burned less intensely at night or as it backed downhill.

After the ‘Black Friday’ bushfires of 1939, the Forests Commission upgraded its fire suppression facilities. The Forests Act of 1939 extended the Commission’s power and responsibility for fire prevention for all unoccupied Crown lands and national parks (Carron 1985). Access, transportation and fire suppression technology improved significantly. Fire suppression policy required swift attack on remote fires as well as those close to settlements. Fuel reduction burning programs were commenced, although fires proved difficult or impossible to suppress on days of severe fire weather. Major wildfires occurred in 1944, 1952, 1968, 1972, 1978, and 1985. Many other substantial damaging wildfires also occurred in the intervening years (Pook 1990). The 1952 fires burnt much of the Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 93

Upper Murray district that was left unburnt in 1939. As an indication of the extent and variability of the area burnt by wildfire, statistics for the Upper Murray and Ovens fire districts show that in 1983-84, 32 fires burnt a total of 101 hectares, while the following year (1984-85), 103 fires occurred and 38 050 hectares was burnt. (Pook 1990).

Fuel reduction burns

Since the mid-1920s, the Forests Commission (and its successors) have used fire to reduce the amount of flammable material on the forest floor in order to reduce the risk of damage from wildfire. Initially, fire protection schemes were based partly on forms of controlled, or ‘early’ burning (Pyne 1991). Foresters fringed ‘virgin’ forest with fuelbreaks and burned its interior with low-intensity broadcast fires in spring and autumn (Pyne 1991). After the Second World War, fuel reduction burning was systematic, with a solid foundation in scientific research (Pyne 1991).

Fuel reduction burns differ from wildfire. Deliberately ignited on days that produce a cool burn, fuel reduction burns generally caused minimal damage to forest crown cover. Fuel reduction burning is largely confined to the mixed species foothill forests, and is not undertaken in certain forest types including box-ironbark, alpine forests and other fire-sensitive plant communities, nor in certain land tenures such as wilderness areas and scientific reference areas. In the last decade, planning of fuel reduction strategies has become more formalised, with priority burning zones being defined. Some seasons are more conducive to fuel reduction burning than others. In an ideal autumn, up to 60 000 hectares could be burnt, using aerial ignition techniques, while in an unsuitable season only 100 to 200 hectares may be fuel reduced across the North East. Most of the mixed species forests have been fuel reduced at least once, and sometimes repeatedly, through the years, and with the passing of time they have recovered to a greater or lesser extent from this disturbance.

The fire protection plan subdivides forested public land into one of five fuel management zones which have specific objectives in terms of fuel characteristics. These zones are the small but heavily burnt Zone 1 (Asset protection), the regularly burnt Zone 2 (Strategic fuel reduced corridors), Zone 3 (Broad area fuel reduced mosaic), Zone 4 (Specific flora and fauna management), and Zone 5 (Exclusion of prescribed burning). Scheduling of burning is based on fuel levels, and there is no specific burning cycle. Zone 1 and then Zone 2 are priority areas, with Zone 3 being burnt as seasonal conditions permit. Some impact on plant communities due to fire frequency is likely in Zone 1, and possibly in Zone 2, but little or none in Zone 3, which could have 15 years between successive burns.

Burns are arranged so that not all recent burns are together, as a mosaic pattern of more-recent and less-recent burns reduces the impact on forest fauna. Within the burn boundary is a mosaic of burnt and unburnt area, with drier ridges and northern slopes burning to a greater extent than gullies and southern slopes. Commonly 30 to 60 per cent of the area within the burn boundary actually has its cover of ground litter fuel reduced by the fire.

Fire frequency and intensity, and season of burning, are issues relevant to ecologically-based forest management and to old-growth. Frequent fires in forests of shrubby understorey will change the composition of the forest understorey even though there may be no impact on the overstorey. The fire intensity may influence understorey composition or, if high, may impact on the forest canopy. Grassy understoreys are less affected by fire. Other documented effects of fuel reduction burning include reduction in habitat diversity (Catling 1991) and poorer nesting success of native birds (Recher 1991).

The complexity of intensity of individual fires, and the possibility of a site being subject to multiple fires through time, make it difficult to simply equate burnt with disturbed and unburnt with potential old-growth, though the analysis attempts to take fire frequency into account. 94 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

APPENDIX THREE - ANALYSIS OF OLD-GROWTH STATUS

Appendix 3A Project datasets

Primary Datasets Resource Datasets: GSTAGE100 Forest growth stage information. EVC100 Ecological vegetation classes. SVEG100 Structural vegetation classes.

Disturbance Datasets: FIRE100_(XY) Fire history (one layer per year). AGCLEAR100 Agricultural clearing records. GRAZE100 Grazing licence history. EVC100 Severely disturbed ecological vegetation classes. LANDMMT100 Private land. LOGHIST100 Contemporary timber harvesting history. LOGSFRI100 Harvesting disturbance from SFRI API. MINE_IMPACT Mining disturbance information (point source data). HISTLOG250 Historic timber harvesting records.

Analysis Products Primary Outputs: OLD-GROWTH Delineates grid cells that fulfil the old-growth forest criteria. DIST-SIG Shows maximum disturbance significance values. DIST-COM The unique set of all disturbance combinations. OG100 Forest categories.

Secondary Outputs: The primary products were derived from a series of analysis procedures. At the end of each major procedure an interim product was created. Those products that required extensive processing and have value in themselves are retained. These interim products are of two basic types: resource grids and disturbance grids. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 95

RESOURCE GRIDS: GSTAGE Filtered growth stage data. CCOVER Filtered crown cover classes. EVC Filtered ecological vegetation classes. VEGFORM Structural vegetation classes. OGCLASS Broad old-growth forest classes from reclassification of GSTAGE grid. JACOBS Jacobsian classes from reclassification of EVC. STRUCTURE Structural classes from reclassification of VEGFORM grid. EM-FOREST Forest dominated by oldest growth stages based on rules applied to the grids: JACOBS, OGCLASS, STRUCTURE.

