The Muslim Minority of Western Thrace

Home , Turks of Western Thrace, Western Thrace

AEGEAN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL DESIGN

MA Thesis

By Keratso Georgiadou

SUBJECT: «Gender and ICT: The Case of Muslim women in Western Thrace»

Rhodes, 2006

AEGEAN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL DESIGN

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Professor, M. Kalantzis RMIT, Australia Supervisor

Member of the Assoc. Professor, C. Vitsilaki, Aegean University Scientific Committee

Member of the Assis. Professor, E. Karatzola, Aegean University Scientific Committee

Rhodes, 2006

SUMMARY

This research project was not designed so much in order to make theoretical generalizations, as it was to outline the connection of young women of the Muslim minority in Western Thrace with the use of ICTs. That is, to grasp the patterns, motivations and challenges these women face in becoming digital literate and regular users of the technology, to identify their aspirations, experiences, needs and also to find out how useful ICT can be in their lives as students, professionals, and contemporary women. Also it was designed to identify their learning and communication needs, their learning experiences to date and the socioeconomic factors that affect their learning and communication attitude (both enabling and barriers). After a brief presentation of the history, demographic development and education of the minority, an overview of gender and ICT issues as they relate to the use of the Internet by Muslim women is provided. Although globalization, international protection of minorities, and the European Union’s directions, contributed to a positive change in the situation of minortities in Greece , after 1991, women of the Muslim minority, were still usually doublly “exluded”. Nonthetheles this study demonstatres the great interest tthat exist among them to obtain skills, demanded by labor market in order to succeed employability and therby finally to win their emancipation.

3 PREFACE

Thrace is an area in the northern part of Greece, near the border with Bulgaria and Turkey. One of the characteristics of Thrace is the existence of about 100.000 Muslim people, who constitute the Muslim minority. Every day someone, can listen both to the bells of the Christian churches and to the muezzin praying to his God while his voice is expanding all over the area. I have been living at Komotini, one of the three major towns of Thrace, since my birth time. All these years communicating with my Muslim neighbours, I have created relations with them, learned their language, and participated in social events of their community. All these have been extremely helpful for becoming more familiar with these people, their every day problems, their needs, their tradition and custom, their efforts to find a job, to learn the Greek language, to live with the norms of a new world determined by globalization. During the first year of the Master at the Aegean University I was carried away with the lesson “Gender and ICT” and the situations women all around the world have to face on this matter. So I thought it would be a good chance, as I am living in West Thrace, to connect this crucial subject, for our contemporary world, with this area and more specifically with the Muslim women living here. The aim was to outline their relation with ICT and give them a podium to exhibit their thoughts, problems, experiences, needs and demands about new technologies.

Komotini, Sunday 23 April 2006

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank first of all my advisor, Professor, Mary Kalantzis at the RMIT University, Australia, for her valuable assistance, her advices and ideas throughout this research. A special thanks for her precious help to Dr Eugenia Arvanitis. I would like also to thank the School of Humanities and the Department of Pre-school Education and Educational Design at the Aegean University, and more specifically, the Assoc. Professor Chryssi Vitsilakis for giving me the chance to be one of their students and conduct this research. I would like also to thank the Assoc Professor, Deborah Wheeler at the Naval Academy, USA for her fruitful emails and exchange of views during my research. Also, I am grateful to Assoc. Professor, Gerasimos Kekkeris at the Primary Education Department of the Democritus University, Thrace, for the discussions about parameters of the research that had to be considered. Also I have to thank the director of Secondary Education at Komotini, Mr Th. Pandremenos for allowing me to search in the archives of the Ministry of Education, and the headmasters of High schools Mr. B. Veginis, Mr N.Papageorgiou, Mr Aggelakis, Mr S. Kabardis, and Mrs M. Tsaousi for helping me to find elements concerning the participation of Muslim women in their schools. A special thank and gratitude to Mr. Galip Galip and Mr. Ilhan Ahmet both members of the Greek Parliament for helping me with my inquiry. I would like to thank all the women of the Muslim minority in Western Thrace, who made me, feel comfortable conducting my first research, opened their houses and talked about themselves, their everyday problems and their needs. At this point, the support of my parents, Grigoris and Maria Georgiadis, has to be acknowledged, to whose I am grateful. This dissertation is dedicated to my nephew Grigoris and my niece Alexandra with the wish to live peacefully at Komotini showing respect to Mustafa and Ayse who live just next to them, sharing the same experiences in a globalized world.

5 CONTENTS SUMMARY ...... 3 PREFACE...... 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 5 INDEX OF TABLES ...... 7 INDEX OF GRAPHS...... 8 ABBREVIATIONS...... 9 CHAPTER 1...... 10 Introduction -The Muslim minority of Western Thrace...... 10 1.1 History ...... 10 1.2 Demographical Developments ...... 11 1.3 Education...... 13 1.4 The women in the Muslim minority of Western Thrace ...... 22 CHAPTER 2...... 29 2.1 Gender and ICT ...... 29 2.2 Muslim women and Internet...... 36 CHAPTER 3...... 40 3.1 The starting-point and the goals of the research...... 40 3.2. Findings ...... 41 3.3 The research method...... 42 3.3.1 Research Strategy ...... 42 3.3.2 The Case Study Approach in Research Methodology...... 43 3.3.3 Review and Documentation Analysis...... 46 3.3.4 Sampling...... 47 3.3.5 Conduct and Design of twelve structured interviews...... 48 3.3.6 Interview Procedure and Instruments...... 50 CHAPTER 4...... 53 Presentation and analysis of data...... 53 4.1 The data analysis process ...... 53 4.2 Demographic factors that may influence relation with ICT...... 54 4.2.1 Religion ...... 55 4.2.2 Residence...... 56 4.2.3 Marital status ...... 57 4.2.4 Level of education and choice of schools...... 58 4.2.5 The occupation and the educational level of parents...... 61 4.3 Learning and Communication experiences to date...... 62 4.4 Communication and learning needs and attitudes ...... 67 Factors that affect these needs...... 80 CHAPTER 5...... 81 Conclusions/Implications ...... 81 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 88 Foreign Bibliography...... 88 Greek bibliography...... 91 APPENDICES...... 93 Appendix A ...... 93 Appendix B...... 97

6 INDEX OF TABLES

Table I : Population of the Muslim minority……………………………………………………11

Table II: Minority schools in Western Thrace……………………………………………….…. 20

Table III: Studies in Turkey for the years 1998-2005………………………………………...…..27

Table IV: Inventions and number of years to spread to 25% of the population……..….………...30

Table V: World Internet usage and population statistics……………………….……….………..31

Table VI: Women Internet usage in different regions………………………….……………..…...34

Table VII: Middle East Internet usage and population statistics……………..………………….....37

Table VIII: The identity of the sample………………………………………………………………54

Table IX: Knowledge of foreign languages………………………………………….………...... 55

Table X: The identity of the sample according to their studies…………………….……..…..…. 59

Table XI: The occupation and the educational level of parents…………………………...….…....61

Table XII: Relation with ICT…………………………………………………….…………………64

Table XIII: Appliances of NT used more…….……………………………………………...……....65

Table XIV: The more useful appliances………………..……………………………………………65

Table XV: Most necessary appliances……………………..………………………………...……...66

Table XVI: Reasons for using ICT……………………………….………………………………….66

Table XVII: Ways of communication…………………..………………………………...…………..70

Table XVIII: Demands and new forms of the ICT labour sector………………..…………...………..73

Table XIX: Factors that may affect learning and communication needs………………..…………...77

Table XX: A summary table with key findings……………………………………………………..80

7 INDEX OF GRAPHS

Graph 1: The number of minority pupils who succeeded in Greek universities with the quota …………………………………………………………….………………….…. …18

Graph 2: Number of Muslim teachers educated on computer use during the program “Information Society”………………………………………………………………...………..20

Graph 3: The number of women who succeeded in departments of Information technology in Greek Universities (1996-2005)…………...... 22

Graph 4: Participation of Muslim women in the “Second Chance” School……...……………..……....25

Graph 5: Participation of Muslim women in the Evening High School……..…………….…. ……. …26

Graph 6: A percentage of graduated students from Turkish Universities………...... ….26

8 ABBREVIATIONS

EPATH/SPAT Training College for Muslim Teachers at Thessaloniki

DIKATSA/DOATAP Organization for admission of degrees from foreign universities KESPEM Community centres for educational and psychological counselling

E.U. European Union

EKT National Documentation Centre

KETHI Research centre for equality issues

FILOTITA The name of the Panhellenic Association for supporting Muslims in Greece

NTIA National Telecommunication and Information Administration

SIGIS Strategies of Inclusion: Gender and the Information Society

9 CHAPTER 1

Introduction -The Muslim minority of Western Thrace

1.1 History

Thrace1 has been inhabited since around 2000 B.C. and her history is characterized by colonization, settlements and conquests by several tribes. According to Thucydides it was inhabited by Agrians, Alitous, Astaiaous, Apsinthious, Venous, Vesous, Visaltes, Bistones, and Vriantes. Raids by Celts, Huns, Bulgarians, Serbs, Romans and others followed. The complete conquest of Thrace by the Ottoman Turks following the fall of Constantinople in 1453 fixed the religious identity of Islamized populations. The year 1908 marked the beginning of a period of Bulgarian domination in Thrace. With the Balkan wars (1912- 1913) the Turks reoccupied the Thracian region, but the Treaties of London (1913) and Bucharest (1913) once again granted Thrace to Bulgaria. At the close of the First World War (1919), the French general Sarpy occupied Western Thrace, while the Greek troops entered Eastern Thrace. In June 1920, the whole of Thrace was occupied by Greek troops. On 24 July 1923, however, the Treaty of Lausanne granted only Western Thrace to Greece. The question of population exchanges was settled in a separate Greek-Turkish Treaty between Greek Prime Minister Venizelos and Turkish Prime Minister Inonu on January 30, 1923. Roughly 1.300.000 Greeks abandoned their homelands and migrated to Greece as refugees. 500.000 Turks as well were required to emigrate to Turkey. The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne recognised the existence of a Muslim minority in Thrace. According to this Treaty2, the Muslim populations of Thrace, and the Greek populations of Constantinople, Imvros and Tenedos were exempted from the general exchange of populations between the two countries. These populations were characterized as “non-exchangeable” (etabli). According to declarations and expectations of Prime Minister Venizelos and President Ataturk in 1923, the exempted populations were intended to become the bridge for Greek-Turkish solidarity3. Presently the Muslim minority in Western Thrace consists of approximately 110.000-120.000 individuals. The minority is concentrated mainly in Xanthi and Komotini prefectures4. Some of them also reside in Evros region. Their continued presence in Thrace, was an historic, but by chance occurrence fatal

1 Thrace, the land of Orpheus, http://alex.eled.duth.gr 2 See Appendix A 3 Panagiotides, N. (1996).The minority educational system in Greece. Alexandroupoli: Gnomi. 4 Markou, K. (1997). “Les Pomaks de Grèce”.Cahiers Balkaniques, p 51–59.

10 act, for the relations among Greece and Turkey. That was proved to be the “miracle” of nationalism which changed the accidental to fatal5.

1.2 Demographical Developments

Little data are available concerning the Muslim minority’s demographical development after 1920. As can be seen in the table below, the minority’s population is only included in some of the Greek censuses. Today the Muslim minority of Thrace, depending on estimates, numbers among 80-120.000 people, roughly the same as in the 1951 census. The demographic developments during the last century are illustrated in the table below, with information about the Muslim population added when it was available:

Table I: Population of the Muslim minority Census Xanthi Rodopi Evros Total Mixed Muslim Mixed Muslim Mixed Muslim Mixed Muslim 1920 201.404 (93.273) 1928 89.974 (39.229) 89.488 (50.432) 124.417 (12.510) 303.879 (102.171) 1940 98.575 106.575 150.790 355.940 (112.535) 1951 89.891 (42.245) 105.723 (49.660) 137.654 (6.934) 333.268 (98.839) 1961 89.591 109.201 153.930 352.722 (105.000) 1971 82.917 107.677 135.968 326.562 1981 88.777 (42.000) 107.957 (62.000) 145.531 (10.000) 342.265 (114.000) 1991 90.965 (39.115) 103.391 (56.865) 140.312 (7.900) 334.668 (103.880) Source: Aarbakke V. (2000)

The Greek-Turkish war and consequent population exchange created a demographic change in the area of Thrace after 1920. In the years following the 1922 exchange and the settlement of refugees, the population of the area increased by more than 50%. Until 1930 the minority population did not show any changes in its numbers. It was generally the wealthy members of minority who left the area to move to Turkey or to other countries during last century. During following years, until 1940, a growth in population was mentioned for both communities. Besides the Muslim community, there have also been Jewish and Armenian communities in Thrace for centuries. From 1930–1935 some people tried to leave Thrace to go to Turkey but the situation they had to face there was even worse; thus their only solution was to return back home. During the Second World War, the German-Bulgarian occupation of Thrace created cruel hardships for all the communities in the area. Many were killed, others died from hunger, still others had to evacuate the area and abandon their houses. Those who did not adopt Bulgarian names were forced to leave and found shelter in areas under

5Anderson, M.1997. In fantasy communities: Thoughts for the roots and the distribution of nationalism. Athens: Nefeli, p33

11 German occupation. During this period the Jewish community, which had been living in the area of Thrace since the 16th century, was exterminated. In March, 1943 all the Jewish community was captured by the Bulgarians and the Germans conquerors and was sent to the concentration camp of Tremplika6. Nobody ever returned back from there. The Greek civil war also had serious consequences for Thrace. A change of policies in 1953 making migration to Turkey easier marked the beginning of a wave of emigration which continued until 1960. During the sixties, a general tendency toward migration affected the structure of the population in Thrace. Mostly members of Christian population either migrated to large cities such as Athens and Thessalonica following the general trend of internal migration or emigrated, mostly to West Germany. Although authorities were more helpful to Christians, a large number of Muslims also left Thrace to settle in Germany, where a large number of their communities exist in several cities today. But in the sixties, Turkey changed her policy concerning the Muslim minority of Western Thrace, making immigration to the “homeland” more difficult, so that the minority would remain in Greece. But once more, wealthy people were favored in spite of restrictions and barriers to migration to Turkey. During these years many young people of the Muslim minority were leaving Greece to study in Turkish universities. Finding more opportunities for a better life in Turkey, many of them opted to remain there. Educated women especially, usually married there and never returned. Concerning the attitude and policy of the Greek state towards the minority during the following years, Aarbakke (2000) writes: During the years of the dictatorship (1967–1974), the Muslims were subject to oppression and various discriminations. Many wanted to leave, while Turkey tried to keep them in Greece. In the tense atmosphere after the Cyprus invasion in 1974 the demoralized minority left for Turkey in great numbers. This is considered to be the second wave of massive migration after 1953–1960. Restrictions and pressure on the minority continued up until 1991. This made many look for possibilities to leave for Turkey, while a significant number also went to Germany and other European countries as workers. According to minority sources migration was particularly high when the climate sharpened around 1988–1991. Dalègre estimated the Muslim population in the 1980s to be about 120.000, at the most 130.0007. Greek figures estimate the population of Muslims at around 105.000. If the Muslim migrants who work abroad but keep their Greek citizenship were included, the figure would be about 120.000. Almost 3% of

6 Papastratis, O. (2002), “ The Jews of Komotini”, article [Online] access: Thrace, the land of Orpheus, http://alex.eled.duth.gr 7 Dalègre, 1995. “Populations et territoire en Thrace depuis 1878”, Tome 1: Texte. Tome 2: Cartes, documents, fiches statistiques, bibliographie. Département de Géographie. Paris, Univerisité de Paris X. Nanterre, p 316.

12 the minority has settled in other parts of Greece, mainly Athens and Thessalonica, while a much larger group has settled in Turkey8. A major problem faced by Thrace through this entire period was population decline for both communities. Had the growth rate followed the national average, the population of Thrace would be 510.000 today instead of 338.0009. Concerning the constitution of the minority, Aarbakke (2000) writes: The ethnic cleavages within the minority are a sensitive issue, as the minority members usually insist that the minority is one and Turkish. The Greek authorities divide them into people of Turkish origin, Pomaks, and Gypsies. According to Greek figures the minority is today composed of 48% Turkish origin, 35% Pomaks, and 17% Gypsies. More recently a Greek report to the United Nations (2001) gives the total minority population as 98,000, with 50% Turkish, 35% Pomak and 15% Roma10. In addition to ethnicity, these groups can also described according to their domestic and economic status (rural or urban, nomadic, semi-nomadic, stock-farmers with permanent residence), and according to their religious sects (Sunnis and Bektashis, extremely religious or nonobservant).

1.3 Education

The education of the Muslim minority in Western Thrace is based on the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne, which mandates religious, linguistic and educational freedom for religious minorities in both Turkey and Greece. More precisely, in article 38 of the Treaty, the Turkish government undertakes the obligation of protecting the life and freedom of all inhabitants of Turkey regardless of sex, nationality, language, ethnicity or religion. Consequently, all inhabitants of Turkey have the right to practice their religion freely either in public or in private, providing that this is not disruptive to public order. Article 39 indicates that non–Muslim Turkish citizens are entitled to the same civic and political rights the Muslim Turkish citizens. Moreover, in article 40 the former are ensured with the right to establish, administer and control at their own expense all manner of philanthropic and religious institutions and schools, as well as use their languages freely. Finally, article 45 affirms that all the rights recognized in the articles of the Treaty of Lausanne for the non-Muslim minorities of Turkey are equally recognized by the Greek government for the Muslim minorities in Greece. (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1929).

