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,FOOFUI3-BOH 5VѫT6OJWFSTJUZBOE"OHVJMMB #8* +BOVBSZTU TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... xiii LIST OF TABLES ...... xv CHRONOLOGY: A CONCISE HISTORY OF COSMIC DISCOVERY ...... 1 2800 BC to 1600 AD ...... 3 1600 to 1700 AD ...... 11 1900 to 2010 AD ...... 36 GLOSSARY WITH DATA TABLES ...... 105 REFERENCES...... 349 AUTHOR INDEX ...... 351 SUBJECT INDEX ...... 359 -*450' '*(63&4
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'*( $ISCOVERY DIAGRAM OF THE EXPANDING 5NIVERSE ! PLOT OF THE DISTANCE OF EXTRA GALACTIC NEBULAE OR GALAXIES VERSUS THE RADIAL VELOCITY AT WHICH EACH GALAXY IS RECEDING FROM %ARTH PUBLISHED IN BY THE !MERICAN ASTRONOMER %DWIN (UBBLE
¥ 4HE LINEAR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DISTANCE AND RADIAL VELOCITY OF EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE OR GALAXIES INDICATES THAT THE 5NIVERSE IS EXPANDING (ERE THE VELOCITY IS IN UNITS OF KILOMETERS PER SECOND ¥
ABBREVIATED KM S AND THE DISTANCE IS IN UNITS OF MIL LIONS OF PARSECS OR -PC WHERE -PC IS EQUIVALENT TO MILLION LIGHT YEARS (UBBLE UNDERESTIMATED THE DISTANCES OF THE SPIRAL NEBULAE SO THE DISTANCE SCALE FOR MODERN VERSIONS OF THIS DIAGRAM IS ABOUT SEVEN TIMES LARGER &IG 4HE lLLED CIRCLES AND SOLID LINE REPRESENT THE SOLUTION FOR INDIVIDUAL NEBULAE THE OPEN CIRCLES AND DASHED LINE ARE FOR GROUPS OF THEM THE CROSS REPRE SENTS THE MEAN DISTANCE OF NEBULAE WHOSE DISTANCES COULD NOT BE DETERMINED INDIVIDUALLY
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4!",% .!3! AND %3! SPACE MISSIONS A !POLLO -ISSIONS 3IX !POLLO SPACECRAFT TRANSPORTED TWELVE ASTRONAUTS TO THE -OON AND BACK BETWEEN AND 4HEY RETURNED A TOTAL OF KILOGRAMS OF ROCKS THAT WERE USED TO DECIPHER THE -OONS HISTORY AND PROVIDE CLUES TO ITS ORIGIN 4HE !POLLO ASTRONAUT .EIL ! !RMSTRONG n WAS THE lRST HUMAN TO STEP ON THE -OON FROM THE ,UNAR -ODULE %AGLE ON *ULY
#ASSINI (UYGENS -ISSION .!3! LAUNCHED THE #ASSINI (UYGENS SPACECRAFT ON /CTOBER )NSTRUMENTS ABOARD THE SPACECRAFT WHICH REACHED 3ATURN IN *ULY WILL IMPROVE OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE PLANET 3ATURN ITS RINGS ITS MAGNETOSPHERE AND ITS SATELLITES .!3!S #ASSINI /RBITERWILL ORBIT 3ATURN AND ITS MOONS FOR FOUR YEARS /N *ANUARY %3!S (UYGENS 0ROBE DOVE INTO THE THICK HAZY ATMOSPHERE OF 3ATURNS MOON 4ITAN AND LANDED ON ITS SURFACE DISCOVERING SIGNS OF mOWING LIQUID PROBABLY METHANE 4HE SPACECRAFT IS NAMED FOR THE )TALIAN BORN &RENCH ASTRONOMER 'IAN 'IOVANNI $OMENICO *EAN $OMENIQUE #AS SINI n WHO DISCOVERED #ASSINIS GAP IN 3ATURNS RINGS AND THE $UTCH ASTRONOMER #HRISTIAAN (UYGENS n WHO DISCOVERED 4ITAN 3ATURNS LARGEST MOON
