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War and Peace in Central America Comparing Transitions Toward Democracy and Social Equity in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua

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War and Peace in Central America Comparing Transitions Toward Democracy and Social Equity in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua War and Peace in Central America Comparing Transitions Toward Democracy and Social Equity In Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua Jack Spence November 2004 Hemisphere Initiatives Brookline, Massachusetts Copyright 2004 Hemisphere Initiatives For hard copies write Hemisphere Initiatives c/o Jack Spence Jack Spence is President of Hemisphere Initiatives. 37 Gorham Avenue He is Associate Professor of Political Science and Brookline, MA 02445 USA Associate Dean of the College of Liberal Arts at the [email protected] or [email protected] University of Massachusetts Boston. He has con- Or contact the Washington Office on Latin America ducted research on the wars and peace processes in 1630 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 200 Central America since 1981. Washington, DC 20009 Translator: Claudia Ferreira Talero, Managua [email protected] ([email protected] ) Graphic Artist: Nick Thorkelson, Somerville, CONTENTS Massachusetts (www.nickthorkelson.com) Summary...................................................1 Graphic Artist for Spanish edition, Kathy Sevilla, Current Political Moment.......................14 Managua ([email protected]) Guatemala ...........................................14 El Salavador ..........................................18 We are extremely grateful to PRODECA (Programa Nicaragua ............................................19 de Dinamarca Pro Derechos Humanos Para Varied Impacts of the Wars 22 Centroamérica) in Guatemala for funding this report Origins..................................................22 and in particular to its Director Klaus Wulff for his The Wars Begin....................................24 enthusiasm and patience, and to the highly profession- Carter and Reagan: The Cold al and ever gracious members of the PRODECA staff: War and Human Rights .......................26 Beatriz Bravo, Rosario de Monzón, Minerva The Wars’ Sequences and Impacts ........27 Samayoa, Finn Rasmussen and Carolina Pazos. The Peace Agreements............................37 Joy Olson, Executive Director of the Washington Ending the War in Nicaragua...............38 Office on Latin America (WOLA) offered WOLA’s The Salvadoran Peace Accords ..............41 help on distribution at a moment when WOLA was The Guatemalan Peace Accords............43 extremely pressed for time, and Geoff Thale, Military Reform......................................45 WOLA’s Senior Associate for El Salvador, Cuba and Demilitarization in El Salvador.............46 The Military in Guatemala ...................50 Nicaragua provided guidance on the distribution strat- Nicaraguan Military Reform.................52 egy. In Managua the Danish Embassy helped with dis- Reforming Justice Systems .....................54 tribution as did the every resourceful Minerva Window on the Issues: Samayoa for PRODECA in Guatemala. In El Violence at Nueva Linda.......................54 Salvador the decade-old collaboration between El Salvador Reforms..............................58 Hemisphere Initiatives and Loly de Zúniga contin- Guatemala Reforms ..............................62 ued with her very professional help with distribution, Nicaragua Reforms ...............................65 and we thank David Holiday for permission to use Post War Elections, Loly’s services. Silvia Vasquez provided helpful Participation, and Parties........................67 research in El Salvador and Guatemala on police Elections and Parties in El Salvador ......71 reform before taking a position with the government Elections and Parties in Guatemala.......75 in Guatemala. Judy Butler in Managua provided Elections and Parties in Nicaragua........76 essential help on financial logistics. Electoral Systems and Participation ......77 Land and Equity .....................................82 It has been my pleasure to work with real profession- Land......................................................82 als over many Hemisphere Initiatives publications: Social Spending.....................................88 Nick Thorkelson, Claudia Ferreira and Kathy Sevilla. International Factors ...............................91 Copies of this report in PDF format as well as other Conclusion ..............................................96 reports, can be found at Bibliography...........................................97 www.hemisphereinitiatives.org War and Peace in Central America Comparing Transitions Toward Democracy and Social Equity in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua SUMMARY his study compares the peace processes in tional section focuses on the international com- Central America and focuses on four