For Free Expression, We Are Committed To

POLITURCO

Volume 1, Issue 1 | Spring 2019 | www.politurco.com

“FOR FREE EXPRESSION, WE ARE COMMITTED TO PROVIDING TOPICAL INFORMATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE HIGHEST STANDARDS OF JOURNALISTIC AND ACADEMIC ETHICS AND INTEGRITY.” Politurco | www.politurco.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS

4 10

From Editor’s View of Politurco

Politurco is a relatively new, yet rapidly growing online platform focused primarily on helping readers to understand the dynamics of

“The Never-Ending Story 30 of Turkish Democracy” by Dr. H. ARSLAN

In a world of politics, deception and trickery are natural and seen very often. It has been observed throughout history that some politicians have a superlative piece of skill that is very subtle

“International indexes show the downward arrow and alarming “Erdogan’s Ambition for the Caliphate collapse of and the Failure of Turkish Democracy” Turkey” by by AYDOGAN VATANDAS 25 PHD C. ABDULMELIK What went wrong with the AK Party and its ALKAN leadership during the democratization of Turkey remains an important question… 3

“Turkish-Financed Mosques 38 Are Embassies Of Political Islam” by PROF. DAVID L. PHILLIPS

“The Roots Of Anti Americanism In 41 Turkey" by AYDOGAN VATANDAS

“How Many Arrested Journalists 50 Are There In Turkey?” by TURKMEN TERZI

“Heartbreaking Stories Of 53 Turkish Refugees In Greece” by POLITURCO

“Enforced Disappearance: Cases Of Hizmet Movement Members And 58 International Law” by ABDULMELIK ALKAN

“In The Light Of Islamic Values, Is It 97 62 War Or Peace That Is Essential?” by DR. AHMET KURUCAN

“A Theological Examination Of 76 The Hadith, “War Is Deception” by PROF. ZEKI SARITOPRAK

“Instrumentalization Of Islam: 81 Hayrettin Karaman’s Role In “Political Islamism And The Teachings Of Erdogan’s” by BULENT KENES The Qur’an” by PROF. ZEKI SARITOPRAK

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the “The Entanglement Of Economic idea of what came to be called Political Islam 90 And Political Crises In Turkey” has been a feature of many political movements by PROF. ELVAN AKTAS in the Islamic world. Politurco is a relatively new, yet rapidly While Turkey is now the worst jailer of growing online platform focused journalists in the world, those who are primarily on helping readers to not imprisoned cannot do journalism. I EDITOR-IN-CHIEF understand the dynamics of Turkey, the cannot express how crucial a function AYDOGAN VATANDAS Middle East, and the Muslim world, as Politurco is fulfilling in this period and well as the global impact of developments doing it with style. If you are interested in in these areas. It provides a platform for Turkish news these days, Politurco objective information, enabling a broad should one of the few bookmarks on your selection of scholars and journalists to browser.’ told Dr. Alp Aslandogan, the make their voices heard—something that president of ‘Alliance for Shared Values’ a is regrettably no longer possible in non-profit umbrella organization Turkey due the absence of freedom of dedicated to promoting community media and expression. We are committed service, education and interfaith dialogue. to providing topical information in Dr. Abdulmelik Alkan, who broadly accordance with the highest standards of writes on refugee issues, international journalistic and academic ethics and relations at Politurco notes that Politurco integrity. fills a huge gap in voicing Turkey's ‘Politurco provides a valuable platform current political, cultural and economic for free expression on conditions in conditions to international audiences. ‘ Turkey where dissent is considered ‘Doing so, most importantly Politurco terrorism.’ Says Professor David Phillips uses an analytical approach to news that of Columbia University who writes extensively on Kurdish conflict and is harnessed by facts and figures which Turkish politics at Politurco. distinguishes itself. ‘Politurco filled an important gap in coverage of news about Turkey after ‘It has also turned into a home or 2014. In the aftermath of President shelter of thoughts for scholars at Erdogan’s crackdown on free press in risks, refugee writers and others Turkey, it became extremely hard to o b t a i n i n d e p e n d e n t n e w s a n d who are deprived of writing. Thus, I commentary about developments in do believe that Politurco is a Turkey. Through a combination of carrots and sticks Turkish press have platform for refugee scholars, been subjugated to the wishes and whims Journalists, and who had to flee of the ruling party. Even traditionally Turkey's Erdogan regime. independent media outlets have lost their ability to criticize the government. 4 We, the writers who want to freely write and connects with others via Politurco. I would like to thank Politurco for giving me this opportunity to write my thoughts on Turkey, a country in where there is no freedom of writing and writing is caged.’ added Dr. Alkan. The following is a review of a selection of some of the best Politurco articles of the past year dealing with significant political, economic and social developments in Turkey. The ongoing persecution of people with ties to or suspected sympathies with the Gulen Movement is a recurring theme in many articles, as are the numerous challenges to Turkish democracy, both before and since the June 24, 2018 elections. T h e a r t i c l e s d e t a i l t h e i n c r e a s i n g authoritarianism in Turkey, as well as the Erdogan government’s politicization and Overall, the 1990s were a “lost decade” for instrumentalization of Islam in Turkey and Turkey on many levels: short-lived coalition abroad. governments, unsolved assassinations, escalating Dr. H. Arslan provides a detailed, well-founded PKK terrorism and financial crisis. Between examination of the developments in Turkey that 2002 and 2011, the AKP instituted many have led to the rise of the current authoritarian democratic reforms and gained widespread political system in a September 3, 2018, article popular support, which allowed them to reduce on “The never-ending story of Turkish the military’s influence in politics. The deep state democracy.” remains powerful, however, as Arslan demonstrates in an overview of its modus The author explores the “zigzags” of democratic operandi and activities, including assassinations development in Turkey: the military and bombings, over the past 15 years and interventions, the deep state structures, and the explains the factors that enable the emergence of imposition of an authoritarian model of a deep state. Finally, he describes the rise of an government. Beginning with the rise of Ataturk authoritarian system in Turkey under the AKP, and the 1960 coup, Arslan notes that the vicious which has violated the rule of law, eliminated cycle of military interventions demonstrated that checks and balances and enabled the assertion of democracy is merely a means to an end. He a conspiracy allegedly masterminded by argues that a covert political transformation took Fethullah Gulen—despite the fact that neither place in 1993 at the hands of the deep state, with Gulen nor Hizmet has ever developed political the deaths of key political and military figures. goals or endorsed a political party.