DISTURBANCE GRIDS: DIST-FRB Disturbance significance for fuel reduction burning. DIST-WFR Disturbance significance for wildfire. DIST-REG Disturbance significance for regeneration burning. DIST-LOG Disturbance significance for contemporary timber harvesting. DIST-FGS Disturbance significance from forest growth stages GSTAGE100 DIST-GRA Disturbance significance for grazing. DIST-HLG Disturbance significance for historic timber harvesting. DIST-AGC Disturbance significance for agricultural clearing. DIST-EVC Disturbance significance from disturbed ecological vegetation class mapping. DIST-MIN Disturbance significance from mine records. DIST-PLU Disturbance significance from LANDMMT100. 96 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Appendix 3B Analysis rules

Table A3.1: Description codes for OGCLASS.

OGCLASS DESCRIPTION 0 Unknown old-growth class. 1 Candidate old-growth class: ≥10% irregular/ ≥10% moderately regular/ or equally regular & < 10% regrowth. 2 Potential old-growth: growth stage dependent on EVC & structure to determine old-growth class <10% regrowth. 3 Not an old-growth class. 4 Non-forest or non-eucalypt forest.

Table A3.2: Description of Jacobs’ grid codes.

JACOBS DESCRIPTION 0 Non-vegetated. 1 Jacobsian eucalypt forest EVC.

2 Conditional Jacobsian eucalypt forest EVC. 3 Non-Jacobsian eucalypt forest EVC. 4 Unclassified non-eucalypt Forest.

Table A3.3: Description of STRUCTURE grid codes.

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION 0 Non-forest. 1 Non-Jacobsian EVC < 28 metres. 2 Jacobsian EVC > 28 metres. 99 Unknown/not applicable. Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 97

Table A3.4: Description of CCOVER grid codes.

CC_GS CCOVER Description 1-2 1 Non-forest, crown cover (1-30%). 2-6 2 Forest, crown cover (31-100%). 9 0 No data.

Table A3.5: Transformation rules for EVCs classed as disturbed.

EVCDIST-EVC 57 Conifer Plantation. Significant un-natural disturbance. 58 Cleared/Severely Disturbed. Significant un-natural disturbance. 121 Hardwood Plantation. Significant un-natural disturbance. 989 Cleared Power Easements. Significant un-natural disturbance. All Other EVCs. No Data.

Table A3.6: Description of harvesting event codes recorded in the North East Old-growth study area (HARV_EVENTNO).

HARV_EVENTNO DESCRIPTION 101 101 Clearfell. 102 102 Thinning Unspecified. 104 104 Group Selection. 108 108 Single Tree Selection (Sawlog). 110 110 Firewood Cutting. 111 111 Fencing. 150 150 Salvage Harvesting. 199 199 Unknown. 666 666 Allocation Record. 98 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East

Table A3.7: Rules to create DIST-MIN - historical clearing disturbance significance.

Mining Site Type Period Radius (m) DIST-MIN Charcoal 1910+ 100 Low Impact Chemical Heat Treatment 1880s-1920s 500 High Impact Cement Workings 1860s-1920s 500 High Impact Deep Lead mid 1950s-1910s 500 High Impact Eucalyptus Distillery Site 1900+ 200 Medium Impact Molybdenite Mining 1900+ 100 Low Impact Monument N/A 100 Low Impact Powder Magazine 1860s+ 100 Low Impact Quartz Adit Battery mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Battery mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Current Mining current 500 High Impact Quartz Government Battery mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Reef mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Reef Mining mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Shaft Battery mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Shaft Mining mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Shaft Mining Battery mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Shaft Working mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Shaft Working Battery mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quartz Tunnel Mining mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Quarry N/A 100 Low Impact Residential N/A 100 Low Impact Shallow Lead Dredging 1900-1915 500 High Impact Shallow Lead Hydraulic Sluicing mid 1850s-1910s 500 High Impact Shallow Lead Alluvial 1851-1860 500 High Impact Shallow Lead Alluvial Puddler 1854-1900 500 High Impact Wolfram Mining 1939-1945 100 Low Impact Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 99

Appendix 3C Conversion table

Table A3.8: Conversion rules by EVC.