8Notaras, Y. (1995). “The non-homogeneousness of the population ” The development of Thrace Provocations and perspectives. K.Zolotas, A.Angelopulos and I.Pesmazoglu (eds.).Athens, Academy of Athens: Publications of the Centre of research of the Greek society p 47–48. 9Ibid., p 46. 10 Dragonas, T. & Frangoudaki, A. (2006). Educating the Muslim minority in Western Thrace. Routledge Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol. 17, No. 1, 21–41, January 2006

13 As Aarbakke (2000) describes: In the field of education the opposition between Kemalists and conservatives was very pronounced. Modern Turkish education on a national basis began with the Turkish Republic. Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) set out not only to reform the existing system, but to revolutionize and transform it completely. In education, the break with the past was clearly expressed by his choice to change from the Arabic to the Latin alphabet. The conflict between old Muslim and new Turkish identity was obvious in Thrace after 1923. This happened because the muftis (religious leaders) of the minority were traditionally against the reforms that Kemalists in Turkey were bringing in order to create a modern profile for the nation of Turkey11. Tsiumis (1994) concludes that the central Greek authorities did not take sides in the conflict between conservatives and reformers but Dragonas and Frangoudaki claim that Alexandris (1992) and Nikolakopoulos (1990-1991) state that the Greek state encouraged religious conservatism among the members of the minority12. On the other hand, the General Administration of Thrace, which had direct responsibility for the matter, acted at times with exaggerated zeal, resulting in initiatives which conflicted with the policy indicated by the central authorities13. The first school in which the new Turkish alphabet was used was opened in 1928 by Osman Nuri at Hrisa (Xanthi), and was named “The Children’s Home”. Considering the changes and the reforms applied to minority education during the 82-year period following the Treaty of Lausanne, the period between 1923 and 1940 could be characterized as the period of reformation which marked the establishment of modern minority education. The 1930s marked the first efforts to institute a legal framework governing the Muslim schools14. The legislator was obliged, in 1936, to repeat in article 2 par.7 of the Law 132 of 7/25.9.1936, the obligatory teaching of the Greek language in the Muslim schools15. (The curriculum includes 50% of the lessons in Greek and 50% in Turkish). In relation to education, the Lausanne arrangements lasted until 1951. However, on the 20th of April 1951, Greece and Turkey signed an educational agreement with validity for 5 years. The necessity for the forging of educational agreements between the two countries was indicated by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs’ committee of the Council of Europe, of which both Greece and Turkey were members. According to the Agreement (Greek Ministry of Education, Department of Intercultural Education, 1954), the two countries

11 Imam,& Tsakiridi (2004). Muslims and social exclusion , Athens, Livanis, p 108 12 Dragonas, T. & Frangoudaki, A. (2006). Educating the Muslim minority in Western Thrace. Routledge Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol. 17, No. 1, 21–41, January 2006, p 22 13 Tsiumis, (1994).The Muslim minority of Western Thrace and the Greek Turkish relations1923-1940, University of Thessalonica, p163. 14 Tunta-Fergadi, (1994). Minorities in Balkans, The Balkan conferences 1930-1934. Thessalonica: Paratiritis, p. 186- 202 15Baltsiotis, L. (1997).“The Greek administration and the education of minority in Thrace” at Tsitselikis & Christopoulos (1997), The phenomenon of minority in Greece, Athens: KEMO & Kritiki, p. 323

14 were bound to establish a chair in the universities or other educational institutions of their countries, in order to provide lectures or teaching of the Turkish language, literature and history in Greece and the equivalent Greek teaching and lectures in Turkey. Furthermore, each of the two countries was entitled to found educational institutions in the other state and was obliged to encourage the collaboration between youth organizations and people for educational purposes. Article 12 indicated the need to achieve the unimpeded circulation of books, journals and other publications between the two countries and thereby a better educational impact. Besides, both parties in the agreement were required to ensure that the schoolbooks provided did not contain any inaccuracies concerning the two countries. According to the legislative decree 2203 of 1952 the “Celal Bayar” High School, named after the Turkish president, was founded in Komotini. The Xanthi High School was founded in 1965. The choice of the city of Komotini confirms its special character as the centre of the Muslim minority of Western Thrace and its special significance in the development of the minority’s problems16. In 1954 the first legislative reforms in primary education of the minority after the Second World War were attempted. After the crisis in Greek-Turkish relations in November 1967, the two governments wished to proceed with the settlement of minority problems as a means to “restore the climate of good will and mutual trust between the two countries”17. In 1968, the government of the dictatorship thus signed an educational protocol concerning the minorities of both countries. In this protocol, the treaty of reciprocity is mentioned repeatedly18. Among other decisions that were taken, the two states agreed to the unrestricted use of the minority language in the minority school curriculum. Moreover, the representatives of both minority groups confirmed serious minority language book shortages. Therefore, the representatives suggested that the problem should be resolved by the mixed Greek-Turkish educational committee, which was established by article 15 of the educational agreement of 1951. Finally, it should be noted that the representatives agreed to prohibit the use of inscriptions or the organizing of activities in minority schools that might offend “the religious or nationalistic consciousness of the Greek and Turkish nations.” In 1969 the Special Teacher’s Training College was founded in Thessalonica (EPATH/SPAT). In the beginning, the college began operating in order to produce teachers who would exclude the minority teachers with the ideological load from Turkish academies. The diversity of the teachers has continued to be a feature of minority education up until today. Aarbakke (2000) lists all the categories of teachers who worked or are now working at minority schools: 1) Those who have not even finished primary school 2) Primary school graduates 3) Medrese graduates 4) Lyceum graduates 5) Turkish religious college graduates 6) Turkish

16 Ibid., p341 17 Panagiotidis, N. M. (1996a). The minority educational system in Greece. Alexandroupoli: Gnomi 18 Troubeta, S. (2001). Constructing identities for the Muslims of Western Thrace, The example of the Pomaks and the Gypsie., Athens: KEMO & Kritiki, p 48

15 teacher college graduates 7) Turkish trade school graduates 8) Egyptian religious college graduates 9) Egyptian El Ezher college graduates 10) Hafız Reflat School graduates 11) Thessalonica Academy graduates 12) Christian religious teachers, with Greek citizenship, Pedagogy Academy graduates. Many teachers who received their degrees from Turkish teachers’ academies in the 1960s were not hired. The Greek state preferred graduates of EPATH. Today according to statistics, received by the Co- ordinating Office of Minority Education at Komotini, there are 354 teachers graduates of EPATH out of 411 teachers working at minority schools. With the signing of the educational protocols of 1951 and 1968, the Turkish language was recognized as the only official language for the entire Muslim minority. In this way, the Turkish language had been established by the state as the official language for the Pomaks and the Roma. The 1968 Protocol of the Ankara and Athens meetings of the Turkish-Greek Cultural Commission regulates the production and use of textbooks in minority schools for both minorities in Greece and Turkey.Under the protocol, each country has the right to publish textbooks for its respective minority in the other country, dependent on the review and final approval of the other country. Article 15 of the protocol regulates the process by which books are to be exchanged. It states that: a) By September 30, books or drafts of books will be forwarded through diplomatic channels to the respective authorities. b) Books or drafts of books must not contain any subjects that cause harm to relations between the two countries. The relevant authorities will remove every subject that conflicts with this principle from the drafts of texts or from pictures. c) The examination of the texts will be completed by February of the following year and the relevant parties will be informed of which subjects are to be removed. d) Two copies of the printed books will be sent by diplomatic channels no later than the end of July for the process of final approval. e) Final approval will be announced by September 1. f) Books that are approved will reciprocally, by means of the respective consulates, be sent to relevant authorities and after they place an approval stamp on them, the books will be sent for the use of all minority schools no later than September 15. The protocol has largely been unimplemented, and consequently the Turkish-language textbooks used in the minority schools were old and out-of-date, some dating from the 1950s19. Until 1999 the books were an issue of conflict among Turkish and Greek sides, with the one side sending books and the other delaying or

19 January 1999 Vol. 11, No. 1 (D) Greece The Turks of Western Thrace Human right watch http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/greece/Greec991-03.htm

16 postponing the distribution, or arranging their own group of educators responsible for writing new textbooks for the minority. Finally in 1999, after 30 years, the Greek side due to the improvement of Greek-Turkish relationships accepted the textbooks printed in Turkey and also created programs for printing new books specially written for Muslim minority pupils to facilitate their Greek knowledge. Under the 1951 education protocol and the 1968 cultural protocol, Greece and Turkey might each exchange thirty-five teachers to provide instruction in minority schools. Greece, however, had limited their number to sixteen, the number of teachers needed by the Greek minority schools in Istanbul. During the period of the Greek dictatorship until 1973, the reforms that brought fragmentary changes continued. In 1977, laws concerning minority education tried on one hand to “modernize” it, but on the other hand, the dominant view of Administration was to embody minority education in the general educational mechanism. In 1995, the Minister of Education George Papandreou instituted a law giving minority students the opportunity to enter Greek universities with a quota, and also to enter high schools with no restrictions following a lottery20. According to a Humans Rights Watch report, the lottery system gave only 150 pupils in Komotini and 100 in Xanthi the opportunity to enter secondary education, even though 1000 children were graduating each year from the minority primary schools of Xanthi and Komotini. Most of the others abandoned their educations, very few entered Greek high schools and a few more went to high schools in Turkey. As a result, the nine year mandatory education for all children in Greece was not applied for most of the minority children. The shortage of classes and the fact that the schools only functioned in the mornings limited the number of students entering high school. The number was determined by the Secretary General of the Region every year. The place where a minority student lived, (a completely Turkish-speaking village or a bilingual one, living in a city or in the mountains) affected the course of his studies; whether he/she would continue or drop out. Students in the mountainous areas are usually forced by their families to leave school in order to help in agricultural labor. Obviously girls follow this route earlier due to the status of women in the Muslim communities. Papandreou’s law requires universities and technical institutes to allot places for minority students each year. The Muslim students participate in the pan-Hellenic exams as a separate group competing among themselves. The graph below shows a yearly increase in the number of pupils gaining a place in the Greek universities. Despite this, a number of students who gain entrance to Greek universities via the quota system prefer to finish their studies in Turkish universities where a similar quota system exists for students of the Muslim minority of West Thrace. At the end of their studies in Turkey, they have to recognize their bachelor degree from Greek authorities (DIKATSA), as all students graduates from foreign universities do,

20 Baltsiotis, L. (1997). The Greek administration and the education of minority in Thrace at Tsitselikis & Christopoulos, (1997) .The phenomenon of minority in Greece .Athens: KEMO & Kritiki ,p 326-329

17 by giving exams. Today approximately 700 students of the Muslim minority study in Greek universities21. Elements and data cncerning the number of Muslim minority pupils who succeeded in Greek universities with the quota, collected form the Department of Administration of Secondary Education at Komotini are presented in the folllowing Graph 1.

Graph 1

180 160 160 140 120 112 112

100 90 91 To t a l =7 3 6 77 78 80 Me n=511 63 60 54 55 45 49 48 48 Women=225 38 36 35 34 40 31 29 33 28 22 19 24 23 13 20 9 7 9 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

The number of Muslim minority pupils who succeeded in Greek universities with the quota

At this point we must mention the European funded 1997-2004 program with the name “Education of Muslim Children”, instituted in 2001 by the Greek Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs. Directed by Professor Anna Fragkoudaki, its goal is to raise the level of Muslim primary education, improve knowledge of the Greek language among Muslim minority students and open the way for their educational success.22. The program was designed by the Special Secretariat for the Education of Greeks Abroad and Intercultural Education in collaboration with the National Kapodistrian University. With the help of this program, some of the Muslim minority primary schools succeeded in obtaining computer laboratories earlier than other minority schools not included in this program. But for the latter, computer laboratories were brought into use in 2003. The two High schools “Celal Bayar” and merdrese-i Hayriye began computer training in 2004 23.

21 Demesticha, M. (2004).Minorities in the Balkans in the era of globalization: The case of the Turks in Western Thrace, Master’s dissertation, Bogazici University 22 Askouni, N. (2002). The minority education in Thrace as a research field: The political dimensions of the research. Edition by Educational symposium : Minorities in Greece (7-9/11/2002), p 313 23 Computer lessons started at Greek mainstream schools in 1994.

Computer lab at Ierospoudastirio, medrrese-i Hayriye, Komotini 2006

During the two-year-period of 2005-2007, the Education of Muslim children program was restarted with the goal of providing more secondary school activities. More specifically, first and second degree teachers were to be trained, educational books would be published in limited numbers, the function of KESPEM (Centre for Supporting and Councelling Parents and Pupils of the Minority) would be supported and new centres are to be established as well. In addition, students of Roma origin were to be supported in order to eliminate their high dropout and failure rate.

Hasan Hasan, president of the association of EPATH’s graduated teachers, said during an interview: “During the last decade half of the graduated teachers from EPATH are women but most of them are not still working. They do not offer themselves as candidates for the board of the association. And only one has been interested in attending the computing seminars. Most of the schools have computer laboratories and access to the Internet. Some of the schools in the mountains have Internet access problems due to the networks. But the most important thing is that after their computer class, children in minority schools are heard saying that their fathers will buy a computer for them to use it every day at home”24.

24 Interview at Komotini, January 2006

19 Graph 2

40 35 35 29 30 25 Muslim Women 20 Muslim Men 15 10 10 5 0 1 0 0 2002 2003 2005

380 400 350 300 250 202 Total 200 Muslim 150 90 100 35 30 50 10 0 2002 2003 2005

Number of Muslim teachers educated on computer use during the program “Information Society”

There are 244 minority schools in Western Thrace today.

Table II: Minority schools in Western Thrace

Area Elementary Secondary Seminaries education education (medreses) Evros 22 - - Rodopi 125 3 1 Xanthi 87 6 1 Source: Kanakidou E. (1994)

20 Recently two new buildings were constructed and added more classes to the two Muslim minority High schools in Komotini, allowing Muslim minority pupils to choose whether to attend a private minority high school or a public state high school. The lottery law still exists but due to new circumstances is out of use. The absence of nursery schools for the children of the minority and their demand for functioning bilingual nursery schools must also be noted. In the 1920s there were 16 medreses in Thrace. Half of them were in the area of Komotini. Gradually they closed because of lack of interest and the changes in the education system. In 1949 the medrese-i Hayriye was opened, again in Komotini, under the auspices of the mufti. Likewise, the medrese of Ehinos in Xanthi, originally established in 1903, came back into use in 195625. They were opened to provide religious personnel for the Muslim minority. Their status is privately based. Graduates of the medreses, which are recognized as equivalent to the religious studies Lyceum in Greece, can register with the Special Academy of Thessalonica to work as teachers in the minority schools later. Today, medrese attendance is estimated at 150 students, 600 in the bilingual Muslim minority high schools and 1600 in the Greek state secondary schools26. The most significant problem faced by Muslim young people is that of language. Muslim minority members, especially graduates from minority secondary education and Turkish universities, have insufficient knowledge of the Greek language. But it can be said that there is improvement in this area, as things are improving for youngsters who graduate from Greek state high schools or Greek universities. Good knowledge and use of many languages, computer and other advanced skills, and the adaptation to changes brought by new technology and globalization will also be demanded from the Muslim minority members as well. The demands of the market brought by globalization are changing very quickly, and those ready to meet them will take part in this market. Thus the members of the minority must adjust to this new reality. Teaching Greek as a foreign language and sufficient teaching of the Turkish language as a foundation for advanced learning is the correct and only viable solution for these students. The interviews conducted during this research revealed a general demand for learning the Greek language and improving computer skills. Data from the DIKATSA archives and the results of the Pan- Hellenic exams with the quota system have showed an increasing interest and preference on the part of minority girls for information technology departments.

25Soltaridis, S. (1997). The history of muftis in Western Thrace. Athens: Nea Sinora, p142–143,154. 26 Demesticha M. (2004), Minorities in the Balkans in the era of globalization: The case of the Turks in Western Thrace, Master’s dissertation, Bogazici University p. 177 information found in the U.S. State Department , State Department’s Annual Report for International Religious Freedom: Greece 2000.

21 Graph 3

20 17 15 10 10 10 9 6 55 4 5 3 3 3 2 11 1 11 0 0 0 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Mus lim w omen Christian w omen

The number of women who succeeded in departments of Information technology in Greek Universities (1996-2005)

1.4 The women in the Muslim minority of Western Thrace

Muslim women, traditionally dressed, in the town of Komotini

For the visitor to Thrace, the most characteristic images confirming the existence of the Muslim minority are the mosques, high walled houses, and the women dressed in black with white headscarves. However, Muslim minority women dress in different ways according to the place they live, their educational level, their marital status, employment status and cultural level.

22 There are three basic institutions that shape a person’s life: school, work and the family. According to “Filotita,”27 among the total Muslim minority population, 63% are women and only 37% are men due to emigration of men seeking employment in large urban centres. Ribas Mateos (2000) in her article, after a research she conducted in the area of Thrace, claims that family structure mainly oppresses women and relegates them to a low-level of educational achievement and to confinement to the home sphere. The family structure generally oppresses women, relegating them to a low educational level and confinement to the home sphere 28. The source of this oppression within the family structure is generally the men who, in contrast, “enjoy complete freedom to spend part of their leisure time wherever they want.”29. Also for women there is high dropout rate due to the general state of minority education and Muslim family structures. In one of the Humans Rights Watch report30 we can read the statement of Ahmet Emin, a New Democracy Party prefecture councilman for Organi municipality at the time and now mayor of Organi: “The shortage of places in minority high schools disproportionately affected girls. Because there are only two minority High schools, those who want to continue in many cases must go to Christian schools because there are not enough places in the minority High schools for all. In most cases they choose to drop out. This is a rule in the case of girls, since a Muslim minority family rarely would allow the female child in the family to attend a non-Muslim school.” The rate of employment for women is very low; according to data from “Filotita” it is only 8% (Imam & Tsakiridis, 2004). Educated women, who are increasing in recent years, work professionally as doctors, dentists, lawyers, pharmacists, architects, civil engineers and in other professions. Many women are employed by factories in the region. Some of them work in agriculture, some are shopkeepers. Nowadays some can be found working in the civil services. The status of women living in the rural area and in the mountains is different, as they seem to be doubly discriminated against and excluded. In this region where

27 The name of the Panhellenic Association for supporting Muslims in Greece. 28 [In general, gender differences were more salient in Gazi than among Greek audiences. Women spent more time at home and were less educated and less fluent in Greek than Gaziot men. Generally, there was a discernible gender segregation reflected in the uses of space and the media: men play cards at the clubs, or drink coffee or beer in the square, while women go to the playground with the younger children, or stay at home. Younger men go out to cafeterias in different parts of Athens, while younger women have to be chaperoned by their husbands, brothers or male relatives to go out in the early evenings. While men spend their time in the square or around the city, women often exchange visits, or gather in their backyards to chat.] from the article of Madianou , M. (2005). Contested Communicative Spaces: Rethinking Identities, Boundaries and the Role of the Media among Turkish Speakers in Greece. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies Vol. 31, No. 3, May 2005, pp. 521_/541 29 Ribas Mateos Natalia (2000), Old communities, excluded women and change in Western Thrace (Thracian Greece, the Provinces of Xanthi, Rhodopi and Evros), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Departament de Sociologia Barcelona Spain, [email protected] 30 January 1999 Vol. 11, No. 1 (D) Greece The Turks of Western Thrace Human right watch http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/greece/Greec991-03.htm

23 tobacco is still cultivated in the traditional manner, with the work organised into household units, gender divisions are present in agricultural tasks as well as in family roles31. The women in these areas depend on the family income without being paid for their labour. The factors which exclude women from the local labour market are: lack of education and training, the traditional structures of their society, the male status quo, unsufficient knowledge of Greek language and sometimes, discrimination towards Muslims. In rural areas and in lower middle-class urban neighborhoods, families have been reluctant to send their daughters to school, even though nine years of education are compulsory in Greece ( Kanakidou 1994,1996, Tressou 1997, Askouni 2002, Imam & Tsakiridis 2004). Phenomenons of humiliation and affronts to human dignity against the female Muslim population, especially the traditionally dressed, when asking for a jobs, have been reported as part of this study, thus preventing women from entering in the local labor area. Recently, numerous incidents of discrimination have been recorded by the Muslim press, suggesting that many employers (including, for instance, McDonalds) exhibit hostility toward Muslim women employees who refuse to remove their headscarves at work32.

The relevations of an interviewee during the research is remarkable: “When we went to cafés or bars around the town square wearing our scarves the waiters would come and tell us that the owner of the shop did not want women dressed in this way and asked us to leave, or when we were asked them to come to order a coffee they would ignore us, so we were obliged to leave. (Ozlem, no11)

Imam and Tsakiridis(2004), claim:“When women do not have a minimal personal income, to support their emancipation, they usually confront situations of pressure and some times have to suffer domestic violence”33. Heavy consumption of tranquilizers by minority women is a well-known issue. Consequently, the every day life of the Muslim woman takes place in the courtyard of her house and in neighborhood. The home environment provides them more freedom. The research revealed that via television, school and computers, women nowadays are gaining awareness of urban lifestyles, socializing with people from other places, being modernized by news from

31 Ribas Mateos Natalia (2000), Old communities, excluded women and change in Western Thrace (Thracian Greece, the Provinces of Xanthi, Rhodopi and Evros), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Departament de Sociologia Barcelona Spain, [email protected] 32StevenVertovechttp“Islamophobia and Muslim ecognition in Britain” www.oup.com/pdf/0195148053_01.pdf 33 Imam, M. and Tsakiridi, O. (2004). Muslims and social exclusion. Athens: Livanis, p136, 146

24 the outside world, improving their skills, and preparing themselves to enter into the workforce that has been so closed to them. Nowadays, programs managed by the Ministry of Labor and the General Secretariat of Adult Education, and funded by the European Union, aim to improve their fluency in Greek, raise their professional and computer skills, introduce them to the world of commerce and equip them to create their own jobs. During recent years, programs funded by the E.U. gave the opportunity to many minority women to create their own minor jobs. Also significant is the great interest on the part of the women in the “Second chance” high schools and “Evening high schools”, where they try to finish school and continue their studies and also their interest for the acquisition of the European Computer Driving Licence(ECDL). In these schools they get the chance to finish school and continue their studies simultaneously with their work. For the two “Second chance” high schools, one at Komotini and the other at Sappes(a multicultural village) the research showed that for the latter, for the year 2005-2006 (first year of its function), there were 16 Muslim women among 53 totally. For the former the following graph describes the situation in the school, concerning Muslim students, for the first three years of its function.