#HANDRA 8 RAY /BSERVATORY .!3! DEPLOYED THE #HANDRA 8 RAY /BSERVATORY ABBREVIATED #8/ ON *ULY FROM THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE #OLUMBIA )T INVESTIGATES THE HIGH ENERGY 8 RAY REGIONS OF THE 5NIVERSE FROM COSMIC OBJECTS SUCH AS ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI BLACK HOLES CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES DARK MATTER GALAXIES NEUTRON STARS PULSARS QUASARS SUPERNOVA REMNANTS SUPERNOVAE AND WHITE DWARFS 4HE 8 RAY OBSERVATORY WAS NAMED AFTER THE )NDIAN BORN !MERI CAN ASTROPHYSICIST AND .OBEL LAUREATE 3UBRAHMANYAN #HANDRASEKHAR ¥
#OMPTON 'AMMA 2AY /BSERVATORY .!3! LAUNCHED THE #OMPTON 'AMMA 2AY /BSERVA TORY ABBREVIATED #'2/ ON !PRIL FROM THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE !TLANTIS AND IT RE ENTERED THE %ARTHS ATMOSPHERE ON *UNE )T WAS THE SECOND OF .!3!S FOUR GREAT OBSERVATORIES IN SPACE DESIGNED TO STUDY THE 5NIVERSE IN AN INVISIBLE HIGH ENERGY FORM OF RADIATION KNOWN AS GAMMA RAYS )T DETECTED MORE THAN GAMMA RAY BURSTS AS WELL AS GAMMA RAYS FROM BLACK HOLES PULSARS QUASARS AND SUPERNOVAE 4HE GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY WAS NAMED AFTER THE !MERICAN PHYSICIST !RTHUR #OMPTON n WHO IS REMEMBERED FOR DISCOVERING THE #OMPTON EFFECT A PHENOMENON IN WHICH ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES SUCH AS 8 RAYS UNDERGO AN INCREASE IN WAVELENGTH AFTER HAVING BEEN SCATTERED BY ELECTRONS
#/SMIC "ACKGROUND %XPLORER .!3! LAUNCHED THE#/SMIC "ACKGROUND %XPLORER ABBREVI ATED #/"% ON .OVEMBER INSTRUMENT OPERATIONS WERE TERMINATED ON $ECEMBER 4HESE INSTRUMENTS MEASURED THE ANGULAR DISTRIBUTION AND SPECTRUM OF THE COSMIC MICRO WAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION SHOWING THAT IT HAS A FAINT ANISOTROPY AND A BLACKBODY SPECTRUM WITH A TEMPERATURE OF KELVIN
%INSTEIN /BSERVATORY .!3! LAUNCHED THE%INSTEIN /BSERVATORY THE lRST FULLY IMAGING 8 RAY TELESCOPE PUT IN SPACE ON .OVEMBER WHERE IT ORBITED %ARTH AND OBTAINED DATA UNTIL !PRIL )T PROVIDED THE lRST HIGH RESOLUTION 8 RAY STUDIES OF SUPERNOVA REMNANTS DISCOV ERED UNEXPECTEDLY INTENSE CORONAL EMISSION FROM MAIN SEQUENCE STARS RESOLVED NUMEROUS 8 RAY SOURCES IN NEARBY GALAXIES AND DETECTED 8 RAY JETS FROM #ENTAURUS ! AND - ALIGNED WITH RADIO JETS 4HE OBSERVATORY IS NAMED AFTER THE 'ERMAN BORN !MERICAN PHYSICIST !LBERT %INSTEIN n WHO REVOLUTIONIZED OUR UNDERSTANDING OF SPACE MATTER AND TIME
'ALILEO -ISSION 4HE 'ALILEO SPACECRAFT WAS LAUNCHED BY .!3! ONBOARD THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE !TLANTIS ON /CTOBER AND ARRIVED AT *UPITER ON $ECEMBER ORBITING THE GIANT PLANET AND VASTLY INCREASING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF *UPITER AND THE FOUR 'ALILEAN SATELLITES )O %UROPA 'ANYMEDE AND #ALLISTO 4HE MISSION IS NAMED AFTER THE )TALIAN ASTRONOMER 'ALILEO 'ALILEI n WHO DISCOVERED *UPITERS FOUR LARGEST MOONS NOW KNOWN AS THE 'ALILEAN SATELLITES 4HE MISSION WAS TERMINATED ON 3EPTEMBER CONTINUED (MPTTBSZ/