Ecological Vegetation Jacobsian Grazing Fuel Wildfire Community Code Probability Reduction Probability (JACOBS) Burn Probability 7 Clay Heathland N/A Low High High 18 Riparian Forest Jacobsian High Low High 19 Riparian Shrubland N/A Low Low Low 20 Heathy Dry Forest Conditional Low High High 21 Shrubby Dry Forest Conditional Low High High 22 Grassy Dry Forest Conditional High High High 23 Herb-rich Foothill Forest Conditional High Medium High 26 Rainshadow Grassy Woodland Jacobsian High High Low 29 Damp Forest Jacobsian Low Low High 30 Wet Forest Jacobsian Low N/A High 36 Montane Dry Woodland Conditional High Medium High 38 Montane Damp Forest Jacobsian High Medium High 41 Montane Riparian Thicket Jacobsian Low Low High 43 Sub-alpine Woodland Conditional High Low High 44 Treeless Sub-alpine Complex N/A High Low Medium 47 Valley Grassy Forest Jacobsian High Low High 55 Plains Grassy Woodland Jacobsian High Low High 56 Floodplain Riparian Woodland Jacobsian Low N/A Medium 61 Box Ironbark Forest Jacobsian High Low High 66 Low Rises Grassy Woodland Jacobsian Low Medium Medium 67 Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland Jacobsian High Low Medium Mosaic 68 Creekline Grassy Woodland Jacobsian High Low High 72 Granitic Hills Woodland Conditional Low Medium High 73 Rocky Outcrop Shrubland/ N/A Low Low Medium Herbland 74 Wetland Formation N/A High Low Low 79 Gilgai Plain Woodland/ Wetland/ Jacobsian High Medium Medium Heathy Dry Forest Mosaic 80 Spring Soak Herbland Jacobsian High Low Low 82 Riverine Escarpment Scrub N/A Low Low Medium 83 Swampy Riparian Woodland Non-Jacobsian High Low Medium 84 Riparian Mosaic - North East Conditional High Low High 58 Cleared/Severely Disturbed N/A N/A N/A Low 989 Cleared/Severely Disturbed N/A N/A N/A Low - Power Easement 100 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 6RA 2 NOF 2MN 6MA 6RA this summary. and crown cover. The sequence is not and crown cover. Clearfelling indicated by records and API pre-dates the disturbance record. Although the growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) cannot verify the record, the record is highly reliable and accepted. Because of the nature of the harvesting, regrowth is assumed to be present. Clearfelling indicated by records and API post-dates the disturbance record. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred age of due to the advanced growth stages (irregular/ moderately regular/ equally regular crowns). GS more accurate than clearfelling disturbance indicated. records. Negligible Clearfelling indicated by records and API post-dates the disturbance record. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates a disturbance has occurred due to the presence of highly regular crowns. Clearfelling indicated by records and API post-dates the disturbance record. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred age of due to the advanced growth stages (highly regular crowns). GS more disturbance accurate than clearfelling records. Negligible indicated. Clearfelling post 1960 indicated by records. API post-dates the disturbance record. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates a disturbance has occurred due to the presence of regrowth crowns. 1 2 2 3 Not a criteria relevant selection Not a relevant selection criteria All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 If potential top-height is <28m and EVCs: forested conditional Jacobsian 20, 21, 22, 23, 36, 43, 72, 84 EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, All Jacobsian 38, 41, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category (clearfelling) Contemporary Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth timber harvesting Appendix 3D A3.9 -Table Analysis rules Specific details of the assignment of forest based on disturbance type, EVC, disturbance levels type, growth stage sequence of the Disturbance necessarily follow Type that used in processing the old-growth set. The data analysis does however Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 101 2 NOF 6AO 2 NOF 6RA 7DU Harvesting is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record but these EVCs are not known to have been selectively harvested. An SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and category)potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height or Jacobsian these EVCs are to have been selectively harvested. likely Clearfelling indicated by records and API post-dates the disturbance record. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred age of due to the advanced growth stages (irregular/ moderately regular/ equally regular crowns), or forest type mapping label is non-forest. GS more disturbance accurate than clearfelling records. Negligible indicated. Clearfelling indicated by records and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS indicates a disturbance has occurred due to the presence of regrowth. API indicates a disturbance. Harvesting indicated by records and API pre-dates the disturbance record. Although the growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) cannot verify the record, the record is highly reliable and accepted. Because of the nature of the harvesting, growth stage cannot be assumed and the level of disturbance cannot be determined. 3 1 1, 2 Not a Not a criteria criteria relevant relevant selection selection All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 Not a relevant selection criteria EVCs with no merchantable Forested species: 20, 21, 36, 41, 43, 72, 83 or forested conditional EVCs that potentially have species merchantable potential top height <28m: where 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 Criteria for Selection All Classes 1-6 All classes 1-6 Not a relevant selection criteria Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category (clearfelling) and thinning) Contemporary Contemporary Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth timber harvesting timber harvesting (selective harvesting 102 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 6MA 6RA 2 NOF 6AO 2MN An SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. An SFRI label of ‘‘l’ is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment after 1940 and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS and dense crown cover and slope indicates no disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment after 1940 and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS and dense crown cover indicates no disturbance has occurred on these flatter however is highly likely weed invasion slopes. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment after 1940 and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS and dense crown cover along with slope indicates no disturbance has occurred. 2 3 1 1 2