Graph 4

"Second chance" high school of Komotini

60 57 52 53 50 40 Total(Mixed) 26 30 23 Muslim Men 20 15 15 Muslim Women 10 77 0 2003 2004 2005

Participation of Muslim women in the “Second chance” high school

As for the “Evening high school” the following graph shows the participation and the interest of the Muslim women for continuing their education and increasing their literacy level.

25 Graph 5

Evening high school

100 92 82 80 64 58 60 Total(Mixed) Mus lim Men 35 38 40 Mus lim Women 24 27 20 11 10 3 4 0 2001 2002 2003 2004

Participation of Muslim women in the Evening high school

Data concerning the choices of Muslim minority students at Turkish universities for the years 1998 – 2005 was collected from the files kept in the offices of Mr Galip Galip and Mr Ilhan Ahmet both members of the Greek Parliament. In these files the researcher selected information for 147 women out of 457 in total, men and women. The data do not represent all the DIKATSA archives data for the years 1998–2005, but constitute a small indicative example as there are probably data for more students for these years.

Graph 6

120 108 100

78 80 71 70 66

60 53 52 54 46 Total 38 40 34 Men 26 26 27 27 22 21 Women 2017 18 20 20 13 3 4 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

A percentage of graduated students from Turkish Universities

Table III includes the choices of 147 women in the departments of Turkish Universities.

Table III: Studies in Turkey for the years 1998-2005

Total:457 / Women:147 Medicine 12 Pharmacist 16 Religious studies 5 Dentistry 10 Law 4 Management 15 Psychology 7 Architecture 4 English literature 17 Biology 4 Information technology 3 Fine Arts 2 International Relations 2 Mathematics 1 Journalism 2 Sociology 1 Literature 9 Nursery 8 Logistics 5 Industrial engineering 4 Chemistry 1 Chemical engineering 1 Interpretation 2 Teacher's Training College 6 House economy 3 Gymnastics 2 Civil engineering 1 Physiotherapy 1

DIKATSA archives given by the two parliamentarians, show women’s choices for their studies in Turkish universities to be variable and less traditional than in earlier years, with low orientation toward information technology. Generally, Muslim minority women’s interest for studying is increasing, and as from this outcome, a general change to Muslim minority’s status is expected. This can be equivalent to a Chinese

27 proverb that says: “ If you want to educate a family educate a man. If you want to educate a nation educate a woman”

"Razanne" student Barbie doll, complete with headscarf,

28 CHAPTER 2

2.1 Gender and ICT

More than a century after the industrial revolution, we are in the throes of another major shift in human civilisation – the information revolution that has given birth to the “information society”. The “information society” is among the most discussed phenomena in recent times. New information and communication technologies (ICT), especially the Internet, have been seen as ushering in a new age. As participants in this information age, humans experience exciting changes in the way their lives are organised today. ICT and Internet reach many people, have a wide geographical coverage and are efficient in terms of time and cost. They facilitate access to markets, commercial information, new processing technologies and knowledge. The defining characteristic of the ICT is the capacity to harness access and apply information and diffuse knowledge at electronic speed to all types of human activity, thereby giving rise to contemporary knowledge-based economies and societies. This digital revolution is transforming social, economic, cultural and political interactions the world over. Internet is emerging as a source of considerable potential for individuals, businesses and countries. While considerable optimism is vested in the promise of information and communication technologies for human progress, it is also true that the information age is not all rosy – the benefits of this new age have not touched all of humanity, and all its outcomes are not necessarily positive. The rhythm of growth for ICT and the speed of their spreading in almost all human activities have taken impressive dimensions in our days. Technology is something more from a tool. It is the mean that influences the progress of our thought and interaction with others, with machines, as well as our conscience, our visions and our expectations. The interaction among technology and society is so big that their implications on the environment, the society and the person are expanded beyond the direct aims of the technological innovations and their implementations34. In the year 2000, the Internet had 150.000 new users per day and 2 million web pages were added daily. Turkle (1995) argues, Internet is the material expression of the philosophy of postmodernism35.

34 Makrakis, B. (2000). Multimedia in Education. Athens: Metaihmio, p.18 35 Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet. New York: Simon and Schuster

29 Gender issues in ICTs were highlighted in international level for the first time at the fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, and the issue of gender issues in ICT policy has been on the international scene for only six years. Papers on gender issues, particularly in policy, were presented at the World Telecommunications Development Conference organized by ITU in Valletta, Malta in 199836.

Table IV: Inventions and number of years to spread to 25% of the population

Electricity 1873 46

Telephone 1876 35

Automobile 1886 55

Airplane 1903 64

Radio 1906 22

Television 1926 26

VCR 1952 34

Microwave Oven 1953 30

Personal Computer 1975 16 Number of years 1983 Cellular 13 to spread to 25% of the population Internet 19917

0 10203040506070

Source: http://www.eAPF.net

As it was pointed out in the Expert Group Meeting in Seoul (2002): while the potential of ICT for stimulating economic growth, social development and political participation is recognized, the benefits are unevenly distributed between and within countries. This has been coined the “digital divide”, or “information poverty”, to describe the difference between those countries, regions, sectors and socioeconomic groups which have the resources and capabilities to access knowledge through ICT, and use ICT for a multitude of purposes, and those lacking such access and capabilities. At the same time, a “gender

36 Hafkin, N. (2002). Gender Issues in ICT Policy in Developing Countries: An Overview.United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) Expert Group Meeting on “Information and communication technologies and their impact on and use as an instrument for the advancement and empowerment of women” Seoul, Republic of Korea 11 to 14 November 2002

30 divide” within the digital divide is apparent and reflected not only in the lower numbers of women users of ICT, compared to men, but also in the persistence of gender-specific structural inequalities that constitute barriers to access. ICT may also create new forms of inequality between women and men37.

Table V: World Internet usage and population statistics

Population Internet % Usage Usage Population World Regions % of Usage, Population % of Growth ( 2006 Est.) World Latest Data Penetration World 2000-2005 Africa 915.210.928 14.1 % 22.737.500 2.5 % 2.2 % 403.7 % Asia 3.667.774.066 56.4 % 364.270.713 9.9 % 35.7 % 218.7 % Europe 807.289.020 12.4 % 290.121.957 35.9 % 28.5 % 176.1 % Middle East 190.084.161 2.9 % 18.203.500 9.6 % 1.8 % 454.2 % North America 331.473.276 5.1 % 225.801.428 68.1 % 22.2 % 108.9 % Latin 553.908.632 8.5 % 79.033.597 14.3 % 7.8 % 337.4 % America/Caribbean Oceania / Australia 33.956.977 0.5 % 17.690.762 52.9 % 1.8 % 132.2 %

100.0 WORLD TOTAL 6.499.697.060 100.0 % 1.018.057.389 15.7 % 182.0 % %

Source: http://www.internetworldstats.com last access 18/3/2006

By the end of seventies, the automatic labor concerning computers was one of the most important characteristics of employment for both men and women38. New technologies initially were conceived as a new industry with no historical inheritance of gender discriminations and as they were changing rapidly they seemed to be relatively approachable from women. In the decade of 1980s males appeared the dominants of computers, and gender differantation was stabilized. After approaching the maximum rate in 1987(50.2%), a decrease of women’s participation in computer and information industry started gradually in the West countries and even in Australia. This is easily combined with the low rate of women’s participation in maths and science39. It was obvious by then, that new technologies were embodying forces of correlation and that for women it would not be easy to overcome the stereotypes of gender. Some of the reasons for this initial unequall behaviour towards computers are focused on, the identification of computers with maths and science which are fields full of sterotypes for women (Miura & Hess 1983, Durndell,

37Information and communication technologies and their impact on and use as an instrument for the advancement and empowerment of women Report of the Expert Group Meeting Seoul, Republic of Korea, 11 – 14 November 2002, p.6 38 Webster, J. (1996). Shaping Women’s Work. Longman Sociology Series, p.11 39 Ahuja, M. (1995). Information, Technology and Gender Factor. SIGCPR. Nashville USA, p.156

31 1987)40, the lack of access to computers by females, the gender-inappropriate software used, the sex-role stereotyped games distributed, the games focused on violent examples, and the lack of female protagonists in the area of ICT. Boys and girls have very different views on why and how to use a computer. Boys often see computers and technology as a source of power. Most computer games are designed for boys and include violence, male characters, and repetition. Girls view and use computers as a tool to achieve an end result, as a tool to write papers, create presentations, do research for their classes and also as a social tool for communiation (Verbick, 2002). As Kaplan (1994) pointed out, men want to command the machine and its features, but women want to be able to use the machines. Males used new technology to protect and stabilize the “patriarchism of the society”, which usually encourages men to take advantage of new technology and on the contrary, pushes women aside to more domestic roles. Furthermore, Herring (1995) found evidence of male dominance and resistance to female participation on Internet. Generally, males adopt various mechanisms to silence women’s participation in computer-mediated mixed-sex discussions. Women are not only earning fewer degrees in computer science, but are also becoming a smaller percentage of the professional ICT workforce due to many factors as the sexism women face from their male peers, the lack of role models in the industry, and the socially conditioned thinking that computers are for men only. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics in U.S. women represent 46 percent of the total workforce but only 25 percent of the professional IT workforce (Verbick, 2002). An older argument, already raised in the eighties, was that women working in the project design and systems analysis were more inclined than men to take into account the concerns of the users and to implement participative methods of systems design. In a research on technostress, Elder, Gardner and Ruth (1987) found that females are more likely to experience technostress (physical and emotional burnout caused by inability to adapt to new technology) in using PCs compared to males.

‘The so-called digital divide is actually several gaps in one. There is a technological divide – great gaps in infrastructure. There is a content divide. A lot of web-based information is simply not relevant to the real needs of people. And nearly 70 per cent of the world’s websites are in English, at times crowding out local voices and views. There is a gender divide, with women and girls enjoying less access to information technology than men and boys. This can be true of rich and poor countries alike.’41 UN secretary General, Kofi Annan

40See at: Makrakis, B. (1998). Analyzing needs, as a base of designing, development and evaluation of educational software. Educational Research Center. Symposium: “The use of ICT in Education”. Research approaches.

41 http://www.un.org/apps/sg/sgstats.asp?nid=695 (last access 24/4/2006)

32 As Marcelle (2000) states poverty, illiteracy, lack of computer literacy and language barriers are among the socio-cultural factors impeding access to the ICT infrastructure, especially in developing countries, and in rural areas and these problems are particularly acute for women. But women’s access to ICTs is also constrained by socially and culturally constructed gender roles and relationships, which remain the basic factors shaping and limiting the capacity of women and men to participate on equal terms in the information society. Cultural attitudes discriminate against women’s access to technology and technology education. Silvera (2000) verifies that many researches document the fact that parents, on the base of traditional gender stereotypes and perceptions, make sure of the familiarization with new technological products for the boys but not for the girls, by spending double amounts of money for boys than girls on computers. Part of the reason girls may not have access to a computer at home is because the computer is typically placed in the boy's bedroom instead of being placed in an open family area (Verbick, 2002). Other researches in the area of school show that teachers’ and even boys’ attitude in the classroom tend directly and indirectly to exclude girls from equal access to computers and consequently to undermine girl’s access to opportunities in the emerging knowledge and information society and also diminish the potential of ICT to be an effective tool for the promotion of gender equality (Hartman, 1986, 1987). In most countries, the typical Internet surfer used to be male, young (in particular in the developing countries) under the age of 35, well educated and well off, living in urban areas and English speaking. This stereotype is changing, in some countries rapidly, in others slowly. In general, the gender digital divide is bigger in countries where women have less access to education than men (as is the case in many poor countries) and in those that for cultural or religious reasons discriminate against women. Women who have less income than men usually cannot afford the cost of buying a computer, for a use at home, or to get connected with Internet. In addition women are less likely to own communication assets – radio, mobile phone. Women in poor households do not have the income to use public facilities. As a result, many women stay digital illiterate, comparing with men who may have access through their jobs or public places such as schools, universities, Internet cafes and community centres. These places are also often less accessible to women, who are often excluded from basic and higher education and who may for cultural and religious reasons have less access to public places. Information centres may be located in places that women are not comfortable visiting. Women’s multiple roles and heavy domestic responsibilities limit their leisure time. Centres may not be open when it is convenient for women to visit them. It is more problematic for women to use facilities in the evenings and return home in the dark. The dominance of English as the language of Internet has led to the exclusion of a majority of the world's population who does not speak English. Women without access to formal schooling that allows them to learn foreign languages are again marginalized. Language has been cited by women as being one of the top barriers to Internet usage.

33 Table VI: Women Internet usage in different regions Arab States 6% of all users Latin America 38% of all users European Union 25% of all users China 37% of all users Russia 19% of all users Japan 18% of all users South Africa 17% of all users United States 50% of all users Source: D Wheeler42

Women’s participation in ICT careers and courses of study lags far behind men although there are quite large differences between countries. Even where women do have access to basic education, few women pursue careers in ICT professions a phenomenon probably based on employers’ sexist stereotypic prejudices (women cannot rule, cannot have rationalistic thought, etc) or even on economical business criterions( women leaving for pregnancy) (Vitsilaki, 2004). Hence, if women want to move into high- skilled ICT employment, the number of women trained in ICT has to be increased. The workplace is a primary place to learn about ICTs, and use is higher in technology industries and more senior management areas where women are less in evidence than men. The result of the above is that women are chronically under-represented in precisely the jobs that are key to the creation and design of technical systems in the new economy. The nexus between home and work is a key one for understanding the relationship between gender and technology. (SIGIS – ‘Strategies of Inclusion: Gender and the Information Society’). Abrahamson (2001) points out that, even when women are hired do no have equal chances for training and education in order to obtain professional development because employers do not consider them as a safe investment, and training which is not provided during working-hours is opposite to their domestic and family obligations. In this way lifelong learning as a basic condition for employability, is violated from the beginning. According to DeBare (1996), the typical work week in the computer industry is 60 hours. If deadlines are pressing, it is nothing for computer professionals to put in at least an 80 hour week and survive on fast food and pizza. Men seem not to have any problem living in such an environment, but women due to family responsibilities cannot cope with it, as many companies are unwilling to offer flexible work hours. Many of the female IT professionals who are successful contribute a large part of their success to their decision to not have children, thereby eliminating the need for flexible scheduling and shorter hours. The roots of the high-tech gender gap are deep. It starts in childhood, when girls encounter a world of video games designed almost exclusively for boys. It intensifies in adolescence, when most girls steer clear of computer classes, limiting the pool of female talent that companies can eventually tap known as the "pipe-

42 Wheeler, D.(2005).Gender Matters in the Internet Age: Voices from the Middle East, in the Technology in a Multicultural and Global Society. NTNU. Norway, p.27

34 line problem". And it continues into adulthood -- when women programmers and engineers face their own version of the "glass ceiling" that impedes women in many industries.

In the nineties a great exposure to computers for both males and females took place with a new turn for the better for women. When women are provided with computer instruction and experience, their attitudes and behaviors are not different from males. (Smith (1986) and Arch & Cummins(1989)). Subsequent researches of Gattiker & Hlavka (1992) showed no gender differences when comparing attitudes of computer owners. The decision of someone’s to own a computer was viewed as self- socialization. However, as they pointed out, increased access to computers at work may have lessened the value of ownership as a basis for comparison. The research data of Ray, Sormunen, & Harris (1999) support the conclusion that females are more positive about computers than males. Not only do women regard the value of computer technology as a way to simplify tasks and to increase productivity, but it also presents evidence to support the belief that women have become more comfortable with technology, removing a stumbling block to opportunities related to technology. Wajman (2005) claims that “early concern about women being left out of the communications revolution, victims of the digital divide, now seems misplaced. A proliferation of mobile phones, the Internet, and cyber cafes are providing new opportunities and outlets for women. While the early adopters of the Internet were overwhelmingly men, recent data from the USA shows no gender difference in Internet use (NTIA 2002). China, a country where Internet take-up is relatively recent, shows how rapidly change can occur. Over an eight-year period from 1997, the proportion of Internet users who were female rose from 12 per cent to 39 per cent (CNNIC 2005). Certainly in the Western world, already there seems to be no gender gap whatsoever in relation to ownership or access to the mobile phone. Especially among younger people, this artefact is not culturally coded as either masculine or feminine”43. A technofeminist approach (Wajcman, 2005) stresses that gender relations and ICTs are inextricably linked. It foregrounds the need to understand the way women’s lives, identities and needs are being reconfigured along with digital technologies. Certainly, if the promise of the new knowledge-based economy is to be realised, it is imperative that reproducing the old gendered divisions of work and technology is avoided, and gender equality is placed at the centre of the project. Women are key agents of development and their equal participation in decision-making processes is an essential precondition for equitable and holistic development. DeBare (1996) highlights that “Computers have already transformed a wide range of other professions, including ones like secretarial work that employ millions of women. And as more and more business is done through electronic networks like the Internet, computer technology will become a key part of almost all industries, from banking to book publishing. If

43 Wajcman, J. (2005). The Gender Dimension of Information and Communication Technology.World Bank forum on ICTs., p.3

35 women are not allowed to move up in this very crucial profession, which may become the dominant profession in the next century, they are relegated to second-class status. If women are not versed in technology, they will be left by the wayside in the next millennium”

2.2 Muslim women and Internet

Source: “Islamic Voice”

The first person to convert to Islam, back in the 7th century, was a wealthy businesswoman named Khadijah. She was also the wife of Mohammed, the founder of Islam. Mohammed is said to have encouraged women to participate actively in business, community decision-making, some say even combat. However, Samer Hathout, co-founder of the Muslim Women's League in Los Angeles, says today: “Muslim women don't necessarily have the same status Mohammed granted those centuries ago. Women, she says, suffer from centuries of misinterpretation of Islamic tradition. But these ideas are being challenged on the Internet. The Muslim Women's League Web site posts background articles analyzing women's inheritance, marriage, divorce and political rights under Islamic law and tradition”44.

Muslim girls at a photo shop developing digital photos, Komotini 2006

44 http://www.islamicvoice.com Safar 1422H- Muslim Women.htm, last access 28/2/2006

36 Table VII: Middle East Internet usage and population statistics

Use Internet % MIDDLE Population Usage, in (%) of Growth Usage, Population EAST ( 2006 Est. ) Dec/2000 M.E. (2000- Latest Data (Penetration) 2005) Bahrain 723.039 40.000 152.700 21.1 % 0.8 % 281.8 % Iran 69.442.905 250.000 7.500.000 10.8 % 41.2 % 2.900 % Iraq 26.628.187 12.500 36.000 0.1 % 0.2 % 188 % Israel 7.109.929 1.270.000 3.200.000 45.0 % 17.6 % 152 % Jordan 5.282.558 127.300 600.000 11.4 % 3.3 % 371.3 % Kuwait 2.630.775 150.000 600.000 22.8 % 3.3 % 300 % Lebanon 4.509.678 300.000 600.000 13.3 % 3.3 % 100 % Oman 2.424.422 90.000 245.000 10.1 % 1.3 % 172.2 % Palestine(West 3.259.363 35.000 160.000 4.9 % 0.9 % 357.1 % Bk.) Qatar 795.585 30.000 165.000 20.7 % 0.9 % 450 % Saudi Arabia 23.595.634 200.000 2.540.000 10.8 % 14 % 1.170 % 2.566.7 Syria 19.046.520 30.000 800.000 4.2 % 4.4 % % United Arab 3.870.936 735.000 1.384.800 35.8 % 7.6 % 88.4 % Emirates 1.366.7 Yemen 20.764.630 15.000 220.000 1.1 % 1.2 % % TOTAL 190.084.161 3.284.800 18.203.500 9.6 % 100 % 454.2 % Middle East Source: http://www.internetworldstats.com last access 18/3/2006

The Internet is abolishing race, class, gender and even age which have been factors through centuries for oppression. It can be secured the invisibility of the physical characteristics of the person who participates in cyberspace. Groups such as women and minorities can cross the barriers that usually confront. Due to the unsuitable environment and patriarch structures of their societies, many Muslim women have a restricted life. Usually girls are prohibited to enter universities although they secure high marks. Even talented and educated Muslim women lack opportunities. The net is providing a non- corporate, gender-neutral environment that is a big lure, especially in cultures where women have education but lack opportunity. But the net also has opened up new avenues for higher education. There are virtual universities offering courses at both graduate and postgraduate level. Recent statistics show that the typical online learners are between the age of 17 and 57. Approximately 52 per cent of these students are females. The virtual universities provide the facilities of the bulletin board on line. Their students submit

37 assignments and check their grades online, often with highlighted comments and even with a recorded audio attachment from the professor. Muslim women through Internet search and find well qualified and experienced female doctors. By seamless access to medical information on the Internet and by posting their problem on the online community of doctors they can complete their treatments with the assistance of their local female doctor.