4!",% .!3! AND %3! SPACE MISSIONS 'IOTTO -ISSION %3! LAUNCHED THE (JPUUP SPACECRAFT ON *ULY )T ENCOUNTERED #OMET (ALLEY ON -ARCH OBTAINING IMAGES OF ITS DARK IRREGULAR JET SPEWING NUCLEUS AND MEASURING THE AMOUNT OF WATER AND DUST EMITTED 4HE MISSION IS NAMED AFTER THE &LORENTINE PAINTER 'IOTTO DI "ONDONE C nC
()GH 0RECISION 0!2ALLAX #/LLECTING 3ATELLITE %3! LAUNCHED ITS ()GH 0RECISION 0!2ALLAX #/LLECTING 3ATELLITE ABBREVIATED ()00!2#/3 ON !UGUST AND OPERATED IT UNTIL !UGUST )T WAS THE lRST SPACE MISSION DEDICATED TO ASTROMETRY MEASURING THE ACCURATE POSITIONS DISTANCES MOTIONS BRIGHTNESS AND COLORS OF STARS ()00!2#/3 MEASURED THE PARALLAX AND PROPER MOTIONS OF STARS WITH A PRECISION OF TO SECONDS OF ARC UP TO TIMES BETTER THAN POSSIBLE FROM THE GROUND 4HE ACRONYM ALSO ALLUDES TO (IPPARCHUS OF .ICAEA C "#n C "# WHO RECORDED ACCURATE STAR POSITIONS MORE THAN TWO MILLENNIA PREVIOUSLY
(UBBLE 3PACE 4ELESCOPE 4HE WORLDS lRST SPACE BASED OPTICAL OR VISIBLE LIGHT ASTRONOMI CAL TELESCOPE THE (UBBLE 3PACE 4ELESCOPE WITH A METER INCH PRIMARY MIRROR WAS LAUNCHED ON !PRIL FROM THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE $ISCOVERY WITH SERVICING MISSIONS BY SHUTTLE ASTRONAUTS IN $ECEMBER &EBRUARY $ECEMBER AND &EBRUARY )T HAS OBSERVED NEWLY FORMED GALAXIES WHEN THE 5NIVERSE WAS HALF ITS PRESENT AGE CONTRIBUTING TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE AGE AND EVOLUTION OF THE #OSMOS WATCHED SUPER MASSIVE BLACK HOLES CONSUMING THE MATERIAL AROUND THEM AND HELPED ASTRONOMERS DETERMINE HOW A MYSTERIOUS hDARK ENERGYv HAS TAKEN OVER THE EXPANSION OF THE 5NIVERSE 4HE TELESCOPE WAS NAMED FOR THE !MERICAN ASTRONOMER %DWIN (UBBLE n WHO DEMONSTRATED THAT SPIRAL NEBULAE ARE GALAXIES LIKE OUR OWN -ILKY 7AY AND FOUND THE lRST EVIDENCE FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE 5NIVERSE
(UYGENS 0ROBE 4FF #ASSINI (UYGENS -ISSION
-AGELLAN -ISSION .!3! LAUNCHED ITS -AGELLAN SPACECRAFT TO 6ENUS ON -AY )T AR RIVED AT THE PLANET ON !UGUST AND ORBITED THE PLANET FOR FOUR YEARS USING RADAR TO MAP PERCENT OF THE PLANETS SURFACE WITH METER VERTICAL RESOLUTION AND KILOMETER SPATIAL RESOLUTION 4HE -AGELLAN RADAR IMAGES REVEALED RUGGED HIGHLANDS PLAINS SMOOTHED OUT BY GLOBAL LAVA mOWS UBIQUITOUS VOLCANOES AND SPARSE PRISTINE IMPACT CRATERS )T IS NAMED FOR THE 0ORTUGUESE EXPLORER &ERDINAND -AGELLAN n WHOSE SHIP 6ICTORIA COMPLETED THE lRST CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE %ARTH IN
-ARS %XPLORATION 2OVER -ISSIONS .!3!S TWIN ROVERS 3PIRIT AND /PPORTUNITY LAUNCHED ON *UNE AND *ULY RESPECTIVELY 3PIRIT LANDED IN 'USEV #RATER ON *ANUARY AND /PPORTUNITY LANDED IN -ERIDIANI 0LANUM ON *ANUARY OBTAINING EVIDENCE THAT LIQUID WATER ONCE mOWED ACROSS -ARS
