Characterization and Quantification of Faecal Sludge from Pit Latrines

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Characterization and Quantification of Faecal Sludge from Pit Latrines Characterization and quantification of faecal sludge from pit latrines Thèse Catherine Bourgault Doctorat en génie des eaux Philosophiæ doctor (Ph. D.) Québec, Canada © Catherine Bourgault, 2019 Caractérisation et quantification des boues fécales issues des latrines à fosses Thèse Catherine Bourgault Sous la direction de : Paul Lessard, directeur de recherche Caetano Chang Dorea, codirecteur de recherche II RÉSUMÉ L’assainissement autonome (non raccordés à un système d’égout) est largement répandu dans les pays à faible revenu. Selon les estimations, 2.7 milliards de personnes seraient desservies principalement par des technologies d'assainissement individuelles, dont près de la moitié seraient situées en zones urbaines des pays en voie de développement (WWAP 2017). Or, l’ampleur de la couverture des installations sanitaires autonomes commence à poser de nombreux problèmes et défis techniques aux municipalités des régions concernées. En effet, l’augmentation croissante des fosses devant être vidangées, couplé aux manques d’organisation et de ressources, et à l’absence de connaissances précises sur les caractéristiques et les quantités de boues fécales générées, ne permettent pas actuellement d’assurer une vidange sécuritaire et de planifier la gestion efficace des boues fécales dans ces endroits. On estime ainsi que 74 % des fosses des installations sanitaires autonomes seront vidangées de façon non sécuritaire par année, c’est-à-dire que les boues fécales retirées seront déversées dans les cours d’eau ou terrains environnants sans traitement. Ainsi, dans la perspective d’organiser la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en voie de développement, il conviendrait d’améliorer les connaissances sur les taux de remplissage des latrines à fosse, ainsi que sur les données de caractérisation des boues fécales. L’objectif général de cette thèse est d’améliorer la gestion des boues fécales dans le contexte des pays en développement. Pour ce faire, une série d’expérimentations a été réalisée, s’attardant à des problématiques précises de caractérisation ou de quantification des boues fécales. De façon plus précise, la première étude (CHAPITRE 4) visait la modélisation du taux d’accumulation des boues fécales en utilisant une régression linéaire multiple. Les résultats obtenus revoient un modèle impliquant les valeurs du volume des fosses et de l’âge des latrines comme principale variables indépendantes. La valeur du coefficient de détermination (r2) qui a été obtenue est de r2 = 0.41. Ceci qui est légèrement supérieure à la valeur obtenue à l’aide du modèle de bilan de masse développé par Brouckaert et al. (2013), pour lequel seulement 50% des latrines étaient à moins de 40% d’erreurs. Par la suite, des travaux visant la caractérisation de l’effet inhibitif de l’azote ammoniacal sur la digestion anaérobie des boues fécales au sein des fosses ont été réalisés (CHAPITRE 5). L’objectif était de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle les fortes concentrations en azote au sein des fosses (causées par la présence d’urine) influenceraient les mécanismes de biodégradation, et conséquemment les taux d’accumulation. La méthodologie développée à d’abords été testée et validée avec des boues de digesteur anaérobie (provenant d’un réacteur complètement mélangé). Par ailleurs, le protocole développé n’a pas mené à des résultats concluants en utilisant des boues fécales. Effectivement, bien que plusieurs tests d’activité méthanogène spécifique (specific methanogenic activity - SMA) aient été réalisées (en changeant le ratio inoculum (boues)/substrat (acétate), et la durée), aucun des tests exécutés n’a démontré une production de méthane. À la lumière des résultats précédents (CHAPITRE 5), des travaux supplémentaires ont été réalisés visant à caractériser l’activité microbienne des boues fécales et de la matière fécale fraîche en termes des populations spécifiques à la digestion anaérobie (e.g. bactéries hydrolytiques et fermentatives, et méthanogènes méthylotrophes, acétoclastiques ou hydrogénotrophes) (CHAPITRE 6). Pour ce faire, la méthodologie utilisée consistait à mesurer la production de gaz (comme indicateur de l’activité microbienne) des échantillons de boues mélangés avec différents substrats spécifiques (e.i. acétate, méthanol, formate, glucose). Les résultats issus de cette étude ont démontré que l’utilisation des substrats de formate et de glucose présente l’activité microbienne la plus élevée lorsque mélangés avec une solution de matière fécale fraîche (soit de 112.17 et de 76.41 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le formate et le glucose, respectivement). Alors que l’utilisation des substrats de glucose et de méthanol ont résulté à l’activité la plus élevée avec des solutions de boues fécales plus âgées (soit de 129.15 et de 85.42 ml gaz/ g SV, pour le méthanol et le glucose, respectivement). Par ailleurs, une absence de l’activité méthanogène a été observé III en utilisant de l’acétate comme substrat pour les deux types de boues. Ces résultats concordent avec la littérature, où des tests de séquençages d’ADN n’ont pas mené à l’identification des archaea méthanogènes acétoclasitques au sein d’échantillons de boues fécales issues de latrines à fosses (Byrne 2016, Torondel 2017). Les résultats issus de cette étude remettent donc en perspective la présence d’une digestion anaérobie acétoclastique au sein des fosses, hypothèse qui est largement présumée dans de nombreux guides de conception des latrines à fosses conventionnelles. Finalement la dernière étude constituait une étude préliminaire sur la caractérisation des propriétés de séchage de la matière fécale fraîche (CHAPITRE 7). Plus particulièrement par la détermination et par la modélisation des isothermes de sorption. Cette étude s’inscrit dans le cadre actuel où les techniques de séchage pour le transport efficient des boues gagnent en popularité, alors qu’un manque de données sur les propriétés des boues persiste. Ainsi, les résultats obtenus démontrent que les isothermes de sorption tendent à suivre une forme sigmoïde, laquelle est caractérisée par deux points d’inflexion de surface et une augmentation rapide de la teneur en eau à des valeurs d'humidité relative supérieures à 75 % HR. D’une première part, ceci signifie que la teneur en eau de la matière fécale semblerait être plus facile à extraire jusqu'à une valeur d’environ 1 à 1.5g H2O/g d’échantillon - base humide. D’autre part, le modèle de Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) sembleraient être le plus approprié pour décrire les courbes d’isothermes, avec une estimation acceptable (Pr (>|t| > 0.05). IV TABLE OF CONTENTS RÉSUMÉ .................................................................................................................................................. III LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... X LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................ XII LIST OF ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................................... XIV REMERCIEMENTS ............................................................................................................................. XVI AVANT-PROPOS ............................................................................................................................... XVIII 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................. 4 2.1 ON-SITE SANITATION: PIT LATRINE COVERAGE ............................................................................ 4 What is a pit latrine? ............................................................................................................. 4 Design criteria of pit latrines ................................................................................................ 5 Pit latrine coverage in the world .......................................................................................... 5 2.2 CONSEQUENCES ASSOCIATED WITH POOR PIT LATRINES MANAGEMENT ...................................... 6 2.3 FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................... 7 2.4 FS ACCUMULATION RATE IN PIT LATRINES ................................................................................... 9 Pit design criteria.................................................................................................................. 9 Field studies on measurement of FS accumulation ............................................................. 10 Emptying frequency ............................................................................................................. 13 Modelling of pit filling rate ................................................................................................. 18 2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING ACCUMULATION RATES OF FS IN PITS ...................................................... 20 Operational and design related parameters ....................................................................... 20 V Biodegradation mechanisms related parameters ................................................................ 25 2.6 FAECAL SLUDGE CHARACTERISTICS ..........................................................................................
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