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Scientific and Management Support for Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines (Vip) Sludge Content

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Scientific and Management Support for Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines (Vip) Sludge Content SCIENTIFIC AND MANAGEMENT SUPPORT FOR VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT LATRINES (VIP) SLUDGE CONTENT Babatunde Femi Bakare MScEng (UKZN) Submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Chemical Engineering University Of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban MARCH 2014 Supervisors: Dr KM Foxon and Prof CA Buckley DEDICATION For Mercy, Daniel and David i DECLARATIONS I, Babatunde Femi Bakare, declare that (i) This research reported in this thesis except where otherwise indicated is my own original work. (ii) This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other University or academic institution. (iii) This thesis does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons. (iv) This thesis does not contain other persons’ writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted, then: a) their words have been re-written but the general information attributed to them has been referenced; b) where their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside quotation marks, and referenced. (v) Where I have reproduced a publication of which I am an author, co-author or editor, I have indicated in detail which part of the publication was actually written by myself alone and have fully referenced such publications. (vi) This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the source being detailed in the thesis and in the References sections Signed: ................................................ As the candidate’s Supervisors we have approved this thesis for submission Dr KM Foxon Prof. CA Buckley ............................. ...................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “When the LORD brought back the captivity of Zion, we were like those who dreamed, my mouth is filled with songs of joy and the LORD has done great things for me and am indeed grateful”. (Psalm 126:1-3). To God be the glory, the almighty father who saw me through this experience and made it possible for the completion of this research work. I will forever love him. My sincere gratitude goes to Dr K.M Foxon without whom this research would never have been possible. Kitty, your dedication to your students and how you have supported me throughout the course of this research work, your commitment as well as your valuable comments has aided my proper understanding of the study and rightfully directed me towards achieving the set research objectives of this study. I will also like to acknowledge Prof. Chris Buckley for giving me the opportunity and providing me with all necessary financial assistance throughout the duration of the study. I really appreciate your leadership role and support. My profound gratitude also goes to Mr. Chris Brouckaert for his immeasurable contribution towards the completion of this research work, your constant willingness and speedy response to the call for assistance throughout the course of the study is really appreciated. The research work presented in this thesis is part of two Projects funded by Water Research Commission which are entitled; K5/1745 Understanding sludge accumulation in VIPs, Urine diversion toilets and other onsite sanitation systems, and strategies to manage desludging in the future when pits are full and K5/1829 Investigating the potential of deep row entrenchment of pit latrine and water treatment works sludge for agroforestry and land rehabilitation purposes. The financing of these projects by the Water Research Commission and the contribution of the members of the Steering Committee is sincerely appreciated. Also the assistance rendered throughout this study by eThekwini water and sanitation service, Funkamela pit emptier and Partners in Development (PID) is gratefully acknowledged. Many thanks to the technical staff and all postgraduate students at the Pollution Research Group, School of Chemical Engineering University of KwaZulu-Natal for their iii assistance and contribution towards the success of this research work. You guys really made it fun. I will also like to thank my parent and siblings for their prayers and moral support throughout the duration of this study. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my wife, Mercy, for her prayers, support and encouragement which kept me going and to my sons, Daniel and David; you both have been my source of inspiration, I love you both. And to all my friends that I could not mention all your names, you have been so wonderful. iv ABSTRACT Providing adequate sanitation to all in the form of VIP latrines as proposed by the South African Government Strategic Framework for Water Services does not end with building toilets. All municipalities need to plan for maintenance during the operation and when these toilets reach their capacity. An understanding of the processes occurring in pit latrines will facilitate better management during their lifespan and identifying suitable options for dealing with the accumulated sludge when they eventually reach their capacity. This research aims at providing scientific support for decision making in management of accumulated sludge in ventilated improved pit latrines during their life span and when they reach their capacity under South African conditions. The approach to this research work was divided into two main thrusts: The first was to provide an understanding of the processes in VIP latrines and mechanism of sludge stabilization in pit latrines. The second approach was to provide management and disposal options for pit latrine sludge before and once it has been exhumed in the context of the eThekwini pit latrine emptying programme. Two options were used as case studies, namely: (i) deep row entrenchment of exhumed pit sludge for agroforestry and, (ii) in situ treatment of pit sludge using additives. Three hypotheses were proposed: that (i) significant biological stabilization occurs in a pit latrine with time, such that the disposal/treatment options depend on the inherent ability of the chosen option to accept the load of solids and organic material in the VIP sludge, the residual biodegradability of the VIP sludge, and the health risks, (ii) VIP latrine sludge can be used in deep row entrenchment for agroforestry since the sludge contains nutrients that are available to plants, and that the sludge is sufficiently stable not to cause a negative environmental impact, and (iii) that In situ treatment of VIP latrine sludge using pit additives had no significant effect on the rate of mass loss or volume loss of pit latrines contents. The methodological approach to this research was aimed at addressing the proposed research hypotheses. Thus to test the first hypothesis, two studies were conducted; the first study investigated sludge accumulation rate in pit latrines and the role of digestion v processes on sludge accumulation rate in pit latrines. Direct measurement of sludge accumulation rate from selected pit latrines within a community in eThekwini municipality was performed and a laboratory investigation into the effect of moisture content and aerobic/anaerobic conditions on sludge accumulation rate was conducted. The second study investigated the chemical and biological characteristics of pit sludge at different depths within a pit latrine. Research into deep row entrenchment of VIP latrine sludge for agroforestry was conducted to test the second hypothesis. The effect of deep row entrenchment on sludge characteristics and surrounding groundwater at the site was investigated by monitoring changes in sludge characteristics and groundwater quality at the entrenchment site over time. An investigation into the effect of pit latrine additives on pit sludge was conducted to test the third hypothesis. Two sets of trials were conducted; the first was a laboratory trial conducted to investigate the effect of pit latrines additives on collected sludge samples from pit latrine in laboratory scale test units. The rate of mass loss that could arise from the effect of addition of pit additives to sludge in the test unit was determined. The second was a field trial in which pit additives were added to randomly selected pit latrines within a community in Durban and changes in amount of the sludge in the pit was investigated using a laser tape measure and a stereographic imaging technique. The main findings of this research were: The sludge volume accumulation rate in pit latrines investigated was between 120 ℓ/ year and 550 ℓ/year regardless of the number of pit users. The overall average sludge accumulation rate was 282 ± 46 ℓ/year. This converts to a per capita sludge accumulation rate of 56 ℓ/person∙year for an average of 5 number of pit users obtained in this study. Statistical analysis performed indicated that sludge accumulation rate on a per capita basis does not decrease with an increase in number of pit users. In the laboratory batch experiments, it was observed that by increasing the moisture content the rate of degradation of sludge samples decreases. Over a period of 230 days, mass loss was inversely proportional to total moisture content, and it was found that the mass of solids have been reduced to vi somewhere between 17 and 64 % of the original sludge mass. This effect was attributed to the exposure of sludge samples in the test units to oxygen, since sludge samples with higher total moisture content in the test units appeared
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