-ARS 'LOBAL 3URVEYOR .!3! LAUNCHED ITS -ARS 'LOBAL 3URVEYOR ON .OVEMBER PLACING IT INTO ORBIT AROUND THE RED PLANET ON 3EPTEMBER (IGH RESOLUTION IMAGES BEGINNING ON !PRIL OBTAINED ABUNDANT EVIDENCE FOR PAST AND RECENT WATER mOW DUST STORMS AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 4HE GLOBAL TOPOGRAPHY WAS DETERMINED WITH A LASER ALTIMETER AND A MAGNETOMETER DETER MINED THE GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF REMNANT MAGNETIC lELDS PRESERVED IN THE ANCIENT HIGHLAND CRUST
-ARS /DYSSEY .!3! LAUNCHED ITS -ARS /DYSSEY SPACECRAFT ON !PRIL PLACING IT INTO ORBIT AROUND THE RED PLANET ON /CTOBER )T HAS MAPPED THE AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AND MINERALS ON THE -ARTIAN SURFACE AND PROVIDED EVIDENCE FOR SUBSTANTIAL SUBSURFACE WATER ICE
.EAR %ARTH !STEROID 2ENDEZVOUS 3HOEMAKER -ISSION .!3! LAUNCHED ITS .EAR %ARTH !STEROID 2ENDEZVOUT ABBREVIATED .%!2 MISSION ON &EBRUARY AND IT ARRIVED AT THE NEAR %ARTH ASTEROID %ROS ON 6ALENTINES DAY &EBRUARY )T WAS RENAMED .%!2 3HOEMAKER AFTER LAUNCH IN HONOR OF THE ASTRONOMER GEOLOGIST %UGENE - 3HOEMAKER n A PIONEERING EXPERT ON ASTEROID AND COMET IMPACT .%!2 3HOEMAKER CIRCLED THE ASTEROID %ROS FOR A YEAR DETERMINING ITS DETAILED SIZE SHAPE MASS AND MASS DENSITY AND SHOWING THAT IT HAS A BATTERED HOMOGENEOUS STRUCTURE CONTINUED "$PNQBOJPOUP"TUSPOPNZBOE"TUSPQIZTJDT
4!",% .!3! AND %3! SPACE MISSIONS 2ÚNTGEN MISSION !N 8 RAY OBSERVATORY DEVELOPED THROUGH A COOPERATIVE PROGRAM AMONG 'ERMANY THE 5NITED 3TATES AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM LAUNCHED BY .!3! ON *UNE AND ENDING ALMOST NINE YEARS LATER ON &EBRUARY 4HE SPACECRAFT ABBREVIATED 2/3!4 FOR 2/NTGEN 3!4ELLITE CARRIED OUT AN ALL SKY SURVEY OF COSMIC 8 RAYS AND OBTAINED DETAILED INFORMATION ABOUT THE 8 RAY EMISSION FROM COMETS 4 4AURI STARS GLOBULAR CLUSTERS NEU TRON STARS SUPERNOVA REMNANTS PLANETARY NEBULAE NEARBY NORMAL GALAXIES ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI AND CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES 4HE MISSION WAS NAMED AFTER 7ILHELM +ONRAD 2ÚNTGEN THE 'ERMAN PHYSICIST WHO DISCOVERED 8 RAYS IN
3/LAR AND (ELIOSPHERIC /BSERVATORY .!3! LAUNCHED THE 3/LAR AND (ELIOSPHERIC /BSERVA TORY ABBREVIATED 3/(/ ON $ECEMBER WITH OPERATIONS CONTINUING INTO )T IS A COOPERATIVE PROJECT BETWEEN %3! AND .!3! TO STUDY THE 3UN FROM ITS DEEP CORE THROUGH ITS OUTER ATMOSPHERE AND THE SOLAR WIND OUT TO A DISTANCE TEN TIMES BEYOND THE %ARTHS ORBIT )T HAS OBTAINED IMPORTANT NEW INFORMATION ABOUT THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE SOLAR INTERIOR THE HEATING MECHANISM OF THE 3UNS MILLION DEGREE OUTER ATMOSPHERE THE SOLAR CORONA AND THE ORIGIN AND ACCELERATION OF THE SOLAR WIND
