THE GREENWOOD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CLOTHING THROUGH AMERICAN HISTORY 1900 TO THE PRESENT THE GREENWOOD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CLOTHING THROUGH AMERICAN HISTORY 1900 TO THE PRESENT VOLUME 1 1900–1949 Amy T. Peterson, Valerie Hewitt, Heather Vaughan, Ann T. Kellogg, and Lynn W. Payne Amy T. Peterson, General Editor GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut • London Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data The Greenwood encyclopedia of clothing through American history 1900 to the present / Amy T. Peterson, general editor [v. 1], Ann T. Kellogg, general editor [v. 2]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978 0 313 35855 5 ((set) : alk. paper)—ISBN 978 0 313 33395 8 ((vol. 1) : alk. paper)—ISBN 978 0 313 33417 7 ((vol. 2) : alk. paper) 1. Clothing and dress—United States—History—20th century. I. Peterson, Amy T. II. Kellogg, Ann T., 1968 GT615.G74 2008 391.0097309004—dc22 2008024624 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright C 2008 by Amy T. Peterson, Valerie Hewitt, Heather Vaughan, Ann T. Kellogg, and Lynn W. Payne All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008024624 ISBN: 978 0 313 35855 5 (set) 978 0 313 33395 8 (vol. 1) 978 0 313 33417 7 (vol. 2) First published in 2008 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48 1984). 10987654321 Contents Preface ix Chronology of World and Fashion Events, 1900 1949 xiii Part I: The Social Significance of Dress, 1900–1949 1 Chapter 1: The United States in 1900 1949: An Overview 3 Politics in America 5 Ethnicity in America 6 Art and Entertainment 7 Daily Life 9 The Changing Role of Women 10 Sexuality and Morality 11 Growing Up in America 12 Fashion 14 Chapter 2: Political and Cultural Events 19 The 1900s 21 The 1910s 28 The 1920s 33 The 1930s 39 The 1940s 44 Chapter 3: Art and Entertainment 53 The 1900s 55 The 1910s 61 The 1920s 66 The 1930s 71 The 1940s 78 v vi Contents Chapter 4: Daily Life 87 The 1900s 89 The 1910s 95 The 1920s 100 The 1930s 105 The 1940s 107 Chapter 5: The Individual and Family 115 The 1900s 117 The 1910s 126 The 1920s 130 The 1930s 138 The 1940s 140 Part II: Fashion and the Fashion Industry, 1900–1949 147 Chapter 6: The Business of Fashion 149 Haute Couture 150 Ready-to-Wear 155 Retail Operations 158 Fashion Communication 161 Fashion Technology 165 Chapter 7: Women’s Fashions 169 1900 1908, The Edwardian or La Belle Epoque Era 171 1909 1914, Empire Revival 180 1914 1919, World War I 188 1920s, The Jazz Age 197 1930s, The Great Depression 211 1940 1946, World War II 223 1947 1949, The New Look 237 Chapter 8: Men’s Fashions 247 The 1900s 248 The 1910s 256 1920s, The Jazz Age 263 1930s, The Great Depression 272 1940s, World War II 280 Chapter 9: Children’s Fashions 289 The 1900s 291 The 1910s 297 1920s, The Jazz Age 307 1930s, The Great Depression 316 1940s, World War II 326 Contents vii Glossary, 1900 1949 341 Resource Guide, 1900 1949 347 Print and Online Publications 347 Films and Video Media 352 Museums, Organizations, Special Collections, and Useful Websites 354 Cumulative Index 361 About the Contributors 391 Unnumbered photo essay appears following page 204. Preface Fashion is influenced by society, and, in turn, fashion influences society. Changes in appearance, however subtle or minimal, reflect changes in so- ciety. As society changes and evolves, so does fashion. Fashion is not the exclusive purview of the social elite, nor can it be summarily dismissed as mere vanity. It is much more complex than just wearing the latest styles. We use fashion to express who we are and what we think and to project an image, bolster our confidence, and attract partners. Fashion crosses all strata of society and is tightly interwoven into each individual’s identity. Undeniably, fashion ‘‘… is an essential part of the human experience’’ (Damhorst, Miller, and Michelman 1999, p. xi). Clothing through American History 1900 to the Present examines the relationship between social, cultural, and political developments and fash- ion in the United States. Volume One discusses the culture, clothing, and fashion in America from 1900 to 1949, and Volume Two discusses the culture, clothing, and fashion in America from 1950 to the present, about midway through 2008 at this writing. Both volumes in this set are struc- tured to provide two levels of information to the reader: first, what people wore and, second, and perhaps more important, why they wore it. In addition to chapters on fashion trends, this work contains chapters specif- ically dedicated to examining the impact that politics, culture, arts and entertainment, daily life, and family structures have on fashion and how fashion can serve as an impetus for change in society. This set also exam- ines the history of the