5 Politurco | www.politurco.com

“International indexes show the downward Professor David L. Phillips explains in his arrow and alarming collapse of Turkey” by October 1, 2018, article on “Turkish Financed Abdulmelik Alkan on September 20, 2018, laments Mosques are Embassies of Political Islam” how Turkey’s socio-economic problems and its coercive Turkey’s foreign policy aims to propagate diplomacy, which have led to its recent decline. Islamism, destabilize secular democracies, and Alkan analyzes a range of international indexes thereby enhance Turkey’s influence. Erdogan from reputable organizations such as Freedom pursues these policies through Turkey’s House, Reporters without Borders and Department of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) and Transparency International, all of which show an the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination alarming downward trajectory on key areas such as Agency. According to the author, Erdogan is rule of law, transparency, media freedom, and using religion for political purposes, turning human rights since the 2016 coup attempt. Islam into a wedge to divide societies and Declining scores on PISA tests show that the radicalize youth. He has used Turkish funds to educational system is also in decline, with Turkish restore or build mosques in Albania, Kosovo, students scoring below the OECD-average in Germany and throughout Central Asia—all while Science, Mathematics, and Reading. Alkan argues restricting the restoration and construction of that the government’s changes to the educational non-Muslim shrines and places of worship in system and sacking of tens of thousands of teachers Turkey. The author concludes that, although and university rectors, as well as the closure of Erdogan has publicly rejected radicalization, his more than a thousand educational institutions, is to policies and support for political Islam has blame for the educational decline. Similarly, until created fertile ground for radical Islamic groups. the government restores rule of law and justice, along with other democratic norms and human “The roots of anti-Americanism in Turkey,” by rights, Turkey’s standing in international indexes Aydogan Vatandas, published on April 29, 2018, will continue to decline across the board. discusses the historical and ideological context of this phenomenon and explores the risks it could The June 21, 2018, article by Aydogan Vatandas entail for American-Turkish relations and the on “Erdogan’s Ambition for the Caliphate and world. While anti-Americanism has a long history the Failure of Turkish Democracy” examines the in Turkey, it has dramatically increased in recent historical and systemic obstacles to democracy in years. Recent factors influencing this increase Turkey, including the resilience of Kemalist include accusations of U.S. support for the failed institutions and the dichotomy between the July 2016 coup attempt and the potential traditionally strong Turkish state and the weak creation of a U.S.-backed Kurdish state in the society. Thus, despite initial hopes that the AKP region, as well as possible U.S. economic would advance democracy in Turkey, these sanctions as a result of the Reza Zarrab trial in obstacles, together with the AKP’s tendency to New York. instrumentalize democracy for its own ends, have led to the creation of a more authoritarian system. Turkmen Terzi asks the question, “How many The author argues that Erdogan’s charismatic arrested journalists are there in Turkey?” in a personality and leadership style have also played a December 19, 2018, article. Despite the denials crucial role in the transformation of the political of high-ranking Turkish officials, the Committee system in Turkey. The idealization of the 2023 to Protect Journalist’s (CPJ) latest report target and visions of a resurrected caliphate have documents at least 68 journalists currently further damaged democratic institutions in Turkey detained in Turkey. Other journalists have been and led to radical shifts in both domestic and pressured or even threatened by Erdogan foreign policy. himself. 7

CPJ’s 2018 report names Turkey as the worst jailer of journalists in the world, leading the organization to publicly call on the EU, Council of Europe and the U.S. to urge Turkish authorities to release detained journalists and to respect Turkey’s international obligations. However, the author points out that there are deﬁnitely more than 68 detained journalists in Turkey, although due to the current polarization in the country not all are recognized as such— even by fellow journalists. Terzi therefore recommends that the CPJ determine objective criteria for ascertaining who is a journalist, and which ones have been detained as a result of their journalistic activities.