An Afghan woman learns to use computers and the Internet in Peshawar, Pakistan. Photo: Afghan Institute for Learning

In urban areas where communities are scattered, some time finding suitable partners is very tedious45. Moreover, the Internet might give young people more sovereignty over the choice of a spouse. Often family members choose a spouse for their child based upon standards related to what might improve or protect the social status of the family as a whole. Thus, sometimes the question of love is not a factor, and familiarity is not encouraged46. Through email more and more young people try obtain communication with each other before marriage. It can be said that cyberspace is a zone where there is no distinction between the veiled and the unveiled, since the computer itself acts as a form of veil. The cyber veil is a reality that allows women to see the world by surfing it. The net is helping rediscovering of old friends. Muslim women are as free as men to meet their friends online after getting married or completing education. E-mail provides the privacy, which was lacking with telephones and it also eliminates the distance. In a society where mobility makes women vulnerable, e-mail acts as a permeable veil through which interaction is possible without eye contact. The world as it is formed by the domination of males is unfriendly for professionally competent Muslim women. In a Muslim society interaction with men is confronted with suspicion even for creative, educated, professional women. As for this, Internet provides the anonymity demanded for receiving information on latest development around the world with no restrictions that the gender may provoke. In this way they succeed to keep a high professional level.

38 Many sites that deal exclusively with the women issues such as information on pregnancy, fertility, jobs, home business, home investing, breastfeeding, depressions, relationship issues among families, caring for the aged and adjustment with families settled abroad, exist. As the importance and safety provided by the networking becomes known, more and more Muslim women are finding Internet as boon. It also can be said that the Internet can evolve into a tool for gender activism, in an increasingly conservative social environment where interaction with the opposite sex is becoming more and more difficult47. Muslim women in particular are coming together on the Internet and creating a cyber-sisterhood unimaginable some years ago. Many of these women new to Islam need a neutral place to go for support and basic information. Sisters in deen from all over the world are able through Internet to provide one another with encouragement and resources in areas as diverse as infertility, wearing the face veil with confidence and finding the best Islamic websites for children.They are studying together, discussing together, and generally using the Internet to make their voices heard in a society, which has often been too quick to judge what it means to be a Muslim woman. Indeed, one of the major benefits of the Internet for Muslim women is the opportunity to share their views of Islam. Many women have made their own websites and thus opened up a world of information to curious non-Muslims who may have not have previously had a glimpse into the Islamic lifestyle from the "inside". At the minimum, many wrong ideas about Islam have been refuted on the Internet, and people are beginning to realize that Islam does not reject the use of modern technology such as the computer. Muslim women who do work consider the Internet indispensable in that it allows them to work from home in a variety of fields, something that is also gaining popularity in the larger society. In addition, women who enjoy shopping from home are especially happy to see hard-to-find Islamic clothing and other products for sale on-line. Clearly, the Internet is a very powerful tool with unlimited potential in so many vital areas. As the whole of society continues to explore this unique resource, Muslim women are sure to do the same in order to fortify their presence on the Web and create an even stronger voice for themselves in the process. As for the following study to be presented, similar questions influenced by the above findings, were posed to the participants. As it will be seen by the results, the young women of the Muslim minority in Western Thrace confront similar problems as many Muslim women do all over the world. An attempt to connect these generalizations with the specific group of Muslim women living in North-Eastern part of Greece will be described. Communication via Internet, use of new technology for improving skills, on line studies, information on subjects of their concern, chatting with males, teleworking are some of the interests of the twelve young Muslim women detected through their interviews.

47 Ibid., p. 197.

39 CHAPTER 3

3.1 The starting-point and the goals of the research

The bibliographical review carried out by the researcher in the Greek bibliography, did not show any research, surveys or articles specializing on the subject of gender, ICT and Muslim women of the minority in Western Thrace. On the contrary much research was found which was conducted on similar subjects in Muslim countries. The subject of Gender and ICT has been under the microscope during the last few years around the world, and in Greece as well, as a result of the tremendous spread of computers in every day life, especially in the area of labor, in order to describe the influence of scientific and technological innovations on the society that in newly experiencing them. The permanent residency of the researcher in the area of Thrace, an area of great multicultural interest; the continual changes in the local society following immigration of people with different languages, cultures, religions into the area; the influences of globalization and the European Union; the impact of information technology and the demands of the market were the starting point in determining the subject of this research. It was challenging to research in a Muslim community and in particular, to research the world of women of this community to see how adaptive they are to all the abovementioned changes. The level of education offered this community, the structure of the Muslim family and the influences stemming from the Greek environment are factors taken into consideration throughout this research. But the basic problems that had to be examined were: • whether these women use new technologies and have access to and use of the media, • what experiences and needs of ICTs they have, • what enables and hinders this use, • whether the access gap is a product of gender-specific factors or of socioeconomic differences between men and women, • whether religion influences their attitude towards new technologies, • whether they participate in studies and employment of computer science and engineering research, and • which of the ICT appliances they use more frequently and for what reason.

The absence of a general bibliography on Muslim minority women in Thrace creates an information gap concerning the social life of a part of the minority, and many opportunities for further research. But it is safe to say that the choices and opportunities for improvement in this part of the Muslim minority group influence the future of the minority as a whole, and the life of the total population of the area as well. This

40 research aims to describe these women’s efforts to adapt to the demands of today’s world; to escape the restrictions brought about by their status as members of the Muslim minority, which involves concrete behaviors for both men and women; and also their desire for opportunities to benefit from the myriad possibilities of the information age. The particular aims of the research were to examine: • The reasons and goals of computer and internet use by women; • The impact of school and family on the computer use; • The factors that influence communication and learning needs; • The age of first computer and internet use; • The average duration of computer use; • The places where computer use was learned; • The possession or not of e-mail addresses and communication via computer; and • The existence of technophobia. Here it must be mentioned that the research was done only in the area of Rodopi and not in the area of Xanthi and Evros where Muslims live as well. The reason is that this was a first approach to the subject and the researcher wished to be able to contact women, as approaching women with a different culture, religion language and customs and also living in another region would likely be difficult. Considering this during the research, it was obvious that in the beginning informants, and their guardians to other women were necessary. Language imposed a limit as well, and for this reason the questionnaire was of a more quantitative nature.

3.2. Findings

The general findings of the research is that women of the Muslim minority of Western Thrace are influenced by new technologies, are informed about their use, show a positive attitude towards them, use them in their everyday lives and try to take advantage of their skills through information technology. The associated findings of the research are the following: 1) Profession and the educational level of parents influence their attitude towards computers 2) The place of residence (town or village) determines whether they use computers or not. 3) Choice of school influences the time of first use of computers. 4) Level of their education influences use of computers. 5) Their relation to religion (veiled or unveiled) plays no role in these choices. 6) Marriage or presence of children does not constitute an obstacle to computer use.

41 7) Family relations constitute an obstacle to the mobility demanded by ICT professions. 8) Distance learning is an acceptable means to improve their skills. 9) Technophobia in women depends on their educational level. 10) The existence of men in groups or schools is not an obstacle to learning to use computers. The veiled women declared a preference than men not be present in these groups. 11) The women are interested in participating in clubs and associations thus gaining the ability to socialize and help others. 12) The women (working, students, or even unemployed) consider the computer necessary for work. 13) The women do not consider the computer use to be male realm. 14) The struggle and desire to find a job permits them to accept full-time jobs, working many hours as the information technology market demands, even working online. 15) Most of the women have computers, internet connections and e-mail addresses. 16) The women use computers for searching websites, studies, communicating with friends and for Microsoft Office applications.48 17) The women use new technologies in their everyday lives and consider them necessary. 18) Their families encouraged them to use computers. 19) The women become informed on feminine issues through the internet.

The findings mentioned above are directly connected to the aims of the research and the thematics of the questionnaire. They were formed following a bibliographical documentation of similar research and an exchange of views and thoughts with the supervisor.

3.3 The research method

The research strategy used in this dissertation can be described as a case study survey using an ethnographical approach. It involves a snowball sample of twelve structured interviews with women from the local Muslim minority. In addition it includes a review of the literature and a search for and analysis of archival material.

3.3.1 Research Strategy

The case study survey and qualitative research were preferred over a quantitative approach because of the variety of types of women that can be found within the Muslim minority of Western Thrace. The population of Muslim women in the area of Rodopi is estimated at 25.000–30.000 persons. An overview of this population reveals a mixture of Islamic influences and structures, of impacts from the modern (after

48 © trade mark of Microsoft Co.

42 Mustafa Kemal Ataturk’s reforms) state of Turkey, and from integration into Modern Greek culture and society. Women of this minority circulate in different figures: veiled, unveiled, with the oldest in black traditional gowns, the younger in long raincoats, with modern clothes and headscarves, or without headscarves. They are educated and uneducated, working women and domestic women. Most of the women work in rural areas. Some live in the towns, some live in the villages, and some live in the mountains. According to Hamersley and Atkinson (1995): Ethnography is a particular method or set of methods which in its most characteristic form …involves the ethnography participating overtly or covertly in people’s daily lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what it said, asking questions – in fact, collecting whatever data are available to throw light on the issues that are on the focus of research49. The ethnographer can adopt four roles: a) complete participant, b) participant-as-observer, c) observer-as- participant, or d) complete observer. In this survey, the role of observer was also adopted by the researcher who mainly reacts as an interviewer. There is some observation but very little of it involves any participation.

3.3.2 The Case Study Approach in Research Methodology

Using a case study approach is a long established tradition in a variety of disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, medicine and, more recently, education. Since the late 1970s it has gained great respectability. According to Yin (1989):

The case study is an empirical enquiry that: investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context; when- the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which –multiple sources of evidence are used50. As Rose H. (1991) states: The case study design may comprise single or multiple cases and these may consist of snapshot or longitudinal studies. Where the design comprises multiple cases, the choice of cases may be based on logic of comparison, of diversity or of replication. The notion of embedded units of analysis can be used as a design element to add greater versatility and enable the basic design to be adapted to meet various theoretical and practical requirements51.

49 Hamersley & Atkinson, (1995). Ethnography: Principles in Practice (2nd edn), p 1, quoted from David Walsh (1998), p 217 Doing Ethnography, edited by Clive Seale (1998) Research Society and Culture. London: Sage. 50 Yin R. K. (1989), Case Study Research: Design and Methods, rev.ed., London Sage, p. 23 51 Rose H (1991), “Case Studies” in Graham A. & Skinner C. (1991), Handbook for Research Students in the Social Sciences, The Falmer Press, G. Britain , p. 201

43 In the case study approach “the way of organizing social data, so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object being studied”52 is an important point of departure. Louis Smith, one of the first educational ethnographers helped define the case as “a bounded system”, drawing attention to it as an object rather than a process.53 The real business of case study is particularization, not generalization. We take a particular case study and come to know it well, not primarily as to how it is different from others but what it is, what it does. There is emphasis on uniqueness, and that implies knowledge of others that the case is different from, but the first emphasis is on understanding the case itself. Stake and Easley (1979) in particular summarised the basic principles of the case study approach stating that: The principal difference between case studies and other research studies is that the case is made the focus of attention rather than the population. In most other studies, researchers search for an understanding that ignores the uniqueness of individual cases and generalises beyond particular instances. They search for what is common, pervasive and dependable. In the case study there may or may not be an ultimate interest in the generalizable. For the time being, the search is for an understanding of the particular case, in its idiosyncrasy, in its complexity. Its uniqueness is considered ‘a handle’ for better understanding the way the case does or does not maintain equilibrium under environmental stress and strain. So the principal difference is one of focus54. The main concern about this approach has been over the lack of rigor and, thus, the presence of subjectivity and inherent bias, the lack of scientific generalisation and the plethora and length of the document data. However, according to Yin (1994), this is because case studies are usually confused with a single focus approach such as surveys, experiments or even ethnography. In fact case studies constitute a comprehensive research strategy which “copes with the technically distinctive situation in which there will be many more variables of interest than data points”. It “relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulation fashion”55 Triangulation, thus, constitutes the real strength of the case study approach and in addition, it is one of the most prominent ways of increasing validity. More specifically, on the question of validity (the quality of research design in social science methods relies on four tests, which are: construct validity, internal validity, external validity and reliability) case studies provide an exceptional paradigm by combining research methodologies or a ‘multiple operation’, trying to avoid sharing the same weaknesses. Yin (1994) argued that: The use of multiple source of evidence in case studies allows an investigator to address a broader range of historical, attitudinal and behavioural issues”. He added that the most

52Stake (1988), p. 256, quoted from Goode & Hatt (1952), p. 331 53 Stake R. (1995), The Art of Case Study Research, London, Sage, p. 2 54 Stake, R. & Easley, J. (1979). Case studies in science education. Urbana: University of Illinois, CIRCE, p. 28 55Yin, R. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage, p. 13.

44 important advantage of this strategy “is the development of converging lines of inquiry, a process of triangulation56. As Stake has commented: The idea comes from sociology (and from navigation at sea). The technique is one of trying to arrive at the same meaning by at least three independent approaches. Naturally a finding that has been triangulated with several data holdings is usually more credible than one that has not57. The purpose of such a technique is to compare information sources and to test their quality putting the whole situation into perspective. However, generalisation in the case study approach takes on a different meaning since the analogy to samples and population universes which applies to survey research is incorrect when dealing with case studies. This is because case study inquiry relies on analytical generalisation, and not on a statistical one. The use of multiple sources of evidence invigorates the case study. The mixture of qualitative data and quantitative data when necessary is a procedure that can be used during a case study. Usually the fruitful data gathered on site by in depth open-ended interviews, observations and the collection of relevant documents is confirmed by quantitative data. Stake (1994) refers to such an analysis as being interpretive/reflective, meaning that the focus is not only the description of a phenomenon, but more importantly the researcher’s reflection on it. In other words, case studies are considered to be ideal in providing ‘thick description’ of a) situational contexts, b) complex interactions between participants and between participants and researcher, c) the multiple realities of the phenomenon under investigation and d) the inquiry process which in turn facilitates the reader applying his/her tacit knowledge to the setting.58 In all this process the researcher needs to use his or her initiative in utilising all the opportunities presented during a case study. The researcher constitutes a very sensitive and valuable research instrument59 in understanding the wholeness of a particular case, its complexity and boundaries as well as the causes that direct this phenomenon. The case researcher plays different roles and has options as to how they will be played. The roles may include teacher, participant observer, interviewer, reader, story teller, advocate, artist, counsellor, evaluator, consultant, and others. According to Yin (1994): The analytic strategy that the case study is based on “depends on the investigator’s own style of rigorous thinking, along with the sufficient presentation of evidence and careful consideration of alternative interpretations60.

56 Ibid., p. 92. 57 Stake, & Easley, (1979). Case studies in science education. Urbana: University of Illinois, CIRCE, p. 34. 58 Stake, R. (1994). Case study in N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of qualititative research (p 236-247). Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage, p. 242. 59Ibid., p. 25 60 Yin 1994, Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.), Newbury Park, CA: Sage, p. pp. 102-103.

45 Similarly, the social outcomes of this particular case and the variety in perceptions of the women are of great significance. In addition, this research project was not designed so much to make generalizations, as to understand the connection of these particular types of women with ICTs, grasp the patterns, motivations, challenges which these women face in becoming IT literate and regular users of the technology, identify their aspirations, experiences and needs and find out how useful ICT is to them as students, professionals, and everyday modern women. Also it was designed to identify their learning and communication needs and their purposes, their learning experiences to date and the influences that affect their learning and communication (both enabling and barriers).

3.3.3 Review and Documentation Analysis

Although, many studies exist and much research has been conducted on gender and women in Greece, these studies have not been multicultural in scope. They do not take into account cases of women who are moving within a broad social environment characterized by relations between minority and majority. Where the world of women, in the case of multicultural settings, and especially in the case of minorities, involves double and triple exclusion it constitutes a basic factor in the perpetuation of traditional structures. As a first element, a literature search and documentation survey was carried out. While examining the current Greek bibliography, it was discovered that there was very little attention given to theoretical and empirical studies relevant to Muslim women in Greece and ICT or Muslim women in Thrace. A PhD dissertation in the Democritus University of Thrace written by Kanakidou (1996) was found, where the personality of the Muslim woman and her contribution to the traditional structures of culture and education of Muslims in Thrace is described. The results described in this thesis derived from research conducted chiefly in rural areas of Thrace, rather than in urban centers. Meanwhile in recent years many differentiations have been noticed. N. Ribas Mateos (1999) in her article refers to the family structure of these women, to the exclusion in which these women live, and the changes of the structures of the local community due to immigration of people from Russia into the area. She describes these women as doubly excluded and mostly settled in the rural areas. A study conducted by KETHI (Research Center for Equality Matters in Athens) with the subject “Inquire for the Possibility of Intervention in the Region of Metaxourgio-Social Integration of Muslim Women” was also found. Demesticha (2004) in her Master’s thesis explores the history of the Muslim minority in West Thrace by presenting the life conditions and the problems that the minority had faced and the positive changes in Greek policy towards minority since 1991 due to effects of globalization, to international agreements for protection of minorities and to pressure exercised over Greece by the European Union. Frangoudaki and Dragonas (2006) in their article “Educating the Muslim minority in Western Thrace” after presenting a historical and socio-political background of the area , they describe the Project for Reform in the Education of Muslim Children (PEM) in Western Thrace,

46 Greece, which was implemented during the years 1977–2004 and entailed teaching Greek as a second language, developped educational material, trained teachers and led to academic outcome, involved identity issues and embraced the entire Thracian community. In this article the big drop out of schools for the young Muslim girls is specially mentioned (Askouni,2002). Madianou (2005) in a small part of her article, “Contested Communicative Spaces: Rethinking Identities, Boundaries and the Role of the Media among Turkish Speakers in Greece”, describe the gender differences that exist in the lives of members of the Muslim community living at Gazi in Athens. Statistical material was collected from the offices of two of their parliamentarians (former and the present) concerning DIKATSA, and also from the Administration Office of the Ministry of Education in the Rodopi area. The first data provided information on the choices of women Turkish universities. The second listed all the choices concerning ICTs of Muslim women from Rodopi in Greek universities with the quota system for the period of 1996 until 2005, and also the number of Christian women from Rodopi who entered the ICT-related university departments during the same period. The number of Muslim teachers educated in ICT use during the “Information Society” program for the years 2002, 2003, 2005, was also found. An extensive internet search was conducted of the EKT’s (National Centre of Documentation) database for PhD dissertations concerning the Muslim minority of Thrace, supplemented by the reading of relevant micro studies such as masters’ theses at Boğaziçi University in Istanbul and Democritus University of Thrace. Further documentation relevant to the topic of Muslim women and Internet was examined by e- research using the Internet as the means of data collection. Bryman (2004) notes that the rapid growth and speed of change in the WWW gives social researchers the feeling that the experience is like trying to hit a target that is not only continually moving but in a constant state of metamorphosis. The crucial issue is to be sensitive to the limitations of the use of Websites as material that can be content-analyzed, as well as to the opportunities they offer.61 The photographs collected from the internet and locally by the researcher were employed as data to support the conclusions of the analysis. We read in Bryman (2004):

There is a growing interest in the visual in social research and more generally tended to come from qualititative researchers.Photographs may have a variety of roles to social research such as illustrative, as data, and as prompts62.