3PITZER 3PACE 4ELESCOPE .!3! LAUNCHED THE 3PITZER 3PACE 4ELESCOPE ABBREVIATED 334 ON !UGUST WITH AN EXPECTED MINIMUM YEAR MISSION LIFETIME )T IS AN INFRARED TELE SCOPE WITH AN METER INCH PRIMARY MIRROR OBTAINING IMAGES AND SPECTRA OF THE IN FRARED ENERGY OR HEAT RADIATED BY COSMIC OBJECTS AT WAVELENGTHS BETWEEN AND MICRONS WHERE MICRON IS ONE MILLIONTH OF A METER AND PROVIDING INFORMATION ON THE FORMATION COMPOSITION AND EVOLUTION OF PLANETS STARS AND GALAXIES 4HE MISSION WAS INITIALLY DESIGNATED THE 3PACE )NFRA 2ED 4ELESCOPE &ACILITY OR 3)24& FOR SHORT AND RENAMED FOR THE !MERICAN ASTROPHYSICIST ,YMAN 3PITZER *R
5HURU -ISSION 4HE 5HURU SATELLITEWAS LAUNCHED FROM +ENYA ON $ECEMBER ON THE SEVENTH ANNIVERSARY OF +ENYAN INDEPENDENCE WHEN IT WAS NAMED 5HURU THE 3WAHILI WORD FOR hFREEDOMv )T PROVIDED A COMPREHENSIVE ALL SKY SURVEY OF COSMIC 8 RAY SOURCES INCLUD ING BLACK HOLES AND NEUTRON STARS IN BINARY STELLAR SYSTEMS SUPERNOVA REMNANTS 3EYFERT GALAX IES AND CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES )T DISCOVERED 8 RAY EMISSION FROM BLACK HOLES AND PULSARS AND THE DIFFUSE 8 RAY EMISSION FROM CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES WHICH ACCOUNTS FOR SOME OF THE SO CALLED DARK MATTER IN THE 5NIVERSE 4HE MISSION ENDED IN -ARCH
5LYSSES -ISSION 4HE 5LYSSESSPACECRAFT WAS A JOINT UNDERTAKING OF %3! AND .!3! LAUNCHED BY THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE $ISCOVERY ON /CTOBER $URING AN ENCOUNTER WITH *UPITER ON &EBRUARY THE GIANT PLANETS GRAVITATIONAL lELD WAS USED TO ACCELERATE THE SPACECRAFT AND HURL IT ABOVE THE 3UNS POLES BUT NEVER AT A DISTANCE CLOSER TO THE 3UN THAN THE %ARTH IS 5LYSSES PASSED OVER THE SOLAR SOUTH POLE IN 3EPTEMBER AND THE NORTH POLE IN *ULY AND THEN AGAIN OVER THE SOUTH POLE IN .OVEMBER AND THE NORTH POLE IN $ECEMBER #OMPARISONS OF 6MZTTFT OBSERVATIONS WITH THOSE FROM OTHER SPACECRAFT SUCH AS 9OHKOH AND 3/(/ SHOWED THAT MUCH IF NOT ALL OF THE HIGH SPEED SOLAR WIND COMES FROM OPEN MAG NETIC lELDS IN POLAR CORONAL HOLES AT LEAST DURING THE MINIMUM OF THE 3UNS YEAR CYCLE OF MAGNETIC ACTIVITY
6IKING -ISSION .!3!S 6IKING -ISSION TO -ARS WAS COMPOSED OF TWO SPACECRAFT 6IKING AND 6IKING EACH CONSISTING OF AN ORBITER AND A LANDER 4HE ORBITERS IMAGED THE ENTIRE SURFACE OF -ARS AT A RESOLUTION OF TO METERS SHOWING VOLCANOES LAVA PLAINS IMMENSE CANYONS CRATERED AREAS WIND FORMED FEATURES AND EVIDENCE FOR CATASTROPHIC mOODS OF WATER ACROSS THE -ARTIAN SURFACE IN THE PAST 4HE LANDERS FOUND NO DETECTABLE ORGANIC MOLECULES ON THE -ARTIAN SURFACE WHICH MEANS THAT THIS PART OF THE SURFACE NOW CONTAINS NO CELLS LIVING DORMANT OR DEAD CONTINUED (MPTTBSZ/
