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A Study of EM Forster's and George Orwell's Fiction

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A Study of EM Forster's and George Orwell's Fiction UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE LETRAS DEPARTAMENTO DE ESTUDOS ANGLÍSTICOS Reading Literature Today: A Study of E. M. Forster’s and George Orwell’s Fiction Paula Sofia Ramos de Sousa Sampaio Doutoramento em Cultura Inglesa 2007 UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE LETRAS DEPARTAMENTO DE ESTUDOS ANGLÍSTICOS Reading Literature Today: A Study of E. M. Forster’s and George Orwell’s Fiction Paula Sofia Ramos de Sousa Sampaio Doutoramento em Cultura Inglesa Tese orientada pelo Professor Doutor Álvaro Pina 2007 Abstract This work engages with the novels of E. M. Forster and George Orwell from a cultural studies perspective, to explore the insights that the study of literature can offer to the study and theorisation of culture. It maintains that many of the challenges first formulated by Raymond Williams, Pierre Bourdieu, Alan Sinfield and Pierre Macherey remain unfulfilled, and might help reshape cultural studies, or at least reveal its limits. I approach Forster’s and Orwell’s novels through a socially-grounded close reading, to release them from the liberal-humanist conspectus within which they were produced and have continued to be predominantly received. Turning to what Pierre Macherey has called the work’s ‘ideology’, which percolated through these novels at the moment of production, I look for the stories they tell, but also (reading ‘against the grain’) for the stories they fail to tell. My analysis falls on three topics – Englishness, imperialism and liberalism – to reconstruct these authors’ specific formation. I identify three different, but related, elements of ‘Englishness’: its reliance on a series of cultural and social ‘Others’; its links to liberalism (in the form of ‘a capacious liberalism’); its rootedness in capitalism. The construction of ‘Otherness’, which manifests itself in a long chain of binary oppositions (such as, public/ private; masculine/feminine; rational/ emotional; elite/ mass), is not only at the centre of Forster’s and Orwell’s literary/political vision, but has been also replicated in the various identity-based post-modernist critiques of liberal-humanism. I displace this primacy, by complementing my reading with Alain Badiou’s notion of ‘event’ and ‘ethics of truth’. My concern is not with finding a label for these authors’ politics, but with teasing out a set of elements and relations that helped to shape the ‘criteria of plausibility’ (Sinfield, 1992) that continues to define today’s rather broad and deep-rooted liberal-democratic consensus. Keywords: Forster; Orwell; cultural studies; Englishness; ‘Other’; ‘Event’; liberalism Resumo Este trabalho desenvolve uma análise dos romances de E. M. Forster e George Orwell numa perspectiva de estudos culturais, e uma reflexão sobre o contributo da literatura nas áreas da análise e teoria da cultura. Considera que muitos dos desafios formulados por Raymond Williams, Pierre Bourdieu, Alan Sinfield e Pierre Macherey permanecem por cumprir e podem ajudar a reformular os estudos culturais, ou, pelo menos, apontar os seus limites. Adoptando uma leitura socialmente construída, mas que privilegia as obras (‘close reading’), procurou-se arrancar estes romances ao quadro crítico liberal-humanista em que foram produzidos e no qual a sua recepção continua a ser predominantemente feita. O enfoque cai agora no que Pierre Macherey designou por ‘ideologia’, que permeou a obra no momento de produção. Estes romances são, por conseguinte, lidos pelas histórias que contam, mas também (numa leitura dissidente, ou ‘against the grain’) pelas histórias que se recusam a contar ou que ficam por contar. Partindo de três tópicos de análise – ‘Englishness’, imperialismo e liberalismo – identificaram-se três componentes essenciais da ‘Englishness’: a necessidade de identificar uma série de ‘Outros’ culturais e sociais; a conexão com o liberalismo (um liberalismo expansivo – ‘a capacious liberalism’); o enraizamento no capitalismo. A construção da ‘Outridade’, com expressão numa longa cadeia de oposições binárias (tais como, público/privado, masculino/feminino; racional/ emocional; elite/massas), não está apenas no centro da visão política/literária destes autores, mas tem também caracterizado as várias alternativas críticas (pós-modernistas, focadas na identidade e na diferença) à corrente liberal-humanista. Esta primazia é contrariada com o recurso às noções de ‘evento’ e ‘ética da verdade’ de Alain Badiou. O objectivo final não é etiquetar a tendência política destes escritores, mas identificar uma série de elementos que ajudaram a dar forma aos ‘critérios de plausibilidade’ (Sinfield, 1992) que continuam a definir o amplo e arraigado consenso liberal-democrático que