° °

° Forested conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 and slope is >20 Forested EVCs: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, Forested 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 where slope is <20 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 and slope is >20 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category and thinning) Contemporary Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth timber harvesting (selective harvesting Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 103 6MA 6RA 2 NOF 2MN 6RA 6MA 7DU Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment after 1940 and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS and dense crown cover indicates no disturbance has occurred, howeveron these flatter is highly likely weed invasion slopes. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment prior to 1940 and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS evidence indicates disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment post 1940 and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS evidence indicates no disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment post 1940 and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS evidence indicates no disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment post 1940 and API post-dates the disturbance record. GS evidence indicates no disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and an SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. Harvesting indicated by records and API pre-dates the disturbance record. Although the growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) cannot verify the record, the record is highly reliable and accepted. Because of the nature of the harvesting, growth stage cannot be assumed and the level of disturbance cannot be determined. 2 3 1 2 3 2 Not a criteria relevant selection in the following ° forested EVCs: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 Not a relevant selection criteria Where slope is <20 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category and thinning) Contemporary Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth timber harvesting (selective harvesting 104 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 6RA 6AO 6MA 6AO 6MA Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and an SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and an SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and an SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. Harvesting is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Low crown cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) indicates a disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Low crown cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) indicates a disturbance has occurred. 3 1 2 1 2 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category and thinning) Contemporary Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth timber harvesting (selective harvesting Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 105 6RA 2 NOF 2MN 2RN 2NN 6AO Harvesting is recorded and API post-dates the disturbance record. Low crown cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) indicates a disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and API post-dates the disturbance record. However these EVCs are have naturally woodlands which low crown As a consequence low crown cover. cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and API post-dates the disturbance record. However these EVCs are have naturally woodlands which low crown As a consequence low crown cover. cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and API post-dates the disturbance record. However these EVCs are have naturally woodlands which low crown As a consequence low crown cover. cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred. Harvesting is indicated for the forest compartment and API post-dates the disturbance record for non-forested classes. but is not logical vegetation Minor forest associated in the 1800s where it was produce utilisation began Utilisation has continued morewith extensive mining activity. or less continuously to the present day (recent conservation reserve declarations excepted). 3 1 2 3 1 None recorded All forested vegetation which areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 All classes 1-6 3-6Classes All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category produce) (minor forest and thinning) Contemporary Contemporary Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth timber harvesting timber harvesting (selective harvesting 106 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 6MA 6RA 2 NOF 6AO 2MN 6MA , indicates the , indicates the , indicates the , indicates the ° ° ° ° level of because of disturbance will be negligible problems with access. Minor forest produce utilisation post 1900 and a slope of <20 level of disturbance will be significant because of ease of access. Minor forest produce utilisation post 1900 and a slope of >20 level of because of disturbance will be negligible problems with access. Minor forest produce utilisation post 1900 and a slope of <20 level of disturbance will be significant because of ease of access. Minor forest produce in the 1800s and is associated with utilisation began extensive Utilisation has continued more mining activity. or less continuously to the present day (recent conservation reserve declarations excepted). Minor forest produce in the 1800s and is associated with utilisation began extensive Utilisation has continued more mining activity. or less continuously to the present day (recent conservation reserve declarations excepted). Minor forest produce utilisation post 1900 and a slope of >20 2 3 1 1 2 2 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category produce) (minor forest Contemporary Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth timber harvesting Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 107 2RN 6RA 2 NOF 2MN 6MA , indicates the , indicates the ° ° level of because of disturbance will be negligible problems with access. Minor forest produce utilisation post 1900 and a slope of <20 level of disturbance will be significant because of ease of access. Minor forest produce utilisation post 1900 and a slope of >20 An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred due to the advanced age of growth stages (irregular/ moderately regular/ equally regular crowns). GS more accurate than agricultural clearing records. Negligible disturbance indicated. An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded post 1900. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred age of due to the advanced growth stages (highly regular crowns). GS disturbance indicated. more accurate than clearing records. Negligible An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded pre 1900. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred age of due to the advanced growth stages (highly regular crowns). GS disturbance indicated. more accurate than clearing records. Negligible 3 3 1 2 2 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, All Jacobsian 38, 41, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, All Jacobsian 38, 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 Criteria for Selection Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category clearing produce) Agricultural (minor forest Contemporary Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth timber harvesting 108 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 2RN 6RA 2MN 6MA 2RN 6RA An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded pre 1900. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred of due to the youth growth stages (regrowth crowns). GS more accurate disturbance indicated. than clearing records. Negligible An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded post 1900. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred age of due to the advanced growth stages (highly regular crowns). GS more disturbance indicated. accurate than clearing records. Negligible An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded post 1960. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates a disturbance has not occurred due to the presence of highly regular crowns. An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded prior to 1960. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates a disturbance has occurred due to the presence of highly regular crowns. An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded prior to 1960. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates a disturbance has not occurred due to the presence of regrowth crowns. An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded post 1960. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates a disturbance has not occurred due to the presence of regrowth crowns. 3 3 2 2 3 3 All Jacobsian EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, All Jacobsian 38, 41, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, All Jacobsian 38, 41, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 If potential top-height is <28m and EVCs: forested conditional Jacobsian 20, 21, 22, 23, 36, 43, 72, 84 If potential top-height is <28m and EVCs: forested conditional Jacobsian 20, 21, 22, 23, 36, 43, 72, 84 If potential top-height is <28m and EVCs: forested conditional Jacobsian 20, 21, 22, 23, 36, 43, 72, 84 If potential top-height is <28m and EVCs: forested conditional Jacobsian 20, 21, 22, 23, 36, 43, 72, 84 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category clearing Agricultural Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 109 6AO 6MA 6NA 2 NOF 2MN An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. Crown cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) indicates a disturbance has occurred. An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. Crown cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) indicates a disturbance has occurred. An agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. Crown cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) indicates a disturbance has occurred. Agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. These woodland EVCs can have a naturally low crown (CC) mapping from cover. SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate that a disturbance has occurred. Agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. These woodland EVCs can have a naturally low crown (CC) mapping from cover. SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate that a disturbance has occurred. 1 2 3 1 2 All forested vegetation which areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 26, 36, 43, 55, 56, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83 naturally have low crownwhich covers areAll forested which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 26, 36, 43, 55, 56, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83 naturally have low crownwhich covers Criteria for Selection Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category clearing Agricultural Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth 110 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 2RN 2NN 6NA 7DU 6NA Agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. These woodland EVCs can have a naturally low crown (CC) mapping from cover. SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate that a disturbance has occurred. Agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate disturbance has occurred. Agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. Growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) indicates that disturbance has occurred. Agricultural selection is delineated and clearing recorded. No growth stage (GS) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) is available. severeMining recorded. Likely and its localised impacts on native vegetation structure. 3 1 2 None criteria relevant recorded selection All forested vegetation which areAll forested which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 26, 36, 43, 55, 56, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83 naturally have low crownwhich covers All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Classes 1, 2 All classes 1-6 All classes 1-6 None recorded Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category clearing Agricultural scale clearing and other large Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth Mining, quarries Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 111 6NA 2 NOF 6AO 2MN 6MA 3RF 6RA