4!",% .!3! AND %3! SPACE MISSIONS 7ILKINSON -ICROWAVE !NISOTROPY 0ROBE .!3! LAUNCHED ITS 7ILKINSON -ICROWAVE !NISOTROPY 0ROBE ABBREVIATED 7-!0 ON *UNE PUBLISHING DElNITIVE FULL SKY MAPS OF THE FAINT ANISOTROPY OR TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS OF THE COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIA TION IN EARLY 7HEN COMBINED WITH THE RESULTS OF OTHER DIVERSE COSMIC MEASUREMENTS THE 8."1 DATA SUGGEST THAT THE 5NIVERSE IS BILLION YEARS OLD THAT THE lRST STARS BEGAN TO SHINE ABOUT MILLION YEARS AFTER THE "IG "ANG THAT THE RADIATION IN THE 8."1 IMAGES ORIGINATED AT THE DECOUPLING TIME YEARS AFTER THE "IG "ANG THAT THE (UBBLE CONSTANT HAS A VALUE OF KILOMETERS PER SECOND PER -EGAPARSEC AND THAT THE 5NIVERSE IS COMPOSED OF PERCENT ATOMS PERCENT COLD DARK MATTER AND PERCENT DARK ENERGY 4HE PROBE IS NAMED IN HONOR OF $AVID 4 7ILKINSON n OF 0RINCETON 5NIVERSITY A PIONEER IN COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RESEARCH AND THE ."1 INSTRUMENT SCIENTIST
9OHKOH -ISSION 4HE *APANESE )NSTITUTE OF 3PACE AND !STRONAUTICAL 3CIENCE ABBREVIATED )3!3 LAUNCHED ITS 3OLAR ! SPACECRAFT ON !UGUST RENAMING IT 9OHKOH WHICH MEANS hSUNBEAMv IN %NGLISH 9OHKOH COLLECTED HIGH ENERGY RADIATION FROM THE 3UN AT SOFT 8 RAY AND HARD 8 RAY WAVELENGTHS WITH HIGH ANGULAR AND SPECTRAL RESOLUTION FOR MORE THAN A DECADE PROVIDING NEW INSIGHTS TO THE MECHANISMS OF SOLAR mARE ENERGY RELEASE AND THE HEATING OF THE MILLION DEGREE SOLAR CORONA )T WAS A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT OF *APAN THE 5NITED 3TATES AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM
A 4HIS ABBREVIATED LIST DOES NOT INCLUDE ALL .!3! OR %3! -ISSIONS BUT THESE PAST CURRENT AND FUTURE SPACECRAFT ARE LISTED ALPHABETICALLY IN OUR (MPTTBSZ
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CONTINUED (MPTTBSZ/
4!",% .OBEL 0RIZE 7INNERS 9EAR 0ERSON !CCOMPLISHMENT A .IELS "OHR n &OR HIS INVESTIGATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS $UTCH PHYSICIST AND OF THE RADIATION EMANATING FROM THEM A !RTHUR ( #OMPTON n &OR HIS DISCOVERY OF THE EFFECT NAMED AFTER !MERICAN PHYSICIST HIM A *AMES #HADWICK n &OR THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON %NGLISH PHYSICIST A 6ICTOR &RANZ (ESS n &OR HIS DISCOVERY OF COSMIC RADIATION NOW !USTRIAN PHYSICIST CALLED COSMIC RAYS #ARL !NDERSON n &OR HIS DISCOVERY OF THE POSITRON !MERICAN PHYSICIST A %NRICO &ERMI n &OR HIS DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE EXISTENCE OF )TALIAN PHYSICIST NEW RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS PRODUCED BY NEU TRON IRRADIATION AND FOR HIS RELATED DISCOVERY OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS BROUGHT ABOUT BY SLOW NEUTRONS A %RNEST ,AWRENCE n &OR THE INVENTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE !MERICAN PHYSICIST CYCLOTRON AND FOR RESULTS OBTAINED WITH IT ESPECIALLY WITH REGARD TO ARTIlCIAL RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS A 7OLFGANG 0AULI n &OR THE DISCOVERY OF THE %XCLUSION 0RINCIPLE !USTRIAN BORN 3WISS PHYSICIST ALSO CALLED THE 0AULI 