3.3.4 Sampling

Sampling in qualitative research differs from that of quantitative one, as the latter employs a stricter method in choosing the sample in order to ensure the validity of the research results for the population in general. This is because quantitative researchers are interested in the generalization of their results at the

61 Bryman, A. (2004) Social Research Methods. Second Edition. Oxford, p.469 62 The same as above, p.384

47 theoretical level. In this research the sample is a non-probability sample which has been selected using a non-random selection method. This means that some units in the population were more likely to be selected than others. Non-random methods are used as a “second best” when a sampling frame is unavailable, or for searching out sensitive or unreachable social groups. A variety of methods exist such as volunteer sampling, snowball sampling and quota sampling. When a survey is small scale, it is often not practical to attempt to be representative or to use random sampling from a sampling frame. It may be a better use of resources to select people for interview who vary on a particular characteristic, such as age or gender, which might throw up interesting differences between people that could later be confirmed in a larger study. It is important to exercise caution about representativeness when presenting the results.63 In this survey all the women interviewed were selected with snowball method. The snowball method is used in approaching sensitive or marginalized social groups (i.e. drug users, minority members, members of sub cultural groups, etc.) in which the informant acts as a mediator who makes the connection with others in the group who then act in the same way. In the beginning a small number of women with the desired characteristics were contacted who, as informants, then brought in other women. During this stage, the nature and purpose of the study was explained to the informants face to face or in telephone conversations, and details such as the length of the interview, confidentiality and anonymity were also discussed. All informants were found at their workplaces, in balls organized by the women’s club of the minority or at the Saturday meetings of their association. This method was convincing and reduced the likelihood of non-response, because there was a general demand from the women approached by the informants to know who the researcher was — a non member- of “their society” — and thus someone who they knew would give them the necessary “guarantees”. Most of the non-respondents were either afraid to speak or did not know any Greek.

3.3.5 Conduct and Design of twelve structured interviews

The fact that the researcher had worked for a time in a Muslim parliamentarian’s office was very helpful. It has not been easy for the researcher in some cases (especially in the cases of women who were covered) to obtain the interview. In the beginning some of the women were hesitant, becoming more flexible only after a conversation and explanation of the nature of the research and questions. Some were initially unwilling because of the language, but after speaking with them in Turkish they would become more volunteering, with the demand to speak in Turkish. This was accepted by the researcher, so that women would speak more fluently and expressively. Some women wanted to know the content of the

63 Seal, C. and Filmer, P. (1998). Doing social Surveys. edited by Seale C. (1998) in Researching Society and Culture. London: Sage

48 questions beforehand, and some were anxious about the tape recording of the interview. Some wanted to use pseudonyms and some used their real names. In the beginning 58 women were contacted and most of them agreed to participate in the research. Of these 58 women, 32 were interviewed over about a month’s time. Here, the politeness of the women of the minority and their willingness to help find new subjects for the interviews should be mentioned. Their age ranges were: 18-29/12; 30-39/16 and 40-49/4. It was not possible to find women in their 50s involved with ICTs. This age range did include women who had graduated from high school, who were housewives, some working in shops as private clerks, some graduated from Turkish academies working as schoolteachers or by this time retired, but none were using computers or the Internet. Informants said that women of this age who had graduated from Turkish universities had settled permanently in Turkey.

[We can find many women from the minority working as doctors, as lawyers, as professors in universities, as architects 55 or 65 years old, friends of my mother living in Turkey but none in the area of Rodopi] (Sevgi, a 40 years old doctor).

Primary source material gathered from 12 structured interviews out of 32 collected with females, all of them computer users except one, form the foundation of the analysis. The 12 who will be quantitatively analyzed are in the age of 18 to 29 years old. All of these interviewed are living in the area of Rodopi. One of those interviewed is a professional in the ICT field (covered with the veil) others are women who use ICT at work or in their everyday life. Others are students; others post graduated; one of them a housewife; one is master’s degree student. The reason for selecting this age group was to diagnose the impact of changes and reforms on minority education after all the chaos from the changes during the 82 years after the Treaty of Lausanne, described in the theoretical part of this dissertation. Another goal was to identify whether the minority and especially women were informed about and influenced by changes in the modern world of globalization, which is supported chiefly by information technologies. Finally, the key areas addressed in these twelve case studies, were:

1. Background Details

2. Learning and communication needs and attitudes

3. Learning and communication experiences to date

4. Influences that affect learning and communication needs

49 3.3.6 Interview Procedure and Instruments

After examining what the informants had to say, and taking into consideration what effects an interview might have on women living in villages, being covered or living behind tall walls, it was decided that the interview should have a structured character. A structured interview, sometimes called a standardized interview, entails the administration of an interview schedule by an interviewer. The aim is for all interviewees to be given exactly the same context of questioning. This means that each respondent receives exactly the same interview stimulus as any other. The goal of this style of interviewing is to ensure that interviewees’ replies can be aggregated and this can be achieved reliably only if those replies are in response to identical cues. Interviewees are supposed to read out questions exactly and in the same order as they are printed on the schedule. Questions are usually very specific and very often offer the interviewee a fixed range of answers (this type of question is often called closed, closed ended, pre-coded or fixed choice)64. The process of the interview is strictly structured in order to ensure the validity and the reliability of the measurement, the initial planning remains constant, an inflexible process is kept, the answers are coded in an easy and fast way and an interview usually with each individual takes place. It also can be said that this kind of interview reflects the concerns of the researcher and a likely divergence from the bulletin of the interview affects the standardization of results. As Bryman (2004) claims: While constructing the questionnaire, the researcher should consider using questions that have been employed by other researchers for at least part of the under construction questionnaire. In this way employing existing questions allows the use of questions that have in a sense been piloted. If any reliability and validity testing has taken place the measurement qualities of the existing questions in use will be known. A further advantage of using existing questions is that they allow comparisons with other research. This might allow to indicate whether change has occurred or whether place makes a difference to findings. At the very least, examining questions used by others might give some ideas about how best to approach the researcher’s own questions65. The questionnaire used in the research project, carried out under the fifth European framework program for research and technological development, within the IST program, in five European countries, introduced ideas while developing the questions. Also the reading of foreign bibliography concerning gender, ICTs, and women in Islam written by Mrs. Deborah Wheeler, and the fruitful exchanges of emails with her offered a great assistance at this point. The questionnaire used in the PhD dissertation of Mrs Eugenia

64 Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. Second Edition. Oxford, p. 110 65 Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. Second Edition. Oxford, p. 161

50 Arvanitis, provided valuable knowledge concerning the structure followed in the questionnaire of this research. After a study of the relevant bibliography and definition of the aims, the objects and methodology of the research were designed, as well as the questionnaire’s format. The questionnaire contained of 59 questions. Four types of questions were used for the questionnaire: 12 were open-ended questions aimed at collecting demographical data and 46 were open questions, yes/no questions, closed questions, and scale questions, for collecting qualitative data. The researcher developed a series of structured interview schedules which included a combination of both open and closed-ended questions as well as scale items. The structured interview procedure was built around a core of structured questions providing a general framework in which the respondents could elaborate or lead themselves onto other issues relevant to ICT or their communication and learning needs. The open-ended questions were included to enable respondents to express their individual assessments, facilitating an in-depth account of their views within a frame of reference. The closed-ended and scale items of the schedules were included for quantitative analysis where important comparisons could be sustained. Most of them were yes/no questions, not as a result of lazy thinking and preparation, but rather with consideration of the kind of subjects to be interviewed, and also in an effort to help these women by clarifying the meaning of the question. The object was to reduce the possibility of variability in the recording of answers in the structured interviewing, and provide them the ability to answer unselfconsciously. In these kinds of communities reliability and trust takes effort and time to build, is easily destroyed by a small mistake. The questions were posed by the researcher in a way as not to offend, embarrass or insult anybody, or provoke criticism by the local Muslim community and its leaders. The way the questions were asked was also taken into consideration. As Bryman says: One of the aims of the structured interview is to ensure that each respondent is asked exactly the same questions. The variation in the ways a question is asked is a potential source of error in survey research. The structured interview is meant to reduce the likelihood of this occurring, but it cannot guarantee that this will not occur, because there is always the possibility that interviewers will embellish or otherwise change a question when it is asked. It is important for interviewers to appreciate the importance of keeping exactly to the wording of the questions they are charged with asking. There are many reasons why interviewers may vary question wording, such as reluctance to ask certain questions perhaps because of embarrassment66. Commencement of the interviewing was preceded by two pilot interviews in order to check how clear and understandable the questions were to the interviewees. Other factors determined included: a)

66 Ibid., p.119

51 whether the questions were linked to each other in order to develop an argument in the dissertation; b) and if the questions were being answered in a similar way, and not forming variable or confusing positioning in the interview. It was checked how well the questions flowed and whether it was necessary to reorder some of them to improve this feature. The comments of the two interviewees were taken in consideration for reshaping the final questionnaire. The fact that both expressed a sigh of relief when the interview was finished and expressed their happiness because they had succeeded was a good sign to keep on. The reason that only two pilot interviews were done was the small number of final interviews. Pilot interviews provided the interviewer with some experience in using the questionnaire as it was her first time conducting an interview; this infused her with a greater sense of confidence. It is mentioned at Bryman’s book (2004) that: It is always desirable, if at all possible, to conduct before administering a self- completion questionnaire or structured interview schedule to the sample. In fact, the desirability of piloting such instruments is not solely to do with trying to ensure that survey questions operate well; also, with interviews, persistent problems may emerge after a few interviews have been carried out and these can be then addressed. It may be possible to identify questions that make respondents feel uncomfortable and to detect any tendency for respondents’’ interest to be lost at certain junctures. The pilot should not be carried out on people who might have been members of the sample that would be employed in the full study in order not to affect any of the representativeness of any subsequent sample67. All the structured interviews were conducted in the area of Rodopi, face to face. The interview lasted about one hour. The interviews commenced in December 2005 and were completed by January 2006. Most of the interviews were conducted in the women’s houses accompanied, usually, with tea and sweets. All interviewees were most welcoming. The reason for the choice of their houses was that the researcher wanted the interviewees to feel more comfortable in their environment so that the interview would proceed in a friendlier and quiet way, augmenting, in this way, the chances for a more productive procedure. An identical warning for identical reasons can be registered in connection with the recording of answers by interviewers, who should write down respondents’ replies as exactly as possible. This method was followed during the research where the answers were written down exactly as given, and also tape recorded during the whole procedure. Fieldwork notes based on ethnographical observation of life in the community and detailed notes of interviews were taken.

67 Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. Second Edition, Oxford, p.160

52 CHAPTER 4

Presentation and analysis of data

4.1 The data analysis process

In this chapter the findings gathered during the research are presented and analyzed. Furthermore, where necessary, the attitudes, sentiments or opinions expressed by the interviewees are mentioned. The data in this study were analyzed in four main areas of focus: a) The factors that influenced interviewees’ relation with information technology, their communication and learning needs b) Their attitudes towards computer usage c) Their experiences with information technology d) Their needs as they take shape within an information society. For the analysis of data, an ethnographical analytic induction was followed. As Thorne (2000) describes: Ethnographical research methods derive from anthropology's tradition of interpreting the processes and products of cultural behavior. Ethnographers documented such aspects of human experience as beliefs, kinship patterns and ways of living. When a researcher claims to have used ethnographical methods, we can assume that he or she has come to know a culture or group through immersion and engagement in fieldwork or participant observation and has also undertaken to portray that culture through text. Ethnographical analysis uses an iterative process in which cultural ideas that arise during active involvement "in the field" are transformed, translated, or represented in a written document. It involves sifting and sorting through pieces of data to detect and interpret thematic categorizations, search for inconsistencies and contradictions, and generate conclusions about what is happening and why68. For the analytic induction Bryman gives the following definition: Analytic induction is an approach to the analysis of data in which the researcher seeks universal explanations of phenomena by pursuing the collection of data until no cases that are inconsistent with a hypothetical explanation (deviant or negative cases) of a phenomenon are found.

68 Sally Thorne, (2000). Data analysis in qualitative research,. Evidence-Based Nursing 2000; 3:68-70

53 4.2 Demographic factors that may influence relation with ICT.

The definitive findings regarding the factors that influence computer use are the following:

a) Religious status (veiled or unveiled) plays no role in the connection with new technologies. b) The place where they live (town or village) doesn’t affect computer use. c) Marital status doesn’t influence computer use. d) Educational level influences computer use. e) Choice of school influences the time of the first computer use. f) Parents’ profession and educational level do not influence attitudes towards computers. For the examination of the above findings, the researcher relied on the answers given by the interviewees in the first thematic unit and the notes kept during the interview.

Table VIII: The identity of the sample

Greek Relation Use of Marital Number knowledge With Children Residence computer status Islam 1 Yes Yes Unveiled Single - Iasmos(V) 2 Yes Yes Unveiled Single - Komotini (T) 3 Yes Yes Unveiled Single - Koptero(V) 4 Yes Yes Unveiled Single - Koptero(V) 5 Yes Yes Unveiled Single - Iasmos (V) 6 Yes Yes Unveiled Single - Komotini (T) 7 Yes No Veiled Married 1 Komotini (T) 8 Yes Very Veiled Single - Iasmos(V) limited 9 No Very Veiled Married 1 Komotini(T) limited 10 Yes Yes Veiled Engaged - Iasmos(V) 11 Yes Yes Veiled Married 1 Komotini(T) 12 Yes Very Veiled Married - Komotini(T) limited * (V) =Village, (T) =Town

54 Table IX: Knowledge of foreign languages

Number Turkish Greek English Arabic Italian German 1 Yes Yes Limited 2 Yes Yes Yes Yes Limited 3 Yes Yes Limited 4 Yes Yes Yes 5 Yes Yes Limited Limited 6 Yes Yes Yes 7 Yes No Yes Yes 8 Yes Very Yes limited 9 Yes Very No limited 10 Yes Yes Limited 11 Yes Yes Yes 12 Yes Very No limited

All the above data collected, will be the subject of analysis for the following paragraphs. Religion, residence, mariatal status, level of education and choice of school, the occupation of parents and their educational level are among factors that will be explored for their possible influence on the use of computers by the participants of this study.

4.2.1 Religion

As was mentioned in the description of the research method in chapter three, twelve women from 18–29 years of age participated in the research. Half of them are covered with the veil and half of them are uncovered. This is mentioned because as quoted above, women of the Muslim minority in Western Thrace dress in modern or traditional clothes (the “ferace” for the old ones and the headscarf for the younger women). Nowadays an increasing number of young women are wearing multicolored headscarves. This was a tempting reason to examine whether the level of piety of a Muslim, expressed by the scarf, influenced the connection of that person with new technologies. The Muslim minority community of Western Thrace is directly influenced by Turkish society since their relations have been cultivated in a variety of ways over the years. The phenomenon known as “Scarf-Veil” [Türban] which has arisen in Turkey over the last 20 years as an organized ideological movement aiming at founding a radical Islamic social system has appeared in the Muslim minority of Western Thrace as well. All of the six uncovered women used computers and only one of the six covered did not use a computer. The interview with this woman, the non-user, was conducted

55 half in Greek and Turkish and she gave mostly yes-and-no answers. When asked to speak louder she said she was afraid and embarrassed because she could not speak Greek properly.

[I was married when I was 18 years old. I have one child. I have finished only the primary minority school. For three years I attended embroidering courses. I would like to attend the “second chance” school or a night school. I want to learn to use a computer because today everybody needs to know how. I have a mobile phone. We’re going to buy a computer…] (Ayla, no 9)

On the other hand a woman with the same demographical data, wearing the “ferace” and living in a house surrounded by tall walls, said she was a computer user in her everyday life. The interview was given simultaneously with the presence of her husband, who was translating and sometimes answering on her behalf. However he said that although his wife was covered, she was free to go wherever she wanted and chat with other people on the computer.

[My mother stopped me from going to school when I was 12 years old. She did not want me to continue my studies. I wanted very much to continue, to read books and learn many things but they didn’t understand…](Lale, no 12)

Considering the data, religion places no obstacles to computer use for these women. At the very least, many erroneous ideas about Islam have been refuted on the Internet, and people are beginning to realize that Islam does not reject the use of modern technology such as computers. As Mazrui (2000) claims: “Islam and the information revolution will be allies in breaking down the barriers of competing national sovereignties. The new technology will give Islam a chance to realize its original aim of transnational universalism. The Internet could become the Islamic super-highway. Many Muslims have already risen to this challenge of the new information age with Islamic resource guides on the Internet, Cyber Muslim Guides, the Islamic Information and News Network and web servers with Islamic material”.

4.2.2 Residence

Six of the women live in villages and six live in the town of Komotini. All the girls living in villages use computers. The only one who does not is a town dweller. Networks of computers and telecommunications systems are spreading everywhere, even in the villages of the area, in schools, in civil services and in local municipalities. The coffee shops in most of the Muslim villages have computers, where especially the young ones are socialized. Women stated in their interviews that they do not usually

56 go to Internet cafes because they don’t feel comfortable or are afraid of being gossiped about; however they visit Internet cafes in Turkey. Of the village women, three own a computer and three do not. Four of them have email accounts and two do not. One of them said that she visits Internet cafes for chatting, email and information. Of the town dwellers, five own a computer and all of them have email accounts and are active Internet users. Only the non-user does not own a computer but as she said she intends to buy one. None of them go to Internet cafes, and the only one who was positive to this question used to go to Internet cafes when she was living in Turkey. The only computer programmer and computer engineer among the minority women during the research is a village dweller and veiled, but was sent for primary school to Turkey, where she stayed until she completed her university studies. Owning a computer is clearly a matter of economic status and not of residence. In the rural areas, people of the minority are less educated and depend more on agricultural occupations, with less income than those in urban areas.

4.2.3 Marital status

All six uncovered women were single, studying in universities, or finishing high school. Of the six women who were covered one was single and five were married or engaged, and three of them had of one child. Their marital status did not put any obstacle on computer use. On the contrary, the married women were taught by their husbands and encouraged to become active users of the Internet.

[My husband’s contribution to my computer usage was important. I have to mention that we met through the computer when we were students and he helped me to expand my knowledge of computer use…](Zimanci, no7)

[My husband showed me how to use Photoshop in order to help him in his photography shop. I do the montage and also use the camera to record events like marriages in places where women take off their scarves and the entrance of men is prohibited...](Özlem, no 11]

[I was watching my husband using the computer and wanted to use the Internet too, to learn new things, to learn about countries, to chat on Super online. I liked it very much. I wanted to see how Singapore was so I put the name on Google and there it was...](Lale,no 12)

57 4.2.4 Level of education and choice of schools.