The May 20, 2018, Politurco article on “Heartbreaking stories of Turkish Refugees in Greece” provides an overview of the repression that has followed the 2016 coup attempt: more than 150,000 people dismissed from their jobs, almost 137,000 detained, and more than 77,000 arrested. In addition, more than a thousand families have fled to Greece, hoping for asylum in the EU. Some fled with the help of smugglers. The article chronicles the expensive and dangerous journey undertaken by two such families, from the events that motivated them to leave, to how they were received by the authorities in Greece. Numerous challenges face these families even after their arrival in Greece, the uncertainty and financial troubles, the difficulty to get a court date or even find halal The author notes that the Turkish Cooperation food. Nevertheless, the families are grateful for and Coordination Agency recently paid for the their escape from Turkey, and are looking renovation of the presidential palace in Moldova, forward to a more peaceful life. and is very active with a number of other projects in the country—activities that could be seen as The September 6, 2018, article by Abdulmelik suspicious given the abductions. The author cites Alkan, entitled “Enforced Disappearance: Cases extensively from the 2006 UN Convention for the o f H i z m e t M o v e m e n t m e m b e r s a n d Protection of All Persons from Enforced International Law” details the case of six Disappearance to demonstrate that enforced Turkish teachers kidnapped by the Turkish disappearances are prohibited under international intelligence service in Moldova and forcibly law, as are extraditions for political offences. He returned to Turkey. All six had applied for UN calls for the swift submission of these and other protection and asylum in Moldova. cases to international human rights bodies against the countries involved. Politurco | www.politurco.com

In “In the light of Islamic values, is it war or peace that is essential?” of July 8, 2018, author Ahmet Kurucan makes an important contribution to understanding the true nature of Islam through an examination of misunderstandings about Islam regarding the term ‘jihad.’ He details the debate about the nature and meaning of jihad throughout history, exploring the Islamic texts, first and foremost the Quran, in the context of the political, social, cultural and economic background in which it was revealed. He reminds readers that there are three different classifications of jihad that exist in traditional Islamic studies, beginning with the distinction between greater and lesser jihad. He also examines verses of the Quran to see how jihad in the military field was routinely conducted during the life of the Prophet (PBUH) in order to better understand how the concept should be applied today. His approach is not one of literal interpretation, but rather one that emphasizes that different evaluations and readings can be made in accordance with the order and reasons for “A Theological Examination of the Hadith, revelation, the holism of the Quran, and the “War is Deception”,” by Professor Zeki practices of the Prophet (PBUH). He Saritoprak on June 12, 2018, observes that this expertly analyzes a group of six verses hadith has circulated among some political (190-195) in the Surah Al-Baqarah, which Islamist groups as a justification for lying, are critical to understanding jihad and the stealing, or not fulfilling agreements. The article very nature of Islam. Kurucan clearly explains that this interpretation is a distortion demonstrates how if you ignore the context, of the hadith and should not be a blanket and approach verses individually, you can justification for this un-Islamic behavior. It mistakenly arrive to the conclusion that in emphasizes that honesty and trustworthiness Islam “war is essential in international are core principles of Islam and sets out the relations.” He notes that slogans such as various prohibitions on misuse of trust, lying “Islam is a religion of war” or “Islam is a and treachery. The author also explains the religion of peace” are obstacles to Prophet’s strong personal commitment to tell understanding the true nature of Islam. In the truth. Although there are limited fact, his careful and thorough analysis of the circumstances in which it is permissible to relevant texts convincingly shows how a choose words carefully (tawriyya) or even to lie more appropriate interpretation of Islamic for the welfare of something else (maslaha), it is values would be a balanced politics of peace, restricted to very specific words or actions that where peace is a priority, but war is also do not violate the spirit of the general permissible under certain circumstances. prohibition of lying. 9

The May 30, 2018, article by Bulent Kenes on “Instrumentalization of Islam: Hayrettin Karaman’s Role in Erdogan’s Despotism” argues that Karaman shares responsibility with Erdogan for the ongoing process of authoritarianism in Turkey. Karaman, a theologian and author, has misused his religious authority and inﬂuence over Erdogan, and has in effect instrumentalized Islam to support and justify the AKP’s increasing authoritarianism and its oppression and persecution of political opponents. The article details ways in which Karaman has distorted Islamic principles, to the point that he nearly equates the deeds forbidden by religion (haram) with religious duty (farz). In this way, Karaman and like-minded theologians have opened the door for the state to commit crimes against humanity. The entanglement of political and economic crises in Turkey is the focus of Professor Elvan Aktas’ article, “So Much Fuss for So Little Debt…” from April 29, 2018. The article provides an overview of Turkish economic history, noting the links between the country’s political and economic challenges which have led to a cycle of political instability and economic crises. It explores the political and economic decline since the 2011 elections and the concomitant political and social tensions that are both a symptom and a contributing cause of the deterioration. The article laments the dangerous shift in Turkish foreign policy away from the West, which is occurring in the context of a worsening economic situation and business climate in Turkey. The April 1, 2018, article by Professor Zeki Saritoprak on “Political Islamism and the Teachings of the Qur’an” examines the theological underpinnings of political Islam, highlighting why those who use Islamic principles as an ideological basis for their own political gains go against the principles of Islam. Through examples drawn from history as well as current developments, he distinguishes between this type of political Islam and the use of Islamic values to improve public welfare and provide justice. A positive example of the latter can be found in Tunisia, where the moderate principles that some groups began with can serve as a model for a positive political Islamic engagement. Politurco | www.politurco.com