° ° which which ° ° which strongly indicates regular grazing which by domestic stock. which strongly indicates regular grazing which by domestic stock. ° ° strongly indicates regular grazing will not have occurred. by domestic stock Grazing licences ceased prior to 1960. (GS) mapping evidence from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred; however the slope is <20 Grazing licences ceased prior to 1960. (GS) mapping evidence from SFRI (1995-97) indicates no disturbance has occurred and the slope is >20 strongly indicates regular grazing will not have occurred. by domestic stock Grazing licences ceased prior to 1960. (GS) mapping evidence from SFRI (1995-97) indicates no disturbance has occurred however, the slope is <20 SFRI label of ‘NU’ indicates the presence of quarries, urban areas etc. and the disturbance record is accepted because of severe localised impacts on native and its structure.vegetation Grazing licences ceased prior to 1960. (GS) mapping evidence from SFRI (1995-97) indicates no disturbance has occurred and the slope is >20 which strongly indicates regular grazingwhich by domestic stock. Grazing licences ceased prior to 1960. (GS) mapping evidence from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred and the slope is >20 strongly indicates regularwhich grazing will not have by domestic stock occurred. Grazing licences ceased prior to 1960. (GS) mapping evidence from SFRI (1995-97) does not indicate a disturbance has occurred; however the slope is <20 1 1 2 2 3 3 Not a criteria relevant selection Quarries, transmission lines and urban areas forest EVCs: 18, 22, 23, Palatable 26, 36, 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80, 83, 84 forest EVCs: 18, 22, 23, Palatable 26, 36, 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80, 83, 84 forest EVCs: 18, 22, 23, Palatable 26, 36, 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80, 83, 84 forest EVCs: 18, 22, 23, Palatable 26, 36, 38, 43, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 80, 83, 84 forest EVCs: 18, 22, 23, Palatable 26, 36, 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80, 83, 84 forest EVCs: 18, 22, 23, Palatable 26, 36, 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Grazing scale clearing and other large Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth Mining, quarries 112 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 2 NOF 6AO 2 NOF 2MN 6NA 2NN 6NA which strongly indicates that regular which grazing would not by domestic stock which strongly indicates regular grazing which by domestic stock. ° ° have occurred. Grazing licences recorded. (GS) mapping evidence from SFRI (1995-97) cannot or not a disturbance has occurred,distinguish whether however, the slope is <20 Grazing licence recorded. Grazing licence recorded. Grazing licence recorded. Structure and floristics severely irrespective degraded of date cessation licence. Grazing licence recorded. The presence of trees indicates a shrubby and understoreyunpalatable not affected by grazing irrespective of slope. Grazing licence recorded. of The lack trees vegetation indicates a highly palatable will be severelytype which affected by grazing. Grazing licences recorded. (GS) mapping evidence from SFRI (1995-97) cannot or not a disturbance has occurred.distinguish whether However the slope is >20 1 1 1 2 Not a Not a Not a criteria criteria criteria relevant relevant relevant selection selection selection

° Palatable forest EVCs: 18, 22, 23, Palatable 26, 36, 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80, 83, 84 forest EVCs: 18, 22, 23, Palatable 26, 36, 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80, 83, 84 forestedUnpalatable EVCs: 20, 21, 29, 30, 41, 72 forestedUnpalatable EVCs: 20, 21, 29, 30, 41, 72 Non-forested EVCs: 74 Non-forested EVCs: 44 Non-forested EVCs: 44 and slope <20 Criteria for Selection Classes 1-6 Classes 1-6 Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Classes 3-6 Classes 1-2 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Grazing Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 113 2NN 2 NOF 2NN 2 NOF 6AO 2MN 6MA . Floristic . Floristic . Floristic . Floristic ° ° ° ° changes areas a result not likely of grazing do not regularly because stock graze steep slopes. Grazing licence post-dates 1960 or is still current and slope is <20 as a resultchanges are likely of grazing if because stock present, will regularly graze such sites. Grazing licence post-dates 1960 or is still current and slope is >20 changes areas a result not likely of grazing do not regularly because stock graze steep slopes. Grazing licence post-dates 1960 or is still current and slope is <20 changes are likely as a resultchanges are likely of grazing if because stock present, will regularly graze such sites. Grazing licence recorded. of The lack trees vegetation indicates a highly palatable howevertype, the steep impact from slope indicates there will be a negligible grazing. Grazing licence recorded. Grazing licence recorded. Grazing licence post-dates 1960 or is still current and slope is >20 1 1 1 2 2 Not a Not a criteria criteria relevant relevant selection selection

° Unpalatable forestedUnpalatable EVCs : 20, 21, 29, 30, 41, 72 non-forestUn-palatable EVCs: 7, 19, 73, 82 EVCs: 18, 22, 23, 26, All palatable 36, 38, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 74, 79, 80, 83, 84 EVCs: 18, 22, 23, 26, All palatable 36, 38, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 74, 79, 80, 83, 84 EVCs: 18, 22, 23, 26, All palatable 36, 38, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 74, 79, 80, 83, 84 EVCs: 18, 22, 23, 26, All palatable 36, 38, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 74, 79, 80, 83, 84 Non-forested EVCs: 44 and slope >20 Criteria for Selection Classes 1-2 Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Grazing Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth 114 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 2RN 6RA 6AO 6MA 6RA 2 NOF . Floristic . Floristic ° ° Grazing licence post-dates 1960 or is still current and slope is >20 changes areas a result not likely of grazing do not regularly because stock graze steep slopes. Grazing licence post-dates 1960 or is still current and slope is <20 Historic clearfelling occurred prior to 1900 in areas associated with gold mining and significant areas were cleared for fuel, mining supports and construction. Some of these areas have subsequently regenerated. Historic clearfelling occurred prior to 1900 in areas associated with gold mining and significant areas were cleared for fuel, mining supports and construction. Some of these areas have subsequently regenerated. Historic clearfelling occurred prior to 1900 in areas associated with gold mining and significant areas were cleared for fuel, mining supports and construction. Some of these areas have subsequently regenerated. Historic timber harvesting is recorded but these EVCs are not known to have been selectively harvested. changes are likely as a resultchanges are likely of grazing if because stock present, will regularly graze such sites. 3 3 1 2 3 1 All palatable EVCs: 18, 22, 23, 26, All palatable 36, 38, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 74, 79, 80, 83, 84 EVCs: 18, 22, 23, 26, All palatable 36, 38, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 74, 79, 80, 83, 84 Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria EVCs with no merchantable Forested species: 20, 21, 36, 41, 43, 72, 83 and forested conditional EVCs that potentially have species merchantable potential top height <28m: where 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Grazing harvesting harvesting unknown) (clearfelling) log allocations, log harvesting type Historic timber Historic timber Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth (selective harvesting, Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 115 6AO 6MA 6RA 2 NOF An SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential category) these EVCs are to have been selectivelytop height or Jacobsian likely harvested. An SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. An SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. indicators ofBecause API indicates no visible that it is unlikely disturbance, these EVCs have been disturbed. 1 2 3 1 Forested conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category harvesting unknown) log allocations, log harvesting type Historic timber Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth (selective harvesting, 116 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 6MA 2MN 6RA Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested especially on flatter slopes. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested, but the intensity and severity of the effect is because ofnegligible difficult access on steeper sites. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested especially on flatter slopes. 2 2 3