As illustrated in Table X ten of the women have attended minority primary schools and two of them state Turkish primary schools (One of them was born in Turkey and is married with a member of the Muslim minority). Five of them have continued their secondary level studies in Greek state schools, four in Turkish state schools, and one only for two years in the minority high school; two were obliged to drop out after primary school. Of those who attended state secondary schools in Greece, two entered Greek universities under the quota system, one went for her university studies in Turkey, and two are still students in state secondary schools. The girls who were studying in Turkish primary schools continued their studies in Turkey, and two who were studying in minority primary schools at the age of twelve were sent to Turkey to study in Turkish state schools, where they also completed their university studies. While coding their answers, it was clear that five of the six uncovered women, after a discussion with their parents, showed a preference to Greek state schools for their secondary education. The reason was that they wanted to gain a better command of the Greek language, and four of them said that they would prefer to have started from the Greek state, or “Christian” primary state schools as they called them. [From the beginning, I would have preferred to go to the Greek schools, to learn better Greek.] (Özlem, no1)

[I finished the minority primary school here in Greece and then it was my choice to go to Bursa in Turkey for my secondary studies where I finished the university. Now here I have difficulties with the Greek languages and for this reason I wish I had gone to school here.] (Sabahat, no 4)

[My parents chose the minority primary school for me, but it was I who chose the Greek state high school and lyceum.] (Ayşe, no 5)

[I made these choices after a discussion with my parents. Yes I am happy but it would be better if I had gone to state primary school] (Gönül, no 3)

[I am pleased with my choices. I’d do the same again.](Olia,no 2 and Sinem, no 6)

Table X: The identity of the sample according to their studies

Primary High Educational Number Lyceum University Master Occupation School School Level 1 Minority State State - - Secondary Student in Grrece Greek Greek High School 2 Minority State State Turkey Italy Tertiary Architect in Greece Greek Greek & Master 3 Minority State State Greece - Tertiary Student in in Greece Greek Greek Teacher’s Training College 4 Minority State State Turkey - Tertiary Health in Greece Turkish Turkish Management 5 Minority State State - - Secondary Student in Greece Greek Greek High School 6 Minority State State Greece - Tertiary Student in in Greece Greek Greek Medicine School 7 State State State Turkey - Tertiary Religious Turkish Turkish Turkish studies- Editor 8 State Girl’s Girl’s Turkey - Tertiary Computer Turkish school in school in engineering Turkey Turkey 9 Minority - - - - Primary Domestic in Greece tasks 10 Minority Girl’s Girl’s Turkey - Tertiary Pharmacist in Greece school in school in Turkey Turkey 11 Minority Minority - - - Primary Photographe in Greece in Greece r assistant 12 Minority - - - - Primary Domestic in Greece tasks

The remarkable point is that most of them learned to use computers in Greek state secondary schools, where computer science has been taught since 1994. The gender digital divide is usually greater in countries where women have less access to education than men. Hence, in countries where girls are excluded from the basic education system or prevented from continuing beyond the primary school level, they are also excluded from gaining access to the new technologies and learning how to use them. They are also excluded from foreign language acquisition, another essential prerequisite for effectively using many new ICT and the Internet. Education is considered to be by far the most important policy intervention to increasing

59 the ability of girls and women, especially those in developing countries, to participate in the information society. Of the six covered women, the three who studied in Turkish secondary educational institutions said that it was the family’s choice for the two of them to study in girls’ school in Turkey; and the third, being a Turkish citizen had to follow the Turkish educational system. They said they were pleased with these choices. They had learned how to use computers through private lessons, at the university, or on their own with the help of friends. They had limited or no knowledge of the Greek language. For the other three who dropped out, their regret at not finishing school, their desire to learn things and become more skilled should be mentioned. One speaks Greek fluently; the other two very little. Two of them learned how to use computers on their own and the one doesn’t use it at all. [My grandmothers forced me to drop out of high school. They started saying that the woman has to be covered after menstruation starts, to become a good housewife and to learn domestic work. So I left school when I was 14, was covered when I was 16, became engaged at 17, married when I was 18 and had my first child at 20. But I miss school and the English lessons, because I was very good at that. I was even receiving a grant for the English lessons, and I still keep my books and look at them. Now I am helping my husband at the photo shop. I learned to use the computer on my own and with my husband’s help. I use the computer for around 6–7 hours every day, and over 10 hours during the summer] (Özlem, no 11)

As for the choices of their studies in higher education, two were influenced by the profession of a family member, three by the future rehabilitation offered by these studies promised, and two made independent choices. Dragonas and Frangoudaki in their article “Educating the Muslim minority in Western Thrace” capture the spirit of the minority nowadays as concerns the education of their children. “The positive discrimination measure mentioned earlier, concerning access to tertiary institutions, has strengthened the minority’s motivation to attend Greek secondary education. The use of the new educational materials, the impressive success of afternoon and summer classes, sustained efforts by a small number of dedicated trained teachers, assistance provided in the first years of secondary education, and last but not least, the interest shown for the first time by the Greek polity in the educational future of minority children—all these have contributed to the changes observed. The

60 completion of secondary education, with a view to tertiary education, presupposes a good command of the Greek language” 69.

4.2.5 The occupation and the educational level of parents

As illustrated in Table XI, eight of the interviewees’ fathers have received only primary education, two have finished the lyceum, and two are university graduates. Ten of their mothers have only primary education, one has finished the lyceum and only one has graduated from university. Most of their fathers are builders and farmers, one is trader, one is tailor, one is sailor and two are architects. Of their mothers, most are housewives, two are farmers, one is a trader and one is a dentist. The interviewee who doesn’t use a computer (no 9) has a father working as a builder and a mother who is a housewife with a primary education. The interviewee has dropped out of school. With identical characteristics is interviewee no. 12 but nevertheless she uses a computer almost daily. Thus it cannot be said that parents’ educational and professional levels play an important role in computer use. The economical level associated with the person’s educational and professional status can however be a factor in obtaining a home computer. Probably the most important role parents’ educational and professional levels can play relates to the choice of school and the opportunities available in the place of residence.

Table XI: The occupation and the educational level of parents Educational Educational Profession Profession of Number level of level of Father of Father Mother Mother 1 Primary Primary Builder Domestic tasks 2 Tertiary Tertiary Architect Dentist

3 Primary Primary Farmer Farmer 4 Lyceum Primary Builder Farmer 5 Primary Primary Farmer Domestic tasks 6 Tertiary Lyceum Architect Trader

7 Primary Primary Tailor Domestic tasks 8 Primary Primary Carpenter Domestic tasks 9 Primary Primary Builder Domestic tasks 10 Primary Primary Sailor Domestic tasks 11 Lyceum Primary Trader Domestic tasks 12 Primary Primary Builder Domestic tasks

69 Dragonas, T. & Frangoudaki, A. (2006). Educating the Muslim minority in Western Thrace. Routledge Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol. 17, No. 1, p 21–41, January 2006, p.33.

61 4.3 Learning and Communication experiences to date The definitive findings concerning the women’s computer use are:

a) Most of the women have a computer, an Internet connection and e-mail address. b) The women use computers to search websites on the Internet, for studies, to communicate with friends, or for Microsoft Office applications. c) The women use new technologies in their everyday life and consider them necessary. d) Their families have encouraged them to use computers. e) The women become informed via the Internet about feminine matters

New technologies, as an experience, are described by some of the women with the words: computer, Internet, mobile phones, video, cameras, cars, email; some others associete them with communication.

[New technologies are machines with a mind] (Sevgi,no 8)

[New technologies are the “vehicle” for approaching people who are far away] (Sinem, no 6)

[New technologies are mobile phones, wire connection, alternative forms of energy, and environmentally friendly energy use, computer screens without side effects.] (Zimanci, no 7)

[New technologies are the future for me. I listen to music from my mobile phone. I use SKYPE and communicate with my friends who live in New York.] (Olia, no 2)

In her report, “Gender and ICT: an Overview,” Anita Curumurthy explains: “The range of technologies that serve information and communication needs in society extends from print media and fixed-line telephones, to satellite technology and the Internet. The spectrum of what may be seen as ICTs includes ‘a complex and heterogeneous set of goods, applications and services used to produce, distribute, process and transform information.’ The ICT sector is seen as consisting of segments as diverse as telecommunications, television and radio, computer hardware and software, computer services and electronic media like the Internet, as well as the content of these media.”70

Five of the women answered that they first learned how to use a computer in the first class of High school (in a Greek state school); of the three who studied in Turkey, two began using them in the first class of High school in Istanbul (also taking private lessons) and in Bursa, and the third at the University in Izmir for her

70 Gurumurthy, A. (2004). Gender and ICT An overview report. Bridge, p. 6 [Online] http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk

62 studies as a mechanical engineer. The woman who was born in Turkey first attended computer training at University. Of the women who finished only primary education, two had become familiar with computers on their own and with their husbands’ help and the other didn’t use one all. All computer users had the support and encouragement of their parents, brothers, and boyfriends or husbands.

[My family never prevents me from learning new things. On the contrary they encourage me to learn more…] (Özlem no1)

[My family supports me whenever I want to learn new things…](Ayşe, no5)

As indicated in Table XII, eight women owned a computer and four didn’t. Of the four, three live in villages, two are students and one has just finished university in Turkey but doesn’t work. The fourth, who doesn’t own a computer, is the one who doesn’t use one at all. Five don’t have an Internet connection, although one of them owns a computer but for her, it bears mentioning that she lives in a village and is still a university student. Nine of them have email accounts, although two of them don’t own computers. These two women go to Internet cafes either here or in Turkey. It was mentioned above that the women of the minority prefer not to go to Internet cafes, although these exist in their neighborhoods or in their villages, but they do visit them when in Turkey. Nine of them use the computer every day.

[In winter I use the computer six to seven hours every day but in summer when the immigrants from Germany come I have to work with the computer more than ten hours..](Özlem, no11]

[When I finish cleaning and cooking I rush to the computer and leave everything behind me …] (Lale, no 12)

It is generally observed that many women remain digitally illiterate compared to men, who may have access through their jobs or public places such as schools, universities, Internet cafes and community centers. These places are also often less accessible to women, who are frequently excluded from basic and higher education and who may for cultural and religious reasons have less access to public places.

63 Table XII: Relation with ICT

Number Computer Internet Email Internet café Weekly ownership connection account usage computer usage 1 no no no no Everyday / 2h 2 yes yes yes no Everyday / 2-3h 3 yes no no no Two days / 1h 4 no no yes Only in None Turkey 5 no no yes yes None 6 yes yes yes no None 7 yes yes yes Only in Everyday / 1-2h Turkey 8 yes yes yes Only in Everyday / 2h Turkey 9 no no no no None 10 yes yes yes no Three days / 2h 11 yes yes yes no Everyday / 6-7h 12 yes yes yes no Everyday / 1h

As for the question on becoming informed via the Internet on feminine issues, seven were positive and five were negative. The subjects that interested them were: fashion, health, medical matters (especially gynecological issues), cooking, family, children, diets and social problems. The commendable point is that of the five women who gave a negative answer to this question, three were graduates from universities of high standing. Thus it can be deduced that subjects of interest are not directly parallel studies but result from the uniqueness of each individual’s character. Of the twelve women, only five were working full or part time, three are in or have graduated from the university, two are students at a lyceum and two are housewives. Eleven of the twelve find that the computer is an integral part of their job or the job they hope to have in the future. The answers to the question “Which of the ICT appliances do you use more frequently?” were gathered in Table XIII for each interviewee. The contents of the table above suggest that these women show a preference for mobile phones and TV, with computers coming in third. If these findings are analyzed according to their location of residence it can be said that urban women have a better relation with computers. As for those from the villages, they lean more towards mobile phones and TV. If the findings are analyzed according to their relation with religion, as expressed by the headscarf, the covered women give higher priority to computers and TV than the uncovered, and are equal with them for mobile phone use.

Table XIII: Appliances of NT used more

No Tv Computer Mobile Video Tape Digital Fax Scanner Cd/Dvd Mp3 Phone Camera 1 1 3 2 5 4 2 2 1 3 5 4 3 2 4 1 3 4 1 3 2 5 2 4 1 5 3 6 7 6 3 4 1 2 7 3 2 1 8 3 2 1 9 2 1 3 4 10 2 3 1 4 11 5 1 2 3 4 6 12 2 1 3 4 *(The numbers show the order of priority the women give to the use of each appliance)

As for the question “Which of the ICT appliances you think is more useful to you?” table XIV shows that computers and mobile phones are considered the most useful. For the women in villages there is almost the same order of preference for mobile phones and TV, with the computers coming in third. The town women give priority to computers for their utility. The uncovered women consider the mobile phone and the TV more useful. On the contrary the covered women find the computer more useful, giving it higher priority. Table XIV: The more useful appliances No Tv computer Mobile Video Phone 1 3 2 1 2 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 3 1 2 4 6 3 1 2 7 1 2 8 2 1 9 1 10 3 2 1 11 1 2 12 1

65 Table XV samples the answers to the question “If you were deprived of any of the appliances, which would you miss the most?” In general the women showed a preference for mobile phones with second priority to the computer and third priority to the TV. But when the results are examined according to the way the women are dressed, the uncovered show a preference to TV, followed by mobile phones and thirdly for computers, while the covered women give the same priority to computers and mobile phones. At this point it has to be mentioned that the three uncovered women who prefer the TV reside in villages.

Table XV: Most necessary appliances

No Tv Computer Mobile Phone 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 2 3 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 1 10 1 11 1 12 1

For the question “For what reason you use a computer?” Table XVI shows the number of interviewees that chose each activity. Table XVI: Reasons for using ICT Internet 7 Telemarketing 1 Email 5 Microsoft Office 4 Studies 2 Communication 4 with friends Games 1 Web search 5 Educational 0 software

66 Most preference was given to Internet, email and web surfing, followed by Microsoft Office71 and communication with friends. Studies and telework are not high-priorities for the women. Reliable elements verify that women do not intentionally avoid computers. For example, women constitute 40% of the home email users. They seem to be connecting with the Internet more rapidly than ever72. Hoffman (1996) in his research findings states that women are usually inclined to use the Internet for communication purposes. Teo and Lim (2000) in their survey comment on the use of Internet73: The majority of Internet users do not purchase products through the Internet. This is consistent with surveys done in the US, which found that many users are browsing, rather than buying (Paulson, 1997). One likely reason is that the security of electronic transactions over the Internet is still being debated and Internet users are hesitant to divulge personal information or credit card numbers over the Internet. Another reason is the fear of product fraud as actual products might differ from what is being advertised on the Internet (Kerr 1994, Messmer 1995). The majority of respondents use the Internet for communication with local and overseas friends. Furthermore, previous research (Teo and Tan 1998) has shown that electronic mail and the World Wide Web are the two most frequently used functionalities of the Internet compared to other functionalities such as file transfer protocol (ftp), telnet, chat and discussion groups. This is not surprising since humans are `social beings who seek communication with others’ (Turkle 1995). Both males and females are likely to use the Internet to obtain information pertaining to leisure, education, economics, and politics to a similar extent. In response to the question, “Which language you use for reading the websites?” eleven of them gave the following answers: two of them use both Turkish and Greek, three use English and Greek, two use Turkish and English, one uses English only, two use Turkish only and one uses Turkish, English and Greek.

4.4 Communication and learning needs and attitudes

In this part of the analysis, answers relating to the following findings will be given.

a) The women’s technophobia depends on their educational level. b) The existence of men in groups or schools for computer learning is not an obstacle for their participation in them. c) The women do not consider computer use as the realm of men only.

71 © Trade Mark of Microsoft Co. 72 Craig Van Slyke, Christie L. Comunale, and France Belanger, Gender differences in Perceptions of Web-based Shopping, Communications of the ACM, July 2002/Vol. 45, No. 7 73 Teo, T. and Lim, V. (2000). Gender differences in Internet usage and task. Behaviour & Information Technology, Vol. 19, no. 4, p.283-295

67 d) The women (working, students, even the unemployed) consider the computer necessary for their work. e) The women are interested in becoming members of clubs and association. f) The women are in favour of online studies. g) Their relation with the family is an obstacle to the mobility that the ICT sector demands. h) Their need and desire to find a job allows them to accept jobs with long working hours, even telework, as the ICT sector demands.

Twenty-five questions concerning their attitudes and needs in the areas of communication and learning will be presented. It was generally observed that women had difficulty answering the questions in this part of the interview. They wanted more specifics and gave many of their answers in Turkish, even those who spoke Greek, in order to speak more fluently and express themselves better. They hesitated, thinking about their answers, and did not like the “why” following the first yes or no questions. Ten of the twelve said they preferred reading printed publications rather than on-line publications on the computer. Even the woman who was a computer engineer was negative toward reading online. [I prefer reading from books or magazines because I can touch them with my hands] (Sevgi, no 8)

[I don’t like reading from the computer. I like to feel comfortable when reading] (Olia, no 2)

[I want to have the feeling of touching the paper when reading. I favour printed books] (Zimanci, no 7)

All of them believe that computer use was not only a male domain but had to be taken on equally by females, and that all women must know how to use them. The Beijing Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing on September 15, 1995, was the first international policy framework to address gender issues in relation to ICTs. “With advances in computer technology and satellite and cable television, global access to information continues to increase and expand, creating new opportunities for the participation of women in communications and the mass media and for the dissemination of information about women. On the other hand, the global communication networks have been used to spread stereotyped and demeaning images of women for narrow commercial and consumerist purposes. Until women participate equally in both the

68 technical and decision-making areas of communications and the mass media, including the arts, they will continue to be misrepresented and awareness of the reality of women’s lives will continue to be lacking”74. All of the participants believed that computers facilitated their every day lives, providing easier means of doing things. Although four of the participants did not own a computer, eleven out of twelve suggested that computers were necessary to their daily routine. The one who did not know how to use a computer did not answer this question, probably because of ignorance, but her eagerness to learn was obvious. Thus it can be said that the computers are daily present in these women’s lives. Eleven out of twelve believed that everybody needed to know how to use a computer these days. The one negative answer was given by a woman who graduated the university, is uncovered, and a village dweller. Seven women out of twelve answered “no” to the question: “It is said that today that those who don’t know how to use a computer are illiterate. Do you agree?” Education is associated in their minds with books and printed material. As the participants in this study mentioned, technical knowledge is not the only criterion for being considered educated. In the US, almost half of all workers will be employed in ICT or its related industries by 2006, and 50% of all employees’ skills will become outdated within 3–5 years. However these women, who are young and will enter the workforce in the near future, did not consider the qualifications and skills demanded by today’s labor market; but were probably influenced by the environment in which they live. The effects of globalization and the impact of ICT on labor conditions is aptly captured by Mary Kalantzis: “The students and the workers of the future cannot rely on learning the stable technical or professional skills base that was until recently necessary and sufficient for work… The pace of technology and organizational change is such today that technical and professional skills need to be constantly updated. More significantly, perhaps, the borderline of technology and culture is being blurred. So, the future of work will require professionals who are multi-skilled and flexible in their response to change… The new workers will not only change jobs more frequently. They will also change career, perhaps even several times. They will change the sector of work, between private, public and sector; and between salaried and self-employed project worker. This spells the end of the career in its traditional form. Instead, we will see the emergence of portfolio worker, whose strength is not career stability and specific content knowledge but range and versatility”75.

For the questions

a) I think that ICTs can improve learning and help me to gain new knowledge

74 See http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/e5dplw.htm., last access 15/3/2006 75 Kalantzis, M. (2000). Designing Futures: Challenges for leaders in Education. Victorian Association of State secondary principals. Annual leadership conference Geeolong 16-18/8/2000

69 b) ICTs provide an effective way to communicate and share new experiences

c) Do you communicate with friends through Internet?

d) If you want to communicate with friends, what ways do you use?

the answers for the question d are included in TableXVII, where it is obvious that mobile phones and landline phones are preferred, while personal communication follows. The covered women show a preference for personal communication and social interaction at home, indicating that their traditional style of dressing coincides with their ways of communication. Seven of the women use Internet to communicate with friends.

Table XVII: Ways of communication

No Landline Mobile Emails Letter Personal Gathering phone Phone Chats s communic s in the ation houses 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 In 1 2 Turkey 9 2 1 4 3 10 2 3 1 11 1 12 Other 1 countries

Eleven of them thought that new technologies help people to gain new knowledge. All of them mentioned the ability computers provide for gaining new knowledge. Some of them were very descriptive on this subject: [New technologies can make the world look smaller. You can find information easily and quickly] (Zimanci, no7)

[With new technologies you can follow the news of the moment] (Eda, no 10)

70 [With new technologies one can gain access where it is difficult with books and printed material] (Sinem, no 4)

[In places like small villages, there is no library or magazines. One can learn the news and gain knowledge using the Internet] (Olia , no 2)

All the women mentioned the speed Internet provides for communication, the dissemination of information and the exchange of views with friends all over the world. [You can communicate with friends from all over the world..] (Sevgi, no 8)

[It is good up to a point. But today you can’t get in touch with people in the way it used to be the old times] (Gönül, no13)

A group of questions aimed at detecting evidence of technophobia among these women were posed. Both anxiety and negative attitudes have been identified as factors contributing to a sense of technophobia. Definitions of technophobia may include: a) anxiety about current or future interactions with computers or computer-related technology; b) negative global attitudes about computers, their operation or their societal impact; c) a resistance to talking about computers or even thinking about computers and d) fear, anxiety towards computers or hostile thoughts about computers. One third of the entire population of the industrial world has it! Research shows the age at one’s first computer experience as a salient factor in anxiety over new technology; indeed it is the only clear factor in the relationship between age and computer anxiety. On the other hand, other studies show a division to aspects whether age provokes anxiety towards new technology76. In response to the question “Learning via computer on my own, is pleasant for me” the eleven female computer users were positive and only one of them showed slight dissatisfaction in learning on her own. All of them mentioned that computers and new technologies helped them collect information conveniently, obtain new and different knowledge, improve their skills and discover new things.