areas munity. Tof reform: military institutions, police and General Background. Between 1978 and 1980 judicial, elections and political participation, and three civil wars erupted in Central America. Leftist land and social equity. Problems in each of these guerrillas threatened to overthrow the traditional areas gave cause to the wars, and each was negoti- conservative, dictatorial order made up of an ated and contested during the peace processes; alliance between rich landowners, exporters of cof- each is a part of attempted democratic transi- fee, sugar, cotton and beef, and the military insti- tions. The conditions faced by national and inter- tutions. In Nicaragua, this order took the form of national actors were constrained by the varied the Somoza family dynasty variously supported or impacts and sequences of the wars, which in turn acquiesced to by other rich exporting groups. The affected the shaping of peace agreements and the rapidly deepening crises surprised the traditional opportunities for democratic transition. powers, as well as the U.S. government, and, very The report is organized as follows: This probably, the insurgents themselves. The rebels Summary provides a compressed background of fought to destroy long-standing dictatorships and the wars and peace processes and itemizes and to redress the highly unequal distribution of compares the changes brought by peace imple- wealth and extensive and growing poverty. mentation. The following section provides an The first war ended after 18 months in July 1979 analysis of the current political moment in each with the defeat of the Somoza dictatorship and the country—the conflicts and agendas each face. victory of the rebels of the leftist Sandinista The following two sections contain a more National Liberation Front (FSLN) and other op- detailed analysis of the wars and peace processes. position groups. This victory spurred the enthusi- Readers familiar with these events may wish to asm of rebel groups in El Salvador and Guatemala skip those sections. Then there are sections on the and, in even greater measure, alarmed the aforementioned four areas of reform. The section landowners and militaries, to say nothing of the on politics, parties and electoral authorities also U.S. By 1980 war had roiled those two countries, gives details about electoral and party events and the U.S. began to heavily back the leading up to the present. Although all of these Salvadoran government. In Nicaragua a conserva- sections make abundant references to the roles tive, armed opposition to the Sandinistas began played by various international actors, an addi- and, with the full support of the Reagan adminis- 2 War and Peace in Central America tration, the conflict was soon to escalate into a full- foreigners to be incapable of dealing with them. scale war. Each of the three wars was highly Impunity reigned. The wars and agrarian reforms destructive — in terms of lives lost, many times as deeply affected distribution of property in destructive as the Vietnam War was to the U.S. Nicaragua and El Salvador, and this issue pervaded All wars eventually end. Whether they end in tri- the peace processes. umph and defeat or, in the words of the rebel Despite the striking similarity of the three coun- spokesperson at the signing of the Peace Accords for tries, one can see significant differences in each of El Salvador, with “neither victor nor vanquished” the three countries for every statement made in the establishes the fundamental condition of the peace. above paragraph. Eight to fourteen years removed In the four wars suffered in Central America one from the ends of their wars, the ongoing issues of ended in the defeat of Somoza. The other three the peace accords, the effects of the wars, and the ended in compromises: Nicaragua in 1990, after an configuration of political forces varies considerably electoral defeat of the Sandinista government; El from country to country. One cause of the variance, Salvador in 1992 with a treaty between the U.S.- among others, is the relative military and economic supported government and the Farabundo Martí impacts of the wars. Another is the nature of the National Liberation Front (FMLN) coalition of groups contesting the wars: the national militaries, guerrilla groups; and Guatemala in 1996 with a the traditional wealthy classes, the guerrillas, and treaty between the government and the Guatemalan the U.S. government—opposing the government in National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) coalition of Nicaragua, supporting that of El Salvador, and held guerrilla groups. back from supporting the Guatemalan government. The peace compromises accomplished a durable In El Salvador, the two groups that negotiated peace (although scattered, destructive fighting by the treaty—the FMLN rebels and a government “demobilized” contras went on for another six years headed by a President from the rightist ARENA in Nicaragua). As renewed war has been
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