° ° ° Forested conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 where slope is <20 conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 where slope is >20 Forested conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 where slope is <20 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category harvesting unknown) log allocations, log harvesting type Historic timber Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth (selective harvesting, Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 117 3RF 2 NOF 6AO 2MN 6MA 6RA 2 NOF Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested, but the intensity and severity of the effect is because ofnegligible difficult access on steeper sites. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment after 1940. GS and dense crown cover and slope indicates no disturbance has occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment after 1940. GS and dense crown cover indicates no disturbance has occurred. However weed on these flatter slopes. is highly likely invasion Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment after 1940. GS and dense crown cover along with slope indicates no disturbance has occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment after 1940. GS and dense crown cover indicates no disturbance has occurred. However weed on these flatter slopes. is highly likely invasion Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment prior to 1940. GS evidence indicates disturbance has occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment post 1940. GS evidence indicates no disturbance has occurred. 3 1 1 2 2 3 1

° ° in the following °

°

° Forested conditional EVCs that Forested potentially have species merchantable where potential top height is greater than 28m: 20-23, 36, 43, 72, 84 and EVCs: 18, 26, 29, 30, 38, Jacobsian 41, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 83 where slope is >20 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 and slope is >20 Forested EVCs: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, Forested 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 where slope is <20 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 and slope is >20 Where slope is <20 forested EVCs: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 79, 80 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category harvesting unknown) log allocations, log harvesting type Historic timber Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth (selective harvesting, 118 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 2MN 6RN 6MA 6RA 6AO 6MA Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment post 1940. GS evidence indicates no disturbance has occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment post 1940. GS evidence indicates no disturbance has occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and an SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and an SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and an SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment and an SFRI label of ‘l’ is recorded. Because API indicates disturbance and these forests have greater height and potentially better form (indicated by the potential top height) these EVCs may have been selectively harvested. 2 3 2 3 1 2 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 Criteria for Selection Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Classes 3-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category harvesting unknown) log allocations, log harvesting type Historic timber Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth (selective harvesting, Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 119 6MA 2 NOF 2MN 6AO 6MA 2NN Historic timber harvesting is recorded. Crown cover (CC) mapping from SFRI (1995-97) indicates a disturbance has occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded. These woodland EVCs can have a naturally low crown (CC) mapping from cover. SFRI (1995-97) indicates that no disturbance has occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded. These woodland EVCs can have a naturally low crown (CC) mapping from cover. SFRI (1995-97) indicates that no disturbance has occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment. Low crown cover density indicates disturbance may have occurred. Historic timber harvesting is recorded within the forest compartment. Low crown cover density indicates disturbance may have occurred. Historic timber harvesting is indicated for the forest compartment but is not known for these non-forested classes. vegetation 2 1 2 1 2 None recorded All forested vegetation which areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 26, 36, 43, 55, 56, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83 naturally have low crownwhich covers areAll forested which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 26, 36, 43, 55, 56, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83 naturally have low crownwhich covers areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 areAll forested not which vegetation naturally woodland EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 38, 41, 47, 61, 84 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 Criteria for Selection Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 Classes 1, 2 All classes 1-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category harvesting unknown) log allocations, log harvesting type Historic timber Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth (selective harvesting, 120 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 2 NOF 2MN 2RN One or more fuel reduction burns are recorded for the site. Because these EVCs are wet or have insufficient fuel loads to carry a fuel reduction burn, these sites to haveare been burnt. unlikely One or more fuel reduction burns are recorded for the site. Because these EVCs are wet or have insufficient fuel loads to carry a fuel reduction burn, these sites to haveare been burnt. unlikely One or more fuel reduction burns are recorded for the