THE NEVER-ENDING STORY OF TURKISH DEMOCRACY

Dr. H. ARSLAN 11

In a world of politics, deception and trickery are The Birth of a Nation and the natural and seen very often. It has been observed throughout history that some politicians have a ‘Bumps’ on the Road superlative piece of skill that is very subtle In the first quarter of the last century, the late (Freedman, 2013). Despite the fact that there are Ottoman era witnessed a few government changes multiple forms of corruption, the German orchestrated by a mixture of young Ottoman sociologist Max Weber (1964) views it as a military officers and civilian intelligentsia. In 1923, State-centered phenomenon reflecting the the world saw the rise of a new nation under the m a l f u n c t i o n i n g o f a r a t i o n a l i z e d genius military commander and statesman, bureaucracy. Thus, “in the political field, the Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. During Ataturk’s traditional concept of corruption was presidency (1923-1938), a grand revolution and strictly related to the morality of societies, transformation occurred under the single-party r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e a c t i o n s o f rule, the People’s Republican Party (in Turkish: individuals” (Terracino, 2012: 8). Many Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi – CHP). Mustafa Kemal corruption scandals usually “involve more than Ataturk was not entirely opposed to military one person, the presence of mutual obligations and interference in politics but wanted “the armed benefits, and an attempt to camouflage by lawful f o r c e s t o b e c o m e a n i m p e r i u m i n justification” (Alatas, 1990: 213). Corruption and imperio” (Hanioglu, 2011). After the death of governments are no strangers to each other, and Ataturk in 1938, the remaining leadership of the Turkey is no exception. The infamous corruption CHP pursued even more aggressive and autocratic scandal of December 17 and 25, 2013 is a great policies. Between 1923 and 1950, Turkey was example of the recent past. ruled by the single-party regime; and the development of opposition movements had One can also observe that there has been no constantly been subjugated during this time. More straight path towards the democratization of specifically, even after the multi-party era in 1946, Turkey. Indeed, years ago, Burhan Kuzu, a the power control continued clandestinely, in a constitutional law professor, former head of way. “The armed forces routinely exercised the Constitutional Commission at the behind-the-scenes influence by engaging in Turkish Grand National Assembly, and dialogue with civilians and used more direct methods when informal mechanisms failed” former member of the AKP, described Turkey as “the country of zigzags” regarding For almost two centuries the Turkish elitists have its politics (1992: 216). If one wants to resemble been represented both by the central bureaucracy Turkey’s quest for more life, liberty, and the and the military. The wealthy minority groups pursuit of happiness to a journey on a highway to were repressed to be involved in the Turkish heaven called ‘democracy,’ one can see three types politics. CHP represented both the state and the of major setbacks on its path: the ‘bumps’ in the society as a single authority between 1923 and road are the military interventions; ‘cracks’ in the 1950 (Hermann, 2014: 88-9). road caused by the ‘deep state structures; and, finally, ‘the sharp turn ahead signs’ is the display of an Ultimately, the political atmosphere did authoritarian model of government. This article briefly examines the bumps, cracks, and the sharp- not allow the political opposition to turn ahead signs in modern-day Turkish political breathe for a while, because there was no history. The recent shifts in Turkish politics should be read as part of the continuum of this line as clear distinction to draw the line between well. Below is the never-ending story of Turkish political dissent and high treason. democracy. Politurco | www.politurco.com In 1971, in which the Turkish military Then, anyone who opposed the ruling party came with a stern ultimatum resulting in the (CHP) would be perceived as going against the removal of the government and replacing it state as well as the whole government. There was a with another cabinet favored by them. In the strict authoritarian regime more so than a next nine years, the unsolved economic and democracy. social problems and partial paralysis of politics made Turkey a vulnerable state The single-party era finally ended after a 1950 before its next coup. Finally, on September election claimed victory for the opposition, the 12, 1980, the Chief of Staff (head of the Democratic Party (in Turkish: Demokrat Parti). National Security Council – aka Milli On May 27, 1960, a small clique that was mainly Guvenlik Kurulu) acted to save the formed of colonels and below ranks within Turkish weakened state and the Kemalist reforms in military overthrew the first democratically elected Turkey. government. From this day on a “fear of coup” had been created as a chronic ailment of the Turkish “The Kemalist principles of nationalism politics. This was also the first “bump” on the path and secularism succeeded in creating a to democracy, which resulted in the executions of a modern society, but Kemalism as an Prime Minister and his two ministers, followed by ideology failed to modernize itself, and the arrest and exiles of hundreds of people. In consequently it became authoritarian. 1962 and ’63, there were also two additional failed attempts. This is because Kemalism as understood by the military failed to internalize two crucial aspects of modernity: democracy a n d a f u l l y a u t o n o m o u s c i v i l society” (Yavuz, 2003: 265).