0RINCIPLE A %DWARD !PPLETON n &OR HIS INVESTIGATIONS OF THE PHYSICS OF THE %NGLISH PHYSICIST UPPER ATMOSPHERE ESPECIALLY FOR THE DIS COVERY OF THE SO CALLED !PPLETON LAYER NOW CALLED THE IONOSPHERE A %MILIO 3EGRÒ n &OR THEIR DISCOVERY OF THE ANTIPROTON )TALIAN BORN !MERICAN PHYSICIST /WEN #HAMBERLAIN n !MERICAN PHYSICIST A 2UDOLF -ÚSSBAUER n &OR HIS RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE RESONANCE 'ERMAN PHYSICIST ABSORPTION OF GAMMA RADIATION AND HIS DIS COVERY IN THIS CONNECTION OF THE EFFECT WHICH BEARS HIS NAME A #HARLES ( 4OWNES n &OR FUNDAMENTAL WORK IN THE lELD OF QUAN !MERICAN PHYSICIST TUM ELECTRONICS WHICH HAS LED TO THE CON .ICOLAY "ASOV n STRUCTION OF OSCILLATORS AND AMPLIlERS BASED !LEKSANDR 0ROKHOROV ON THE MASER LASER PRINCIPLE 2USSIAN SCIENTISTS A (ANS "ETHE n &OR HIS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE THEORY OF NUCLEAR !MERICAN PHYSICIST REACTIONS ESPECIALLY HIS DISCOVERIES CONCERN ING THE ENERGY PRODUCTION IN STARS A (ANNES !LFVÏN n &OR FUNDAMENTAL WORK AND DISCOVERIES IN 3WEDISH ASTROPHYSICIST MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS WITH FRUITFUL APPLICATIONS IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLASMA PHYSICS
CONTINUED "$PNQBOJPOUP"TUSPOPNZBOE"TUSPQIZTJDT
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'*( 0ULSAR n RADIO ! SPINNING NEUTRON STAR HAS A POWERFUL MAGNETIC lELD WHOSE AXIS INTERSECTS THE NORTH AND SOUTH MAGNETIC POLES 4HE ROTAT ING lELDS GENERATE STRONG ELECTRIC CURRENTS AND ACCELERATE ELECTRONS WHICH EMIT AN INTENSE NARROW BEAM OF RADIO RADIATION FROM EACH MAGNETIC POLE "ECAUSE THE MAGNETIC lELD AXIS IS INCLINED TO THE NEUTRON STARS ROTATION AXIS THESE BEAMS WHEEL AROUND THE SKY AS THE NEUTRON STAR ROTATES ONCE PER REVOLUTION )F ONE OF THE BEAMS SWEEPS ACROSS THE %ARTH A BRIGHT PULSE OF RADIO EMISSION CALLED A PULSAR IS OBSERVED ONCE PER ROTATION OF THE NEUTRON STAR ! WIND OF CHARGED PARTICLES ALSO STREAMS FROM THE POLES BUT GETS SWEPT AROUND TO SPRAY IN ALL DIRECTIONS AS THE lELD ROTATES
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'*( 0ULSAR n 8 RAY -ATERIAL FROM A NORMAL VISIBLE LIGHT STAR SPILLS OVER ONTO ITS COMPANION AN INVISIBLE NEUTRON STAR 4HE mOW OF GAS IS DIVERTED BY THE POWERFUL MAGNETIC lELDS OF THE NEUTRON STAR WHICH CHANNELS THE IN FALLING MATERIAL ONTO THE MAGNETIC POLAR CAPS 4HE IMPACT OF THE GAS ON THE STARS SURFACE CREATES A PAIR OF 8 RAY HOTSPOTS ALIGNED ALONG THE MAGNETIC AXIS AT EACH MAGNETIC CAP "ECAUSE THE MAGNETIC lELD AXIS IS INCLINED TO THE NEUTRON STARS ROTATION AXIS THE 8 RAY RADIATION FROM THE HOT SPOTS SWEEPS ACROSS THE SKY ONCE PER REVOLUTION PRODUCING THE APPEARANCE OF PERIODIC 8 RAY PULSATIONS IF ONE OF THE HOT SPOTS INTERSECTS THE OBSERVERS LINE OF SIGHT
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