site. Because these EVCs are wet or have insufficient fuel loads to carry a fuel reduction burn, these sites to haveare been burnt. unlikely 1 2 3 Less flammable EVCs: 18-19, 30, Less flammable 41, 74, 80, 83-84 or non-fuel reduction burn EVCs: 38, 44, 57 or rarely fuel reduced EVCs (because of position such as damp topographic gullies and riverine environments: 23, 29, 82 EVCs: 18-19, 30, Less flammable 41, 74, 80, 83-84 or non-fuel reduction burn EVCs: 38, 44, 57 or rarely fuel reduced EVCs (because of position such as damp topographic gullies and riverine environments: 23, 29, 82 EVCs: 18-19, 30, Less flammable 41, 74, 80, 83-84 or non-fuel reduction burn EVCs: 38, 44, 57 or rarely fuel reduced EVCs (because of position such as damp topographic gullies and riverine environments: 23, 29, 82 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Burning Fuel Reduction Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 121 2 NOF 4SI 4SM 6AO 6MA 2 NOF One fuel reduction burn is recorded period. for the site in any 5 year One fuel reduction burn is recorded previously. for the site less than 5 years One fuel reduction burn is recorded previously. for the site less than 5 years More than one fuel reduction burn is recorded period. for the site in any 5 year More than one fuel reduction burn is recorded period. for the site in any 5 year One fuel reduction burn is recorded for the site more previously. than 5 years 1 1 2 1 2 1 Drier grassy and/or herb-rich EVCs with high proportions of resprouting species: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, 67, 68, 74, 79 Drier grassy and/or herb-rich EVCs with high proportions of resprouting species: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, 67, 68, 74, 79 Drier grassy and/or herb-rich EVCs with high proportions of resprouting species: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, 67, 68, 74, 79 Drier grassy and/or herb-rich EVCs with high proportions of resprouting species: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, 67, 68, 74, 79 Drier grassy and/or herb-rich EVCs with high proportions of resprouting species: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, 67, 68, 74, 79 Drier grassy and/or herb-rich EVCs with high proportions of resprouting species: 22, 26, 47, 55, 56, 67, 68, 74, 79 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Burning Fuel Reduction Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth 122 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 2 NOF 4SI 4SM 6AO 6MA 2 NOF 2 NOF 6AO Less than one fuel reduction burn is recorded period. for the site in any 10 year One fuel reduction burn is recorded previously. for the site less than 10 years One fuel reduction burn is recorded previously. for the site less than 10 years More than one fuel reduction burn is recorded period for the site in any 10 year More than one fuel reduction burn is recorded period. for the site in any 10 year One fuel reduction burn is recorded for the site more previously. than 10 years Less than one fuel reduction burn is recorded period. for the site in any 5 year More than one fuel reduction burn is recorded period. for the site in any 5 year 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 Dry EVCs with high proportions of seed regenerating species: 7, 20, obligate 43, 61, 72-73 Dry EVCs with high proportions of seed regenerating species: 7, 20, obligate 43, 61, 72-73 Dry EVCs with high proportions of seed regenerating species: 7, 20, obligate 43, 61, 72-73 Dry EVCs with high proportions of seed regenerating species: 7, 20, obligate 43, 61, 72-73 Dry EVCs with high proportions of seed regenerating species: 7, 20, obligate 43, 61, 72-73 Dry EVCs with high proportions of seed regenerating species: 7, 20, obligate 43, 61, 72-73 EVCs with facultative and obligate resprouting species with short regeneration periods: 21, 36, 38 EVCs with facultative and obligate resprouting species with short regeneration periods: 21, 36, 38 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Burning Fuel Reduction Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 123 6MA 2 NOF 7DU 2 NOF 2MN 5RN 1NN 5IU More than one fuel reduction burn is recorded period. for the site in any 5 year One fuel reduction burn is recorded for the site more previously. than 5 years Wildfire is recorded, but post-dates API. Because growth stage cannot be ascertained, the disturbance level remains undetermined. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. GS indicates no disturbance at the canopy level. This may mean understorey disturbance or that no wildfire has occurred at this locality. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. GS indicates a disturbance has occurred. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. GS indicates a disturbance has occurred. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. There is no GS verification available classes have shortand these vegetation recovery periods following wildfire. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of up to 20 classes take these vegetation to recoveryears from fire and a wildfire is recorded less than 20 previously. 2 1 1 2 3 1 Not Not a criteria relevant selection recorded EVCs with facultative and obligate resprouting species with short regeneration periods: 21, 36, 38 EVCs with facultative and obligate resprouting species with short regeneration periods: 21, 36, 38 Not a relevant selection criteria EVCs: 20, 21, 22, 26, 36, Forested 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80 EVCs: 20, 21, 22, 26, 36, Forested 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80 EVCs: 20, 21, 22, 26, 36, Forested 38, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80 Non-forest EVCs: 7, 19, 73, 74, 82 EVCs: 18, 19, 23, 29, 82, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Classes 3-6 All classes 1-6 All classes 1-6 Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Burning Wildfire Fuel Reduction Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth 124 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 2 NOF 5MU 2MN 5IU 2 NOF 5MU

. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of up to 20 classes take these vegetation to recoveryears from fire and a wildfire recorded was more than 20 years previously. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of up to 20 classes take these vegetation to recoveryears from fire and a wildfire is recorded less than 20 previously. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of up to 20 classes take these vegetation to recoveryears from fire and a wildfire is recorded more than 20 previously. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of up to 50 classes take these vegetation to recoveryears from fire and a wildfire recorded previously. was less than 50 years Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of up to 50 classes take these vegetation to recoveryears from fire and a wildfire recorded was more than 50 years previously. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of up to 50 classes take these vegetation to recoveryears from fire and a wildfire recorded previously. was less than 50 years 1 2 2 1 1 2 EVCs: 18, 19, 23, 29, 82, 83, 84 EVCs: 18, 19, 23, 29, 82, 83, 84 EVCs: 18, 19, 23, 29, 82, 83, 84 EVCs: 30, 41 EVCs: 18, 19, 23, 29, 82, 83, 84 EVCs: 30, 41 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Wildfire Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 125 2MN 5NS 5RN 3RF , the records ° . The cause of the disturbance ° should already have been correctly ° , therefore it is assumed that the regrowth is derived from an uncharacterised ° Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys ofto up classes take these vegetation to recover50 years from fire and a wildfire recorded was more than 50 years previously. Wildfire is recorded and pre-dates API. There is no GS verification available, a long time to recover classes take frombut these vegetation fire. Growth and regrowth stage is available is recorded but no anthropogenic or natural disturbance is recorded. on slopes Anthropogenic disturbance is unlikely >20 natural cause. Although modern forestry can utilise slopes upto 25 assigned as significant un-natural. Growth and regrowth stage is available is recorded but no anthropogenic or natural disturbance is recorded. The slope is <20 cannot be assumed to natural and is therefore left uncharacterised. of such disturbance are more such that records accurate and complete, of forestry induced disturbance on slopes between 10-25 2 3 3 Not recorded EVCs: 30, 41 Non-forest EVCs: 44 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria All classes 1-6 All classes 1-6 Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category natural Natural Wildfire disturbance Disturbance Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth but assumed to be (wildfire/landslip/ tornado) not recorded 126 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 6NA 0NN 6PN 6PF 6PL 6AO ble. Because most Water bodies in the study area and wetlands are such as lakes Because most Water either constructed or highly modified and disturbed, in an old-growth context it is considered bodies aresignificantly disturbed within that water on the whole the study area. Extensive areas of bare rock occur on escarpments associated with steep mountainous areas such as the Mt Buffalo Massif. No disturbance records affect such areas. Quarries are treated separately. Inadequate disturbance information land, but there exists for private is a high oflikelihood significant disturbances. Inadequate disturbance information land, but there exists for private is a high oflikelihood significant disturbances. on public land haveConifer been established and hardwood plantations which do not meet the definition of (although some native native vegetation species may persist). They are highly disturbed environments. These areas of old forest (irregular/ moderately regular/ equally regular crowns) may have an overstorey of native species but have >50% cover of weeds and/ or >50% species as weeds. 1 Not a Not a Not a Not a Not a criteria criteria criteria criteria criteria relevant relevant relevant relevant relevant selection selection selection selection selection Label 991, 992, 995 998 (Water bodies) Label 993 (Bare rock) needs to be separation from severely disturbed, also labelled 58 land (Label 9997) All private land (Label 9997) All private Conifer Plantations (Label 57) and Hardwood Plantations (Label 121) mapped as disturbed Vegetation (Label 58) Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria 1-2 3-6 Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria bodies Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category bodies. bodies. Land Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth vegetation All water Hardwood Plantations Conifer and All bare rock excluding water excluding excluding water excluding All private land All private All private land All private Severely disturbed Table A3.10 -Table Specific details of the assignment of as assigned in the previous old-growth ta status based on disturbance level Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 127 6NA 6MA 6RA 3RF 2MN 5RN Transmission lines have various levels lines have various ofTransmission no overstorey weed invasion, and depletion of It is therefore species. significantly disturbed. These areas of mature forests (highly regular crowns crowns) may have an overstorey of native species but have >50% cover of weeds and/or >50% species as weeds. These areas of regrowth forests (regrowth crowns) may have an overstorey of native species but have >50% cover of weeds and/or >50% species as weeds. Significant disturbance implied by GS mapping due to presence of regrowth. No disturbance record to assign cause for the regrowth available and regeneration observed. A natural disturbance record and because of is available the presence of highly regular crowns it is considered to have been a significant disturbance. A natural disturbance record and is considered is available to be significant. 2 3 3 2 3 Not a criteria relevant selection Transmission Lines Transmission mapped as disturbed Vegetation (Label 58) mapped as disturbed Vegetation (Label 58) All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Land Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth record of record of record of vegetation vegetation vegetation disturbance disturbance disturbance Public land; Public land; Public Public land; no Public Severely disturbed Severely disturbed Severely disturbed 128 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 5IU 5MU 6MA 6RA 0 NOF 1 NOF Wildfire is recorded. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of time to recover classes take from these vegetation fire. Wildfire is recorded. SFRI (1995-97) GS indicates no canopy disruption, but the understoreys of time to recover classes take from these vegetation fire. An anthropogenic disturbance record and is considered is available to be significant. An anthropogenic disturbance record and is considered is available to be significant. Older growth stages imply no disturbance and record is available. howeverA disturbance record the older growth is available, stages and floristics imply no disturbance and is currently detectable. 1 2 2 3 1 1 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Land Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth negligible record of record of record of record of record of record of disturbance disturbance disturbance disturbance disturbance disturbance Public land; Public land; Public land; Public land; Public Public land; no Public Public land with a Public Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East 129 1 NOF 4SI 4SM 4SR 1NN 7DU A disturbance record is available, howeverA disturbance record the older growth is available, stages and floristics imply no disturbance and is currently detectable. A recent significant anthropogenic disturbance recorded (fuel reduction burn), the effects of are which transitory. A recent significant anthropogenic disturbance recorded (fuel reduction burn), the effects of are which transitory. A recent significant anthropogenic disturbance recorded (fuel reduction burn), the effects of are which transitory. disturbance. Non-forest with a negligible Disturbance level cannot be determined because one or more data sets are absent. 1 1 2 3 Not a Not a criteria criteria relevant relevant selection selection All forested EVCs: 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, 55, 56, 61, 67, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 80, 82, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 80, 82, 83, 84 All EVCs: 7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 44, 47, 55, 61, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 80, 82, 83, 84 All non-forested EVCs: 7, 19, 44, 73, 74, 82 Not a relevant selection criteria Criteria for Selection Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Not a relevant selection criteria Type Classes (FT) Type (EVC)/Forest Category significance category Land Projection Crown Cover class vegetation Ecological EM-Forest Comment Disturbance Old-growth negligible record of record of record of record of record of record of disturbance disturbance disturbance disturbance disturbance disturbance Public land; Public Public land; no Public land; no Public land; no Public land; no Public Public land with a Public 130 Study of Old-growth Forest in Victoria’s North East nd and the steepness of (58) or plantations were f change to each category represented was Plantation Land Boundaries on Private within Public Land Cleared Private LandCleared Private Land or Private Forested Cleared/Severely Disturbed EVC Cleared/Severely Disturbed EVC CC 1000m 500m 500m 250m 500m 250m 100m 100m ° ° slope on the adjoining public land. In addition, old-growth forest that adjoined the cleared/severely categories disturbed EVC also buffered. as a buffer width from the private land boundary. The buffer width varied depending on the presence The buffer of width varied land boundary. as a buffer width from the private la forest on the private Slope < 20 Slope > 20 Appendix 3E Public-private land buffer rules Table A3.11:Table 8.5) if The extent o land boundaries. Old-growth forest reassigned (see Table were categories private they abbutted