The vicious cycle of military interventions demonstrated that democracy is nothing but the end; it merely serves as means. Between 1983 and 1993, there was a glimpse of reassurance of some political stability by Turgut Ozal, who was a legendary Turkish politician, prime minister turned president. Ozal was the anomaly or an outlier in this so called ‘Kemalist power balance design,’ because he had been the ‘unwanted child’ for the hardliners within the military and bureaucracy.

“The military staged coups every decade or so in the name of secularism or anti- communism, each time shattering the country’s diverse political longings and enfeebling its government. The pattern changed somewhat in the mid-1980s when Prime Minister Turgut Ozal liberalized the economy, which allowed a capitalist class of small-town entrepreneurs and ﬂedgling corporate bigwigs to take root” (Hansen, 2014, February 9). 13 In 1993, Ozal’s civilian reign ended when he passed away abruptly in skeptical circumstances. Indeed, between January and November of that same year, there were several notable deaths of prominent individuals including Ozal’s conﬁdante, A d n a n K a h v e c i , C o m m a n d e r o f Gendarmerie, Esref Bitlis, prominent leftist journalist, Ugur Mumcu, etc. Evidently, as depicted in Table 1 below, the year 1993 was the subject of a covert political transformation by the hands of a deep state.

The Signiﬁcant Deaths of 1993

Jan. 24: Ugur Mumcu, a secular journalist, killed when his car exploded in front of his home Feb. 5: Adnan Kahveci, Minister of Finance and a potential replacement for In 1994, something unexpected happened; the Ozal, killed in a mysterious traffic conservative right-wing Welfare Party (in Turkish: accident while traveling with his family. Refah Partisi – RP) became the popular party in Feb. 17: Assassination of Esref Bitlis local elections. In the general elections of the 1995, (Commander of the Gendarmerie) the RP became the top party not with great percentages though. Historically, the political Apr. 17: Turgut Ozal, 8th President of parties under ‘the National View’ (in Turkish: Turkey died due to the claims of heart Milli Gorus) conservative ideology with different attack names never garnered more than 10% of the votes in the elections, with one or two exceptions. May 24: Thirty-three soldiers killed by However, such success was not acceptable to the PKK in Bingol province hardliners, and eventually, it did not take long for the Turkish military to intervene. On February 28, Jul. 2: Thirty-five people killed in the 1997, the National Security Council came with a Madimak Hotel in Sivas Province stern warning and a checklist, which the Jul. 5: Thirty-three civilians killed in the conservative party led-coalition government could village of Başbaglar in Erzincan not comply, so it was replaced by another coalition province. that was more favored by the military. The media and the academia called it the ‘post-modern coup Oct. 22: Assassination of Gendarmerie ‘or ‘February 28 era.’ Overall, the 1990s seemed to Brigade Commander Bahtiyar Aydın be the “lost decade” for Turkey in many levels: short-lived coalition governments, unsolved Nov. 4: Assassination of Ahmet Cem assassinations, escalating PKK terrorism followed E r s e v e r ( M a j o r – f o u n d e r o f by the financial crises. Turkey entered the 21st Gendarmerie Intelligence Unit – century with economic despair and political JITEM) instability.