For the next question “Learning via computer requires highly-developed study skills,” all disagreed, saying that self determination and creativity can be useful in learning to use a computer, that computers are easy to use, that even the most ordinary people use them, and that language knowledge can be very helpful.

In answering the question “I would like to learn how to use a computer, even if it is complicated,” the women responded mostly with “I am persistent” and “I find it necessary and useful.” Also, the knowledge

76 “Technophobia: What is it? Does it exist? Who has it?” Article given by Roussos P, Aegean university Rhodes 2005

71 gained via computers was important to them; and the prospect of finding employment computer skills made them determined to try harder. In a research project carried out within the Fifth European framework program for research and technological development as part of the IST program, titled “Widening Women's Working Information and Communication Technology” we read: “For some women computer science is a "ticket to economic opportunity.” This holds true in particular for women living in economically deprived regions and women with an ethnic background. Getting an education in engineering and ICT is seen as the most reasonable way to optimize their chances on the labor market. Job security is a strong consideration especially for women from the South”. In response to the question “What was your opinion of PCs, before you used them for the first time?” seven of the women said they had wanted to learn, were informed about the utility and necessity of computers, and believed they could succeed. Four said they had been afraid. Comparing the demographics of the women who showed some technophobia in the beginning, it was revealed that two of them had learned how to use computers after entering University, one had dropped out of school, and the fourth was a lyceum student and village dweller but now found computers fun. The responses to the questions “How do you feel today in front of a computer?” and “What are your emotions towards ICTS?” were characterized by words such as “persistence,” “pleasure,” “satisfaction,” “creativity” and “interest.”

[I feel comfortable in front of a computer] (Ayşe, no 5)

[I feel comfortable, curious and I persist...] (Olia, no 2)

[I’m more comfortable now. I search more and more. I find and keep pictures from Singapore] (Lale, no12)

[I do’t feel very comfortable but I’m not afraid. I know I can manage it] (Gönül, no 3)

Table XVIII presents all the answers to the questions concerning teleworking from home, jobs in ICT area, on-line studies, mobility required by information technology labor and long working hours with no schedule. For the informants, the mobility usually demanded by the information technology sector is a major issue and seven of them felt negatively about leaving their homes and families.

72 Table XVIII: Demands and new forms of the ICT labor sector Long Geographical hours On-line Teleworking No mobility work education from home time 1 no no yes no 2 yes yes no yes yes Don’t no Don’t 3 know know 4 yes yes yes no 5 yes yes yes yes 6 no no yes no 7 no yes yes yes 8 no no no yes 9 no no no yes 10 no yes yes yes 11 no yes yes yes 12 yes yes yes yes

Participants who were negative to the possibility for leaving the area of Thrace stated:

[My relationship with my family is important] (Zimanci, no7)

[I am happy with my parents. I can’t leave them] (Özlem, no1)

[I can’t do it on my own. I have a family] (Özlem, no11)

As for those who were positive to this aspect, their answers are indicative:

[It depends on the country, the money and the conditions there. I would never go to Saudi Arabia, but I could go to a European country.] (Olia, no2)

[I could only go as far as Thessalonica.] (Ayşe, no5)

[I feel lucky that my family puts no pressure on me in matters like these.] (Sabahat, no4)

[If I liked the job that was offered, I’d leave. But if I had a family I would reconsider it.](Gönül, no3)

The same conclusions are supported by the research project carried out under the Fifth European framework program for research and technological development as part of the IST program, titled, “Widening Women's Working Information and Communication Technology,” in which it is mentioned that: “The intensive rhythms of work, the overloaded schedules and frequent overlaps between professional life and private life, which often characterize ICT professionals' working conditions, are very little attractive for women. Such working conditions do not correspond to their professional aspirations and are not compatible with the domestic and family loads that they still mainly assume. Voluntary agreements of flexible work, which would make it possible to better reconcile work and private life, are rare”. Concerning the long hours work time demanded by the ICT sector, seven of the women were felt positively. One of them was a student, four of them were graduates from universities, and the other two had studied only in primary schools and were housewives. The answer given by one of these women, with only a primary education, was surprising to both the interviewer and her husband who was translating. At the question of whether she would like to work in an ICT job for the many hours demanded by the sector, he was astonished to hear his wife reply that she would like to live in the Komotini area to find employment and work long hours. In a way he raised the gender issue by projecting her duty and asking her, “And the house!?” Of the five women who were negative, one was a computer engineer, covered with the scarf, lived in a village, and was looking forward to marrying soon as possible, as she happened to be engaged. Two key words characterize the work in this sector: speed and long hours, associated with unpredictability of working time that make very difficult any attempt of organization of the private life. The real duration of work, often near 50 hours per week, is a real factor of discrimination with regard to women. Those who are concerned by the longest working times are men without family load. Pressure on time is particularly hard in the case of project work, where pressure of the deadlines and of the group lead to self- intensification of work. The key rule for many companies in this sector is that it is necessary "to be the fastest and the first". Long periods of absence, like maternity leaves,

74 make difficult to return in this type of activity and part-time work does not match with such rhythms of work77. Concerning on-line studies, eight of the women felt positively, thinking that in this way family, marriage, domestic duties, dropping out of school, relations with family could be combined, affording them the opportunity for a “second chance” in their lives to improve their skills, abilities and prospects. Of the four who responded negatively, three were university graduates and stated that they were more attached to the classical way of studying, in a real classroom with real books.

[I don’t believe that on-line studies provide the same standard of education as studies on a university campus.] (Sevgi, no8)

Eight of the women felt positively about teleworking. All the covered women, even the one who didn’t use a computer, said they would prefer working from the house with the aid of a computer. Most of the eight were town dwellers and married. This indicates that teleworking is a more flexible way of work for women with domestic and family duties, and thus is more preferable. The four women who were negative said they would prefer to work out of the house and socialize more through work. This can probably be explained by a general concern women have, restricting them to the home, teleworking could deprive them of the status of working women and hinder their professional or business efficiency. But on the other hand, taking into consideration the ability that teleworking provides to women restricted to their homes with no chance to work outside, Mazrui (2000) describes its value in a Muslim woman’s life: “Under the new technology the computerized hijab is at hand: women can more easily stay at home while continuing to participate in a computerized workplace. This possibility is amply demonstrated by a woman from the British Asian community in her response to a BBC radio presenter who expressed concern that the computer can, in fact, enhance the isolation of women. The woman commented, "Well, if they're just stuck at home then why not use the Internet to get connectivity with people across the world... the Internet can also provide an access for women to possibly start providing their own services-- maybe hobbies that they're interested in or business that they have a keen eye on." By gradually abolishing the distinction between home and the workplace, Internet technology may give women the opportunity to integrate themselves into the economic and political global community”

Six women said they would prefer to participate in mixed groups to learn to use computers, and the other six said that they would prefer to be only in groups of women, but three women in the latter group

77 Research project carried out under the Fifth European framework programme for research and technological development, within the IST programme after the name “Widening Women's Working Information and Communication Technology”.

75 were more open to the idea of mixed groups as long as they would improve their knowledge. Their common characteristics were that they were all covered, married, and town dwellers. Of these three more flexible women, one of them was the covered and married non-user, and the other two were uncovered and single, but village dwellers. All of them were very positive at the prospect of improving their skills and becoming more flexible in their lives. They believed that in this way they would find jobs, become more educated and cultivated, and have comfortable life with the ability to establish better relations with others. [This is my obstacle exactly, because my parents didn’t let me finish school] (Lale, no 12)

[I want to improve my knowledge in Greek] (Zimanci, no 7)

[I believe that in this way I’ll have more chances to find a better job](Sinem, no 6)

All the women were positive about exchanging information with other people sharing the same interests. But only eight of them expressed the desire to participate in clubs and associations. From their answers, their desire to communicate, exchange ideas, share common views, help other people, improve knowledge and skills, and become acquainted with other cultures and civilizations, is obvious. Four of them do not want to become members of clubs due to their characters, lack of time, or their socioeconomic situation. [I want to establish my own association.] (Zimanci, no7)

76 4.5 Factors that affect learning and communication needs.

Table XIX: Factors that may affect learning and communication needs

Informed on Subscription Existence Existence Participation E.U Use of or buying Visiting of of in Municipal programs No library books E.U Internet women women “Women magazines Infopoints cafes clubs programs business news papers creativity” 1 Yes Yes (Greek Yes No Yes little No literature) 2 Yes No Yes No No little Yes 3 No Yes Yes No Yes No No (university) 4 No Yes Yes No No No No 5 Yes Yes(Greek Yes No Yes(meet No No dictionaries) new people) 6 Yes No Yes No No No No 7 Yes Yes Yes No Yes(teaching Yes No Islamic art) 8 Yes Yes Yes No No No(interested No but not informed) 9 No Yes No No No No No 10 Yes No No No Yes No No 11 Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No 12 No No No No Yes(painting) No No

Four women said there were no Internet cafes in the areas where they lived. Two of them lived in a small village and one in one of the most underdeveloped districts of Komotini, with houses surrounded by high walls and people who keep the traditions of their villages. Though this woman was the only informant who wore the ferace (black cloak and white scarf), she was one of the most active users of computers and especially the Internet. The fourth woman was the non-user, also covered but in a more discreet way. The other eight said that there were Internet cafes in the areas they lived, but did not generally visit them. This can be considered an indication, not only of external factors influencing them but also of the structure of

77 their society, their culture and tradition. The fact that computers in the local Internet cafes were mostly used usually by boys and men for games and sometimes gambling is an obstacle to the presence of women in such places. Eight of them make use of the municipal library, borrowing books of Greek literature or Greek dictionaries. Others use the University library as they are postgraduate students, and others use the library of the Muslim Youth Association. But though this library houses many books of Turkish literature, the Greek offering is limited. The inverse is true for the Municipal Library; the presence of more Turkish literature or Greek literature in Turkish could make it easier for them to visit the library and find satisfying reading choices. Three of the four who do not borrow books from the library were graduate or postgraduate students who probably bought their own books, and the fourth was the woman who wore the “ferace” and lives in an underdeveloped area, unaware even of the existence of a library. Three of them did not buy books or subscribe to newspapers or magazines. All three were covered, two were graduates of primary school only and housewives, and the third was a pharmacist (not yet employed) living in a village. The reason for these attitudes can likely be ascribed to the lack of money. The rest bought books of architectural and medical interest (concerning their fields of study) in Greek and Turkish, and/or minority press newspapers and magazines on fashion and health. Worthy of note is their total unawareness of the existence of the European Infopoint, which happens to be in Komotini, which provides information on subjects concerning the E.U, youth exchange programs, travel by Interail, studies at European universities, funds, working in Europe, exchange of views with young people from all over Europe and participation in meetings and forums organized by E.U. This office could likely contribute to the improvement of the status of young Muslim women by providing information on alternative life choices. It could also inform them on programs, funded by the E.U., for creating their own small businesses. The ignorance of these programs is evident in the above tables. It is the probably their ages or their level of education which prevents them from becoming informed on this subject. But examples of Muslim women who have benefited from these programs and created their own jobs exist. Five of the women did not participate or do not want to participate in programs planned and supported by the municipality of Komotini. Some of them expressed their discontent with taking part in programs attended only by women, and showed a preference for programs in which men were also included. Others did not know their existence, or the municipality they lived in did not offer such programs. The programs include swimming, theater, drawing, sports, and ceramics, silk-painting and other activities that provide creative outlets. Those who showed an interest however were happy because they felt more comfortable in the company of women only, and would make new friends and learn interesting things.

[I am afraid of going because I don’t speak Greek. But I could teach the art of decoration and Islamic art in programs like these.] (Zimanci, no 7)

[I would like to participate, and take some drawing lessons.] (Lale, no 12)

A big problem for minority women is the lack of a place where they can meet and exchange views. The buildings housing the Union of Minority Scientists and the Muslim Youth Association are used only occasionally by women for meetings. They described this place, if it could exist, as an area where they could meet and talk their problems over a cup of coffee; a place that would provide several facilities such as Internet, a library, lessons in chess and other games, newspapers and magazines, sports, a theater stage, CD and DVD libraries, or even conversations with psychologists.

[I would like this place to be like my home. Every day I gather women in my house and teach them about Islam. I would like to teach on-line as well.] (Zimanci, no7)

[I would like a place like this to exist in my village, where we could meet and talk, and share our problems.] (Ayşe, no 5 and Eda, no 4)

European Infopoint at Komotini

79 Table XX: A summary table of key findings

Communication and Factors that Learning and Learning needs and Demographics Communication affect these needs experiences to date attitudes

-12 participants at Education of -5 first to know computer -10 prefer printed -Internet cafes exist in the age of 18-29. parents: usage in Greek high publications, 2 online. their area but don’t go. school, 4 in Turkish state - All believe computer a -11 computer high school and - 8 use Municipal and users 1 non-user -Fathers: university, 3 on their feminine matter as well. Youth Associations 8 primary, 2 own. - 11 suggest that computers library but state the -6 veiled, 6 lyceum, 2 facilitate and are necessary lack of literature in unveiled tertiary. -8 computer owners, 4 no to their daily routine. Turkish language. -Mothers: 10 -7 Internet connected, 5 - 11 believe that everybody -7 single, 5 no -9 buy books or married(covered), primary, 1 -9 email account owners, must know the usage of subscribers to lyceum, 1 3 no computer. newspapers and -3 have of 1 child. tertiary. -8 no Internet café users, -7 don’t believe that digital magazines. 3 covered 3 only in Turkey, 1 yes illiteracy is connected to don’t buy books or -6 town dwellers, -8 every day computer general literacy. magazines 6 village dwellers use, 4 no -Most of them positive to -7 want to participate -8 Greek -7 informed via Internet Internet and NT, for in programmes offered speaking, 3 very on feminine matters, 5 by the Municipality limited, 1 non non communication, only for women, 5 not speaking information, new informed, want mixed -mobile phone, TV, programmes. -6 English computer, most used knowledge. Covered ones speaking, 4 appliances prefer personal -Totally uninformed limited, 2non -Internet, email and web for the existence and speaking searching reasons for communication. function of E.U. -1 Arab speaking using ICT -No techno stress or Infopoint at Komotini. -1 Italian speaking - web searching: technophobia detected. - Lack of a place where they can meet 2 use Turkish, Greek -Their feelings for the -Education: 2 and exchange views, computer are insistence, Greek tertiary,5 3 English, Greek, and Internet, library, music, coffee, games, Turkish tertiary, 2 2 Turkish ,English, pleasure, satisfaction, sports, theater, Greek secondary, 1 English, creativity, interest. lectures, cd-dvd 3 only minority collections provided. 2 Turkish -Relation with family is an primary. obstacle to mobility market Show a 1 Turkish, English and preference to Greek. demands Greek state -7 accept long secondary hours working demanded education and aim by ICT labor sector to learn Greeklanguage -8 are positive to online studies and teleworking

80 CHAPTER 5

Conclusions/Implications

The following pages attempt to combine the main findings in the above presentation and analysis of the data, with a description of the women of the Muslim minority and their relation with ICT, and their learning and communication needs and experiences as shaped by a world of new demands and perspectives. Results of this study appear to contradict those that would be expected by the Greek majority due to the prevailing stereotypes concerning Muslims and especially the status of Muslim women. When discussing the subject of this research with members of the Greek Christian community the first comments were: “Do you think they know anything about computers?” or “Let them first take off their scarves and then try to figure out what they’re doing”. This attitude on the part of Greek Christians cannot be considered exaggerated, since these are the usual attitudes in Western societies towards those of the Muslim faith. This attitude is aptly described by Mazrui (2001) in the following observations: Westerners tend to think of Islamic societies as backward-looking, oppressed by religion, and inhumanely governed, comparing them to their own enlightened, secular democracies…. Westerners regard Muslim societies as unenlightened when it comes to the status of women, and it is true that the gender question is still troublesome in Muslim countries. Islamic rules on sexual modesty have often resulted in excessive segregation of the sexes in public places, sometimes bringing about the marginalization of women in public affairs more generally78. The long history of encounters between Western civilization and Islam has produced a tradition of portraying the Islamic religion and Muslim cultures in largely negative and self-serving ways. As Said (1997) observes, “modern Occidental reactions to Islam have been dominated by a radically simplified type of thinking that may still be called Orientalist.” This research therefore confirms that young Muslim women of the minority in the 18-29 age group use computers and are eager to expand their knowledge of new technologies and the Greek language and to participate in the reforms and the demands of a new wired world. Dragona and Frangoudaki (2006) describe in some detail the agitations and the reclassifications that take place in the bosom of the minority which influence and change the status of women as well: The de-intensification in majority–minority relations in the early 1990s and the reforms instigated thereafter opened up novel challenges for the minority. These changes have contributed to the shaping of a new generation that aspires to a European future; can differentiate between the concepts of assimilation and integration and shows more willingness

78 Mazrui, A. (1997). Islamic and Western values. issue of Foreign Affairs (Vol. 76, No. 5, pp. 118-132) http://www.alhewar.com/AliMazrui.htm last access 18/4/2006

81 to become a part of Greek society; seems comfortable with the notion of multiple identities; and wishes for greater autonomy and increased active involvement of the minority in its own concerns. These data indicated that for the women in this study, religion doesn’t lay down any obstacles to the use of computers. At the very least, many mistaken ideas about Islam have been refuted on the Internet, and people are beginning to realize that Islam does not reject the use of modern technology such as the computer. Five of the six covered women in this study are computer users, using it as a vehicle for fun and communication and even as a tool for work. The non-user in the group, who is covered, is not dissuaded by religion but rather by her educational level and family status. During the interviews nobody mentioned any interference by their religious authority in the use of new technology or the Internet. A search for the word "Islam" on the Internet yields links to thousands of sites featuring everything from shopping, to sermons, to "Web-muftis" who provide answers to theological and legal questions. The Web allows almost anyone to air a broad range of views and perspectives, and much of the resulting discussion and debate can be found in online forums and chat rooms. Deborah Wheeler in her book “The Internet in the Middle East,” summarizing her research, concludes that “Muslims are actively incorporating advanced communications technologies into their daily lives; the presence of such new technologies produces new questions about religious observance and conduct…a symbiotic relationship exists between religion and technology…”79. Location influences computer ownership, since the area of residence is a major determinant of the economical status of Muslim minority members in Western Thrace, as does their social structure. In the rural areas, people of the Muslim minority are less educated and more dependant on agricultural jobs, with less income than those in urban areas. The marital status of the participants is not an obstacle to the use of new technology. On the contrary, most of the married women of this study were encouraged by their husbands to learn how to use computers and the Internet. In some cases this support on the part of their husbands enabled them to contribute to the family income. That gave them a broader perspective and stabilized their status in the family. Young women show a preference for Greek state schools, in order to improve their knowledge in Greek language, as they all mentioned. Nowadays evidently, attending a Greek state school is the route to success in Greek tertiary education. Families face a dilemma: To preserve their children’s Turkish ethnic identity, language, religion, and culture in the minority schools which, however, offer an inferior quality of education that usually leads to academic failure; or to send them to the Greek state schools, which provide

79 Wheeler, D. (2006). The Internet in the Middle East. State University of New York, Albany, p. 187

82 more opportunities for a better education and success in University studies80 . The participants who entered Greek state high schools learned to use computers earlier than these who studied in Turkey, due to the existence of computer laboratories in the Greek state schools since 1994. As was mentioned above, a new order is being formed among members of the minority. It is the new generation who has opened the gates, functions in a more flexible way, is not afraid of assimilation, and aims at interaction with Greek culture. As data from the research showed, this behavior is being adopted by ever more members of the Muslim minority from different economic, social and local classes. Even parents with only a primary education, and village dwellers, do not place any obstacles to a better education for their children, and adopt the attitude, as concerns university studies, showed by the Greek Christian population many years ago. Another point that must be emphasized is the eagerness of Muslim women who have dropped out, to return to school. The number of these women attending the Second Chance School and the Evening high School is increasing year by year. Women want to obtain social mobility and accordingly they take part in computer education and training programs. Although the girls’ drop-out rate is 80%, the increase in middle school attendance over ten years is 76.9%, compared with 19.6% for boys81. It cannot be said that the parents’ educational and professional level play an important role in their children’s use of computers. It is only a factor in computer ownership due to the economical level associated with one’s educational and professional status. Most of the twelve participants own a computer and have an Internet connection and an email account. All computer users had support and encouragement of their parents, their brothers, and their boyfriends or husbands in learning to use computers. Family background is also not a major determinant in participants’ choice of tertiary studies and their occupational aspirations. The research revealed that Muslim women from villages or low-income families were university students or graduates. This is the result of the fact that entering tertiary education is much easier nowadays for members of the Muslim minority. On the other hand, family background may influence attitudes towards studies or further acquisition of knowledge in order to obtain a better job that will help maintain the family’s social status. The subjects in which participants show interest and search for on the Internet include fashion, health, medical issues and gynecological problems in particular, cooking, family, children, diet and social problems. The commendable point is that of the five participants who gave a negative answer to this question, three were graduates of high-ranking universities. Thus it can be concluded that subjects of

80 Dragonas, T. & Frangoudaki, A. (2006). Educating the Muslim minority in Western Thrace. Routledge Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol. 17, No. 1, 21–41, January 2006

81 Dragonas, T. & Frangoudaki, A. (2006). Educating the Muslim minority in Western Thrace. Routledge Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol. 17, No. 1, 21–41, January 2006, p 33

83 interest do not necessarily coincide with studies but rather result from the uniqueness of each person’s character. All of the participants believe that computer use is an integral part of their present or future jobs. New technologies, as an experience, were described by some of the participants with the words: computer, Internet, mobile phones, video, cameras, cars, email; as well as others associated with communication. Their reasons for using the computer center on the Internet, email and searching the web, followed by Microsoft Office applications and communication with friends. Studies and telework are not priorities for the women. Participants show a preference for mobile phones, TV, and thirdly to computers. According to their location of residence it can be said that urban women have a better relationship with computers and ascribe priority to computers for their utility. Village participants show nearly the same order of preference for mobile phones and TV, with the computers coming in third. On the contrary, the participants who were covered found the computer more useful, giving it higher priority than the priority given by the uncovered, and are equal in their mobile phone use. Computers and mobile phones are considered the most useful. Participants who were uncovered considered the mobile phone and the TV more useful.