caracteriza os nossos dias. Keywords: Forster; Orwell; estudos culturais; ‘Englishness’; ‘Outro’; ‘Evento’; liberalismo Resumo Alargadoi Este trabalho desenvolve uma análise dos romances de E. M. Forster e George Orwell numa perspectiva de estudos culturais, oferecendo, ao mesmo tempo, uma reflexão sobre o contributo da literatura nas áreas da análise e teoria da cultura. Considera-se que muitos dos desafios formulados por Raymond Williams, Pierre Bourdieu, Alan Sinfield e Pierre Macherey permanecem por cumprir e podem ajudar a reformular os estudos culturais, ou, pelo menos, trazer a lume os seus limites e limitações. Adoptou-se uma leitura socialmente construída que, na esteira de Williams e Bourdieu, questiona os pressupostos (geralmente invisíveis ou não articulados) da crítica literária tradicional – tais como a noção de ‘génio’ e criatividade literárias, que separa a obra da realidade em que foi produzida, resultando no que Williams apelidou de ‘estética dividida’ (‘divided aesthetic’ – Williams, 1971); ou pelo contrário, a noção não menos simplista de que a obra reflecte directamente essa realidade, resultando em leituras de cariz (psico)biográfico ou que procuram estabelecer correspondências directas entre o texto e a história. A ‘de-sacralização’ e ‘objectivização’ da literatura, que Bourdieu conceptualizou no seu modelo de ‘campo literário’ (ex. Bourdieu, 1993), e a concepção da relação entre literatura e mundo em termos de complexa mediação, e não de mero reflexo, vieram romper com os limites estéticos-literários e sociológicos das análises mais tradicionais (mesmo de inspiração Marxista). Fundamental nesta intervenção foi a Teoria da Produção Literária (1966) de Pierre Macherey, que proclama como objecto da análise literária a ‘ideologia’ da obra, isto é, o produto transformado (e deformado) do encontro entre realidade e linguagem que passa para a obra no momento de produção e que põe em evidência as contradições dessa realidade. Macherey chama a atenção para as falhas e os hiatos nas histórias que a obra conta, que apontam para as histórias que ficaram por contar, que uma leitura crítica pode reconstruir e reabilitar (Sinfield, 1992). i De acordo com o disposto no art.º 41º da Deliberação n.º 1506/2006, DR n.º 209, 2ª Série, de 30 de Outubro de 2006 É neste quadro que se situa a minha análise da ficção de Forster e Orwell, que privilegia a leitura atenta destas obras (‘close reading’), para as ler pelas histórias que contam, mas também (numa leitura dissidente, ou ‘against the grain’) pelas histórias que se recusam a contar ou que ficam por contar. O objectivo é definir o tipo de formação social, literária e política a que estas obras pertencem (o liberalismo de Forster, a liberal-democracia, no caso de Orwell), mas também arrancar estes romances ao quadro crítico liberal-humanista em que foram produzidos e dentro do qual a sua recepção continua a ser predominantemente feita. A análise prossegue em relação a três tópicos fundamentais: ‘Englishness’, imperialismo e liberalismo. Partindo dos romances italianos de Forster, e tomando a figura do turista como representativa do sujeito liberal, e o turismo como um tropo do liberalismo e do capitalismo, distinguiram-se três componentes essenciais da ‘Englishness’: a necessidade de identificar uma série de ‘Outros’ culturais e sociais; a conexão com o liberalismo (um liberalismo expansivo – o que Robert Colls designou por ‘capacious liberalism’ – Colls, 1986); o enraizamento no capitalismo (segundo o argumento de Ellen Meiksins Wood, 1991). A construção da ‘Outridade’ impõe-se como o elemento central e estruturante desta formação, manifestando-se a vários níveis, numa longa cadeia de oposições binárias, tais como, público/privado, masculino/feminino; racional/ emocional; elite/massas. Para além do ‘Outro’ estrangeiro (neste caso, italiano), os romances de Forster incluem também o ‘Outro’ feminino (as mulheres), o ‘Outro’ socialmente e culturalmente diferente e inferior (a classe média baixa), e o ‘Outro’ ‘exótico’, racial e colonizado. Forster incorpora os casos relativos ao género e à classe na visão de ‘Englishness’ apresentada em Howards End, sob a forma das irmãs Schlegel e de Leonard Bast, respectivamente. O último caso é tratado em A Passage to India, em relação à figura de Aziz. Há um último ‘Outro’ – o homosexual – que está implícito em grande parte da obra de Forster e que é finalmente incorporado na visão de ‘Englishness’ construída em Maurice, um romance escrito em 1914, mas que permaneceu por publicar até à morte de Forster, em 1970. Todas estas relações e problemáticas estão presentes, por vezes de forma reveladora, nas adaptações cinematográficas das obras de Forster realizadas entre os anos oitenta e noventa, que eu analiso à luz do argumento em volta do ‘heritage fim’, com o qual estes filmes ficaram associados. É este mesmo quadro conceptual
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