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The first election of the new millennium signaled On March 29, 2007, the Current Affairs weekly the changes in Turkish politics. On November 3, also published the online diaries of the former 2002, the Justice and Development Party (in Navy Commander Admiral Ozden Ornek (Hale Turkish: Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi – AKP) and Ozbudun, 2010: 89), which contained detailed finished first with 34.28% of the votes in their first plans for several attempted plots called: election. Despite the fact that the majority of “Blondie” (in Turkish: Sarikiz), “Moonlight” (in the founders of the AKP were once the Turkish: Ayisigi), and “Glove” (in Turkish: members of the pro-Islamist Welfare Party Eldiven). These were allegedly to be part of a (RP), which was shut down during the three-staged coup plan. ‘February 28 Era’, the AKP leadership believed that the formers were polarizing • In the middle of the night on April 27, 2007, in the midst of the Presidential election debates, the and still radical for the Turkish politics. Turkish public was shocked to learn about the Thus, they established new party goals to “e-mail coup / E-Coup” when a warning message become a more centrist party and be largely was posted on the Chief of Staff’s website. The accepted by the Turkish public. In its first message was written by then-the Chief of Staff four years, AKP directed its focus to many Gen. Yasar Buyukanit explicitly to prevent the democracy oriented political moves in many election of Abdullah Gul, then the foreign problematic areas. Indeed, the main driving minister in Erdogan’s cabinet, for the presidency. force for Turkey was the long-lived dream for The military temporarily blocked his election, European Union (EU) membership, which they but their effort backfired when the government immediately began to pursue it. The initial reaction went to early national elections (Harrington, of the Republican elites was not sincere because 2011: 37). many were angry and despair of long gained interests. However, in his first term, “to all these • On March 31, 2008, the Chief Prosecutor of the groups, Erdogan promised honest government, Court of Cassation (Yargitay) acted to close democratic reforms, civilian-led rule, the down the ruling AKP and to ban 70 of its restoration of the proper role of Islam within the members from active political life including state, and economic prosperity” (Fradkin and Erdogan. This legal action was the culmination Libby, 2014). In fact, between 2002 and 2011, the of some attempts over the years to destabilize the AKP instituted many democratic reforms and government in power. This Judicial-Coup or gained the popular support from almost all walks a.k.a. J-Coup was the mastermind of the of life in Turkey. In the meantime, the Republican Republican elites through its long arms within elites along with the ‘Hawks’ both in the military the judiciary. The AKP avoided the disaster and bureaucracy closely scrutinized the AKP’s luckily with one vote short in the Constitutional policies and its leadership. With luck, they avoided Court’s verdict. Instead, the High Court the following “bumps” on the path for monetarily penalized the party. democratization: • On June 12, 2009, the Taraf daily newspaper • In March 2007, a Turkish weekly political news published a military action plan, which was magazine, Nokta (“dot” in Turkish) revealed a discovered from the documents and schemes confidential campaign of the military blacklisting indicating intends to fight against reactionism (in of some journalists and press organs, based on a Turkish: Irtica). The details of the plan included leaked report prepared by the Office of the a meticulous defamation campaign and Chief of General Staff categorizing journalists as antipropaganda against the AKP government “trustworthy” / pro-military and “untrustworthy” and the various groups that provide support to / anti-military (Altintas and Yavuz, 2007, March the ruling party. 09).

• Between January 20 and 21, 2010, Taraf daily In the modern sense, the beginning of the also published a military plan called the Cold War intertwined with the formation of Operation Sledgehammer (in Turkish: Balyoz the deep state structures in Turkey (Hermann, Operasyonu) for the first time. The military plan 2014). Indeed, the concept of the “deep state” itself was five thousand pages and confiscated in goes back to the 1950s, in which the NATO the computer of then-chief of staff for the First countries established “stay behind” forces as Army with the rank of full colonel. part of Operation Gladio. First revealed by The AKP felt the temporal shock from that Italian PM Giulio Andreotti in 1991, Gladio internecine strife between the Republican elites from the Latin word “Sword” (Floyd, 2005, and itself, which finally resulted in a referendum February 18), was a code name given to a on September 12, 2010. Approximately 77% of the clandestine NATO operation in Italy during population voted for the change of “a package of the Cold War. In Turkey, people hear a lot 30 amendments to the country’s current about the ‘deep state,’ the shadowy network 1982 constitution, promulgated by a military thought to carry out assassinations and other junta during the country’s last coup-led chaotic incidents. The unveiling of the deep government” (Ciddi, 2011). In this way, the state structures could be construed as a military tutelage era, a significant bump in the blessing in disguise. “Every now and again the road to attaining more democracy, would have Turkish public gains a glimpse of this almost been neutered as a force in Turkish politics. mythical entity” (Anthony, 2007, May 20). However, the final blow would come after the July 15, 2016, failed military attempt, which the military lost its full power over Turkish politics. The question of ‘state within the state’ surfaced for the first time with a traffic accident. The Cracks in the Road: Indeed, on November 3, 1996, a black Mercedes full of passengers crashed into a the concept of Deep State truck with full of load. This accident, which In this section, let’s take a look at the deep state happened near the small town of Susurluk in phenomena in Turkish politics. Secret societies or Balikesir province (Western Turkey), has also organizations have been known to people for many come to be known as the “Susurluk Scandal.” years, but only a few could conspire to prove the The notorious ‘Black Mercedes’ contained four existence of such underground organizations. different characters: police chief, Huseyin “The origins of the ‘Deep State’ can be Kocadag, wanted right-wing hitman, Abdullah traced back to the late Ottoman Empire in Catli, and his mistress; all died in the accident. the early 20th century and the decades that The only survivor of the crash with serious followed the formation of the Turkish wounds, Sedat Bucak, a member of parliament republic in 1923” (Skinner, 2008: 22). Indeed, it for the ruling True Path Party (Dogru Yol is no mystery to those who are intimately familiar Partisi-DYP), was also the leader of a Kurdish with the Turkish political system that the existence clan as well as the pro-state militia known as of intra-state circles includes members from the “Village Guards,” used by the government in state, the police, and the criminal underworld. its war against the PKK. Susurluk went Analogously, the elements of the deep state look beyond its name and became the symbol of corruption and dark relations between state, like the cracks on a highway; the deeper and the gangs and politics. larger the cracks, the more dangerous they become.