fashion industry and the communication of fashion information in print, in movies and television, and across the Internet. Research for this work was conducted through numerous primary and secondary resources on fashion and history, which can be found in the chapter references and in the Resource Guide at the end of each volume, particularly in the ‘‘Print and Online Publications’’ section. Not all ix x Preface historical or current events, art movements, or socio-cultural theories were considered in the development of this book; the scope was limited only to those areas the authors believed directly impacted fashion trends. Nor is this book a comprehensive guide to subculture or alternative fashion movements; the focus is on the mainstream, common fashion trends that were adopted by the majority of Americans. To guide the reader, a chronology of key historical events and fashion trends is provided at the beginning of each volume. Illustrations of signif- icant fashion trends for both men and women are included to supplement the descriptive text, as does a glossary of fashion terms, which will assist the reader with terminology. An extensive resource guide of numerous articles and books, videos, and films that demonstrate fashion of certain eras, and a substantial listing of authoritative websites, including those for museums and special collections, rounds out the Selected Resources provided. THE TWENTIETH AND TWENTY-FIRST CENTURIES The birth of the twentieth century marked the beginning of the new, modern era that was more open, expressive, and progressive than the re- served and sober nineteenth-century Victorian era. Changes in society were rapidly taking place. The telephone, electricity, automobiles, and cameras, at first technological marvels, became commonplace items. Over the course of the century, mass-produced ready-to-wear clothing replaced custom-made hand-tailored clothing, allowing new fashions to be rapidly reproduced and distributed in large volumes simultaneously across the entire country. First store catalogs, and then the Internet, made fashions immediately accessible to individuals in even the most remote parts of the country. After World War II, the economic prosperity experienced by most of the United States resulted in a population shift from urban to suburban, and fashion followed suit with the development of the shopping mall. The last half of the twentieth century was marked by space explora- tion, activism, and civil unrest. The tumult of the 1960s witnessed the birth of both space exploration and the Civil Rights Movement. Although the ultra-hip donned vinyl dresses with metallic details, African Ameri- cans explored their origins and adopted traditional forms of African dress to express their identity. Middle-class youth became involved in numerous social protest movements against the establishment and, dubbed ‘‘hippies,’’ chose to differentiate themselves from their parents by rejecting Jackie-O Preface xi dress with high heels and Brooks Brother suits and adopting ethnic dress, long hair, and beards. As the final decades of the twentieth century approached, the social consciousness of the 1960s and 1970s was replaced by conspicuous con- sumption in the 1980s. Instead of reflecting allegiance with a social move- ment, fashion now reflected one’s material worth and station in society. Status symbols were prominently displayed on all apparel, as well as on many household goods. Bigger was better, and indulging in luxury was the message broadcast to all of society. In response to the excesses of the 1980s, the 1990s appeared almost generic. Most forms of self-expressions in fashions were gone: not so many designer labels nor as much conspicuous consumption. Khakis and white t-shirts became the norm and were considered acceptable dress for almost every occasion. Even the workplace began to dress down, imple- menting ‘‘business casual’’ and ‘‘casual Fridays,’’ instead of the standard suit and tie and dressy outfits for women. Whereas the 1980s screamed self-indulgence, the 1990s quietly and calmly, in an understated manner, closed out the century. From the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne to mass mer- chandisers, from Nordstrom to Overstock.com, the rapid (and now global) dissemination of fashion information is a potent agent for change in society. Fashion and society are inextricably intertwined, each influenc- ing the other. This book attempts to identify those connections and not just document the fashions of this time but also give context to them. As we progress through the twenty-first century, we will have to wait until enough time has passed to look back and read how fashion influenced twenty-first-century society and how the events of this new century are registered in the fashions we all wear.