All of the participants believe that the computer use is not only the province of males but must be taken on equally by females, and that all women must know how to use them. But half of them prefer to participate in groups composed only of women in order to improve their computer knowledge. The common characteristics of such women are that they are all covered, married, and town dwellers. Although technology enters the “harem,” the structures of this institution have been powerful over centuries. The positive aspect here is that efforts are being made and corridors of communication are opening. All believe that computers facilitate their everyday life, providing easier ways for doing things; that these days, everybody needs to know how to use a computer. Most of the participants use computers every day. As they mentioned, technological knowledge is not the only way for someone to be characterized as an educated person — equating cultivation with books, one probably misjudges another’s “digital literacy”. Obviously, for social interaction mobile phones and landline phones are preferred, while personal communication follows. Participants who were covered showed a preference to personal communication in homes, indicating that their traditional style of dressing affects their modes of communication as well. Many of the twelve women use Internet to communicate with friends. The participants are very positive to the aspect of improving their skills and becoming more flexible. They believe that in this way they will find jobs, become more educated and cultivated; and live a more comfortable life, having the ability to establish better relations with other people. All participants are positive to exchanging information with other people who share the same interests. The general idea emerging from this portion of the questions is the obvious desire of these women to communicate, exchange

84 ideas, share common views, help other people, improve knowledge and skills, and become acquainted with other cultures or even civilizations. No signs of technophobia or technostress were detected among the participants, only some fear of failure prior to learning how to use a computer, because of their age when this training took place. Self- determination, persistence, a desire to explore, creativity growing newly obtained knowledge and a general conception of computers as “easy machines,” can describe the feelings expressed on how they feel about computer learning. Participants are negative to the mobility demanded by the ICT labor sector, but long working hours, teleworking and online studies are accepted and generally welcomed as new lifestyles. Women with domestic responsibilities particularly welcome this flexibility. However their need for work and emancipation drive them to accepting long working hours even in the home, with the assistance of teleworking. With the computer and a modem, a woman can be connected to the central office and can perform her professional work from a remote site such as a neighbourhood centre or her home. On-line studies provide them an outlet for their desire for better skills, higher qualifications, and more improvement and social mobility. In other places, obstacles to mobility in finding employment are connected with family. Family as a whole appears to be very important — both in a concrete and a symbolic way — for most of the interviewees. In the majority of cases, families provide them great emotional, moral and economic support. Influenced by the way internet cafes function, women of the Muslim minority prefer not to go them, although they exist in their neighborhoods and villages. However they do go to them when they are in Turkey, where anonymity is afforded. Participants use the municipal library or the library of the Youth Association. The lack of Turkish literature in the Municipal library was mentioned as an obstacle to heavier use of the library. Participants who are covered and not employed are do not subscribe to magazines and newspapers or buy books. All the others buy magazines or books related to their professional interests, or books of literature. Participants are not informed about the existence of the European Infopoints, or swimming, sports, drawing and other arts/craft programs offered by the Municipality. Some of them do not want to participate in groups composed entirely of women, preferring socialize with men as well. Only participants who were covered showed a preference to women-only groups, feeling more comfortable among members of their own gender. A big problem for the women of the minority is the lack of a place where they can meet and exchange their views. Their municipalities generally do not provide such places. Sometimes places like these exist due to private initiative. Participants describing the place said they would like it as an area where they could meet over a cup of coffee and talk about the problems that concern them, a place which would provide several facilities like Internet connections, a library, lessons in chess and other

85 games, newspaper and magazine subscription, sports, a theater stage, collections of CDs and DVDs, or even conversations with psychologists and other types of consultants. It is clear from the above that relation with, and access to, technology depends on education, income, and to some extent on the personality of the person who tries to become digitally literate. However, we cannot assume that all women of the Muslim minority in general relate to technology in the same way. This research constitutes a first approach to the subject and doesn’t aim to provide in-depth answers to all the aspects of the question. Consequently some general comments will contribute toward identifying the problem more clearly, and support the further studies of the questions that arise. The Greek state’s change in its policy towards minorities in 1991 affected many areas of the life of the Muslim minority in Western Thrace. We read at Demesticha (2004): “According to a report by Helsinki watch in April 1992, one year after the “change” had been announced, minority members were able to buy and sell houses and land, repair houses and mosques, obtain car and driving licences, truck and tractor licences, and open coffee houses and machine and electrical shops… In 1995, the restricted supervised zone of Thrace inhabited exclusively by Pomaks was abolished”82. The expansion of new technologies, the development of infrastructures such as electrical and telephone lines in the areas populated by the Muslim minority, and programs for better education and training specially planned and offered to minorities, all have their effects, and eventually affect women as well. Women of the minority must be encouraged to participate in programs that promote education for women and girls, and help women to enter into the labor market. In this way the conditions of the double exclusion they experience due to gender and the socioeconomic structures of their community will be improved. Future research will determine the effects this change in policy will have on the socioeconomic level of the whole area of Western Thrace. Centers with ICT infrastructures able to meet women’s communication and learning needs must be instituted in their neighborhoods, so that connection with ICTs, even in rural areas, becomes more affordable. The need for communication and expression of their viewpoints, knowledge, experiences and concerns is one of the points that came up most often during the interviews. Another is their concern for acquiring skills and developing capabilities in order to become employable. An equitable and inclusive 'Information Society' must be based on the principles of gender equality, non-discrimination and women's empowerment. Relative to that, in conclusion, we should bear in mind the statement of the late mayor of Komotini Mr G. Papadriellis, a reform-minded leader for twelve

82 Demesticha, M. (2004). Minorities in the Balkans in the era of globalization: The case of the Turks in Western Thrace. MA Thesis, Bogazici University , p160 from Helsinki Watch, Report on Greece 4, no. 6 (April 20 1992).

86 years, to Human Rights Watch: “We have come to understand that economic development in particular is not possible without the cooperation of all of the communities living here”83.

83 Interview, Komotini, September 1997

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92 APPENDICES

Appendix A

Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations 84 Signed at Lausanne, January 30, 1923 .

The Government of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the Greek Government have agreed upon the following provisions: Article 1. As from the 1st May, 1923, there shall take place a compulsory exchange of Turkish nationals of the Greek Orthodox religion established in Turkish territory, and of Greek nationals of the Muslim religion established in Greek territory. These persons shall not return to live in Turkey or Greece respectively without the authorization of the Turkish Government or of the Greek Government respectively. Article 2. The following persons shall not be included in the exchange provided for in Article 1: a) The Greek inhabitants of Constantinople b) The Muslim inhabitants of Western Thrace. All Greeks who were already established before the 30th October, 1918, within the areas under the Prefecture of the City of Constantinople, as defined by the law of 1912, shall be considered as Greek inhabitants of Constantinople. All Muslims established in the region to the east of the frontier line laid down in 1913 by the Treaty of Bucharest shall be considered as Muslim inhabitants of Western Thrace. Article 3. Those Greeks and Muslims who have already, and since the 18th October, 1912, left the territories the Greek and Turkish inhabitants of which are to be respectively exchanged, shall be considered as included in the exchange provided for in Article 1. The expression "emigrant" in the present Convention includes all physical and juridical persons who have been obliged to emigrate or have emigrated since the 18th October, 1912. Article 4.

84 January 1999 Vol. 11, No. 1 (D) Greece the Turks of Western Thrace Human right watch http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/greece/Greec991-03.htm , also available in Greek edition on http://alex.eled.duth.gr/Eldoseis/Losanne/INDEX.HTM

93 All able-bodied men belonging to the Greek population, whose families have already left Turkish territory, and who are now detained in Turkey, shall constitute the first instalment of Greeks sent to Greece in accordance with the present Convention. Treaty of Lausanne Section III. Protection of Minorities Article 37. Turkey undertakes that the stipulations contained in Articles 38 to 44 shall be recognized as fundamental laws, and that no law, no regulation, nor official action shall conflict or interfere with these stipulations, nor shall any law, regulation, nor official action prevail over them. Article 38. The Turkish Government undertakes to assure full and complete protection of life and liberty to all inhabitants of Turkey without distinction of birth, nationality, language, race or religion. All inhabitants of Turkey shall be entitled to free exercise, whether in public or private, of any creed, religion or belief, the observance of which shall not be incompatible with public order and good morals. Non-Muslim minorities will enjoy full freedom of movement and of emigration, subject to the measures applied, on the whole or on part of the territory, to all Turkish nationals, and which may be taken by the Turkish Government for national defence, or for the maintenance of public order. Article 39. Turkish nationals belonging to non-Muslim minorities will enjoy the same civil and political rights as Muslims. All the inhabitants of Turkey, without distinction of religion, shall be equal before the law. Differences of religion, creed or confession shall not prejudice any Turkish national in matters relating to the enjoyment of civil or political rights, as, for instance, admission to public employments, functions and honours, or the exercise of professions and industries. No restrictions shall be imposed on the free use by any Turkish national of any language in private intercourse, in commerce, religion, in the press, or in publications of any kind or at public meetings. Notwithstanding the existence of the official language, adequate facilities shall be given to Turkish nationals of non-Turkish speech for the oral use of their own language before the Courts. Article 40. Turkish nationals belonging to non-Muslim minorities shall enjoy the same treatment and security in law and in fact as other Turkish nationals. In particular, they shall have an equal right to establish, manage and control at their own expense, any charitable, religious and social institutions, any schools and other establishments for instruction and education, with the right to use their own language and to exercise their own religion freely therein. Article 41.

94 As regards public instruction, the Turkish Government will grant in those towns and districts, where a considerable proportion of non-Muslim nationals are resident, adequate facilities for ensuring that in the primary schools the instruction shall be given to the children of such Turkish nationals through the medium of their own language. This provision will not prevent the Turkish Government from making the teaching of the Turkish language obligatory in the said schools. In towns and districts where there is a considerable proportion of Turkish nationals belonging to non-Muslim minorities, these minorities shall be assured an equitable share in the enjoyment and application of the sums which may Human Rights Watch 37 January 1999, Vol. 11, No. 1 (D) be provided out of public funds under the State, municipal, or other budgets for educational, religious, or charitable purposes. The sums in question shall be paid to the qualified representatives of the establishments and institutions concerned. Article 42. The Turkish Government undertakes to take, as regards non-Muslim minorities, in so far as concerns their family law or personal status, measures permitting the settlement of these questions in accordance with the customs of those minorities, These measures will be elaborated by special Commissions composed of representatives of the Turkish Government and of representatives of each of the minorities concerned in equal number. In case of divergence, the Turkish Government and the Council of the League of Nations will appoint in agreement an umpire chosen from amongst European lawyers. The Turkish Government undertakes to grant full protection to the churches, synagogues, cemeteries, and other religious establishments of the above-mentioned minorities. All facilities and authorization will be granted to the pious foundations, and to the religious and charitable institutions of the said minorities at present existing in Turkey, and the Turkish Government will not refuse, for the formation of new religious and charitable institutions, any of the necessary facilities which are guaranteed to other private institutions of that nature. Article 43. Turkish nationals belonging to non-Muslim minorities shall not be compelled to perform any act which constitutes a violation of their faith or religious observances, and shall not be placed under any disability by reason of their refusal to attend Courts of Law or to perform any legal business on their weekly day of rest. This provision, however, shall not exempt such Turkish nationals from such obligations as shall be imposed upon all other Turkish nationals for the preservation of public order. Article 44. Turkey agrees that, in so far as the preceding Articles of this Section affect non-Muslim nationals of Turkey, these provisions constitute obligations of international concern and shall be placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations. They shall not be modified without the assent of the majority of the

95 Council of the League of Nations. The British Empire, France, Italy and Japan hereby agree not to withhold their assent to any modification in these Articles which is in due form assented to by a majority of the Council of the League of Nations. Turkey agrees that any Member of the Council of the League of Nations shall have the right to bring to the attention of the Council any infraction or danger of infraction of any of these obligations, and that the Council may thereupon take such action and give such directions as it may deem proper and effective in the circumstances. Turkey further agrees that any difference of opinion as to questions of law or of fact arising out of these Articles between the Turkish Government and any one of the other Signatory Powers or any other Power, a member of the Council of the League of Nations, shall be held to be a dispute of an international character under Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Turkish Government hereby consents that any such dispute shall, if the other party there to demands, be referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The decision of the Permanent Court shall be final and shall have the same force and effect as an award under Article 13 of the Covenant. Article 45. The rights conferred by the provisions of the present Section on the non-Muslim minorities of Turkey will be similarly conferred by Greece on the Muslim minority in her territory.

96 Appendix B

The questionnaire used in the research

97 A) BACKGROUND DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

1. Where were you born; …………………………………………………………………………………. 2. Where do you permanently stay; ………………………………………………………………………………….. 3. What is your profession; ………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4. What is your age; 18-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 and over 5. Do you have children; How many; …………………………………………………………………………………. 6. Which was your parents’ educational level when you were studying at the lyceum; ………………………………………………………………………………...... 7. What is your parents’ profession; ………………………………………………………………………………...... 8. In which elementary, secondary school did you study; who chose the schools; You agreed with these choices; You are content with these choices; Today you would choose different schools?

9. How many years of formal education have you received; Types Years Country Primary Secondary Technical school University Other

10. Which is the object of your studies; ………………………………………………………………………………………… 11. For what reasons you chose the specific profession; Encouragement of your father; □ Encouragement of your mother; □

98 Encouragement of your relatives (influenced by their profession) □ The providing of the profession □ A random choice □ 12. Which languages do you speak; (Place in order of competence the first three) i) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ii) ……………………………………………………………………………………… iii)………………………………………………………………………………………

B) LEARNING AND COMMUNICATION NEEDS

13. I prefer reading from a printed text. Yes No

Because…………………………………………………………………………………

14. Learning through computer on my own is pleasant for me Yes No

Because…………………………………………………………………………………

15. Learning with computer requires highly developed study skills Yes No

Because…………………………………………………………………………………

16. I would like to learn using a computer, even if it is complicated Yes No

Because…………………………………………………………………………………………. 17. I think that ICTs can improve my learning and help in obtaining knowledge Yes No

Because………………………………………………………………………………… 18. ICTs allow in an effective way for communicating and sharing experiences Yes No

Because………………………………………………………………………………… 19. I would like to share information and ideas with people who have similar interests. Yes No

99 Because………………………………………………………………………………… 20. I would like to learn computer in teams with other women. Yes No

Because………………………………………………………………………………… 21. I would like to improve my skills in order to be more flexible in my life. Yes No

Because………………………………………………………………………………… 22. I would like to be member of clubs and associations. Yes No

Because………………………………………………………………………………………. 23. In order to find a job in the area of ICTs would you leave your native town; Yes No

Because………………………………………………………………………………………… 24. Would you participate in online programmes of studies (virtual schools, universities) Yes No

Because………………………………………………………………………………………….

100 C) LEARNING AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIENCES TO DATE

25. When was the first time you used the computer; At what age; How many years ago; For what reason; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… 26. Which was your opinion for the PC, before you used it for the first time; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… 27. Where were you taught for the first time the use of a computer; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… 28. How do you feel today in front of a computer; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… 29. How many hours did you use the Internet last week; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… 30. Do you communicate with friends through Internet; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… 31. Did your family encourage you to learn the use of computers; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………

32. What does the term ICTS mean for you; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… 33. Is the use of computer necessary to your profession; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………

101 YES NO 34. Is it a male affair the use of ICTS; YES NO 35. Do you think that everybody must know the use of the computer today; YES NO 36. The person who doesn’t know the use of the computer is digital illiterate. Do you agree; YES NO 37. Do you think that computers facilitate our lives ; Do you have a PC at home; YES NO 38.

YES NO 39. Do you go to Internet cafes; For what reason; YES NO 40. Do you get informed about feminine matters from Internet; YES NO 41. Do you have an Internet connection at your house; YES NO 42. Do you believe that the computer is necessary to your life ;

YES NO 43. Do you have an email account; A web site; YES NO 44. Would you accept to work many hours as happens in the area of ICTs; YES NO 45. Would you work in the house with the help of a computer;

102 46. Which of the Ict appliances you use more frequently; TV Digital camera Computer Fax Mobile phone Scanner Video CD /DVD player Tape recorder Mp3 player 47. Which of the formers do you think is more useful to you; TV Digital camera Computer Fax Mobile phone Scanner Video CD /DVD player Tape recorder Mp3 player 48. If any of them is deprived from you which would you miss the most ; TV Digital camera Computer Fax Mobile phone Scanner Video CD /DVD player Tape recorder Mp3 player 49. Which of the followings do you think that describe your emotions towards ICTS Stress Pleasure Fear Creativity Panic Comfort Tiredness Interest Miss of concentration Something else 50. For what reason do you use a computer; Studies Internet Buying products Chat with friends Web searching, Playing games Email Applications of Microsoft office Use of educational software None of this 51. If you want to communicate with friends what ways you use; Telephone Email /Internet Mobile phone Personal communication Mails Gatherings in houses

103

D) INFLUENCES THAT AFFECT LEARNING AND COMMUNICATION NEEDS 52. Are there Internet cafes in the area you live; Yes No 53. You know that there is a municipal library. Would you lend books from it; Yes No 54. Are you a subscriber to newspapers or magazines; Yes No ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 55. Are there places for women to gather; Describe the place as you would like it to be. Yes No …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 56. Would you like to participate in programs of the Municipality only for women; Yes No 57. Are you informed about programs for women offered by the E.U. Yes No 58. Do you know the existence of the European Info point in Komotini; Yes No 59. Which language you use for reading the websites; …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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