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The modus operandi of the Turkish deep state as follows:

▪ The deep state looks like water; odorless and colorless. It both controls all mainstream ideologies and their counter-ideologies at the same time and later successfully steer them into whatever direction it wanted.

▪ For them, everyone is expendable. This illegal structure did not hesitate to target its own sympathizers “to provoke crises by shifting the blame onto leftists, Kurds, and Islamists” (Park, 2008, August 7). Samil Tayyar, an investigative journalist and t h e f o r m e r m e m b e r o f A K P a s a parliamentarian, believes that the grand scheme of this secret circle was not only to eliminate the prominent ﬁgures of the government, liberal intellectuals, and minority leaders but also to attack Kemalist newspapers and intellectuals and then shift the blame to Islamists (2008).

▪ It is like a Chameleon; adapts and shifts the direction. More speciﬁcally, individuals, institutions, and organizations that had been previously seen as potential dangers or rivals to its existence were constantly accused of the most dangerous threats to the secular regime.

▪ The group members operate under the guise of “national interest” despite the fact they strive to serve and protect their interests and proﬁts, which are promised by the underground elites. The hope is that this would later transform itself into a closed, ultranationalist, and ultra- secularist authoritarian regime ruled by decree. In other words, the guardians of the regime allow those deep state structures to operate freely until the conditions are ripened for them to intervene. Some might consider the July 15th failed coup and the purge aftermath within the concept of ‘reverse engineering.’ 17

▪ On the verge of the new millennium, It was also the second tip of the iceberg democracy in Turkey was still receiving since the Susurluk scandal of 1996. blows from hidden power structures. Strangely, some mysterious events started to ▪ On February 5, 2006, Andrea Santoro, a take place particularly between 2003 and 59-year-old Italian priest, was shot dead in 2011. The action and the commotion of the the courtyard of the Santa Maria Catholic events involved deception, defamation, street Church in the northern city of Trabzon. clashes, and murders of innocent people The 16-year-old murder suspect, a high framing the other ‘bad guys.’ Many tactics school student, was arrested two days after the killing with the 9-mm pistol in his aimed to generate fear and tension, possession. Again, religious radicals were which would lead to a justification for a declared as the primary suspects. The military coup against a democratically primary audience for the attack was elected government, the ruling AKP. obviously the outside world, and the The plots signaled to create a favorable message aimed to reassure outsiders climate for a coup. One of them was the that there was no tolerance against discovery of a collection of weapons minorities in Turkey. and ammunition in a suburban house in the Umraniye district of Istanbul in ▪ In early May 2006, the Cumhuriyet Daily, 2007. Below displays their modus operandi one of the oldest leftist-media outlets on causing a climate of fear in Turkey: known by its strong laicism position and specifically highly valued by Kemalists was ▪ On December 18, 2002, just forty days after targeted. Three attempted bomb the general elections, unknown assailants attacks took place within six days in shot pro-secularist Necip Hablemitoglu, an Istanbul. associate professor of history, in front of his house at Cankaya District in the capital of ▪ The immediate blame was directed toward Turkey, Ankara. to Islamists because the newspaper had published a comic mocking the wearing of ▪ On November 9, 2005, a bomb exploded in a bookstore killing one in the small town of headscarves before the bombings. The Semdinli, which is in the Hakkari Province main aim was to stir the political (southeastern region of Turkey). Police tension and played off two opposite arrested a sergeant and a non-commissioned sites by pitting one group against Gendarmerie intelligence officer, along with a another in an ideological war. Police PKK rebel turned police informant as the identified Alparslan Arslan, a young lawyer main culprits (Gorvett, 2006). During the with shady ties, as the primary instigator in search, police seized several car bombs, a list the attack against the Cumhuriyet Daily. of names, sketches of households, and offices The grenades had the same source of origin of some town people from the car (Gezici, as explosives found in Umraniye raid in 2008: 37). 2007. Indeed, the government weapons factory (MKE) also confirmed the records ▪ The event brought tremendous media of the grenades, which were handed over attention because this was the first incident to the Turkish Army between 1975 and where some people with their hands tied to 1985 (Gezici, 2008a: 78). the state structure had been arrested. ▪ On May 17, 2006, during morning hours, Thus, the deep state creates a climate of fear Alparslan Arslan (suspect of the Cumhuriyet allowing the guardian of the regime to intervene Daily bombings) fired his gun at the judges of on behalf of the secularist regime. The problem the Second Chamber of the Council of State, with the “invisible hand” lies in the ambiguity of ( i n Tu r k i s h : D a n i s t a y ) t h e h i g h e s t the extent of secularism and the fear of losing it. administrative court located in Ankara. The As a matter of fact, for years, the Turkish shooting resulted in the death of the head judge intelligentsia could not agree on a definition of and injury to four others (Council of State secularism. Thus, the perception of danger can investigation, 2006, May 24). Indeed, the only be defined by the Republican elites in times attack had come in the wake of the anti- of despair. headscarf decision made by the Higher Court. The suspect, Alparslan Arslan, was apprehended and confessed. ▪ On January 19, 2007, Hrant Dink, a Turkish- Armenian journalist and the editor of the Armenian-language “Agos” newspaper in Istanbul, was shot dead in broad daylight outside his workplace. Dink was a very outspoken journalist about Turkish politics and was the best-known face of the Armenian community in Turkey. Two days later, the suspect, Ogün Samast, a 17-year-old jobless high-school dropout from Trabzon province, seemed to be hailed as a hero in a photo taken with some police officers inside a police station at the time of his arrest (Witness says two others were with Hrant Dink killer, 2011, June 1). Several factors resulted in these cracks (deep state entities):

▪ Political confusion is the ﬁrst prerequisite for the birth and emergence of the deep state. The political instability happens more mostly during coalition governments or where certain serious decisions were delegated more to the one branch of the government or external forces like the military. ▪ When the “invisible hand” becomes concerned about losing its interests, clandestine organizations attempt to secure it. In Turkey, historically, the ultra-nationalists along with the Elites are used to create these “cracks” especially when they see the secularist nature of the country in peril or jeopardy.

Politurco | www.politurco.com ▪ In countries where democratic principles and the rule of law are not deeply rooted and established like Turkey, the armed forces would exhibit itself as the protector of the existing norms and status quo. Such a perception for any armed forces, beyond their traditional roles, forms an intense skepticism between them and civilians. Eventually, all politicians, no matter how much public support they receive, will be portrayed as an incompetent group of people. The only way to make them efﬁcient and resourceful is done by creating the deep state to eliminate both the barriers and enemy of the states.

The Sharp Turn Ahead: criterions. Erdogan is “obsessed with Signs of the Recent AKP Policies his enemies, increasingly erratic and dictatorial, and seeming to have little In her thesis at Claremont McKenna to no interest in further structural College, Julie Soo Jung Ahn reform” (Hullsman, 2014, December presented a comprehensive landscape 22). This form of ‘civilian tutelage’ is of domestic events in Turkey that the result of AKP’s “intensified efforts clearly indicated a grand democratic to consolidate more power at the backsliding, particularly between the expense of independent institutions, years 2011 and 2014. Ahn examined including efforts to undermine judicial the following five areas: media independence” (Bozkurt, 2014, freedoms, the judiciary, corruption December 15). Below are some of the and graft, the nature of the distinctive signs of an authoritarian opposition, and civil liberties and model of government in Turkey finds concrete proof that democratic particularly after 2011: backsliding is very apparent in In October 2012, a new law was Turkey (2014: 8). The question of • passed to cripple much of the whether President Erdogan is the investigative powers of the same leader, who achieved many Government Accounting Bureau (in things in the name of liberal Turkish: Sayistay) as well as its democracy, begs the answer. “That independence. “Literally, the was certainly the case during the government institutions have not provided initial phase of rule by his Justice and a line-by-line description of their Development Party, or AKP, from resources, spending or assets from the 2002 to 2010” (Akyol, 2014; previous year” (Tremblay, 2013). In December 23). The early years of the fact, one of the secretly reported AKP leadership delivered a great tapes that were released on effort to modernize the country, “from YouTube in October 2013 revealed the standpoints of both the state order a confession between an AKP and human freedom, with the EU official and a bureaucrat from the Harmonization Packages in a way Prime Minister’s Office. During that was very worthy of praise. But that conversation, it could be clearly particularly starting in 2011, it has heard the following statement, “if the day by day grown more authoritarian” reports had come before the Turkish (Oran, 2014, December 14). Parliament, it would shatter the Evidently, the recent political events AKP in Turkey confirmed the past ” (Sayistay raporu gelirse, 2013, October 03). 19 Politurco | www.politurco.com

▪ The corruption scandal that went public on December 17 and 25, 2013, and implicated The government even further then-prime minister and current President contended that members of the Erdogan, members of his family, senior Hizmet movement (in English: government officials, and some businessmen involved in some sweetheart deals. In a way, Service) are “traitors and terrorists police operations caught them in the form of allied with foreign interests” (Sterling, ‘in flagrante delicto.’ Within the rule of law 2014, December 10). Fethullah Gulen principle, the government should have is a Sunni, Turkish Islamic thinker, empowered the public prosecutors to continue their investigations. Later, the judges should who has been in voluntary exile in have been able to decide whether there was Pennsylvania for over a decade. He sufficient evidence for a legal matter to be inspired and encouraged many resolved in each of those investigations and then proceeded accordingly. Instead of this people, who are part of a movement routine judicial process, the government called ‘Hizmet,’ to open numerous expeditiously changed regulations, forced schools, universities, companies, security forces to violate the rule of law, cultural centers, foundations, and shuffled and re-shuffled an enormous number of police officers. Erdogan administration media outlets across the world. “His introduced some new bills not only attempting work helps to redefine the nature of to cover up the level of corruption within but Islamic discourse in the contemporary also aimed to restrict the constitutional rights of Turkish citizens. For example, the day world” (Voll, 2003: 238). before the New Years Eve of 2014, the High Council of Prosecutors and Judges (in Turkish: Hakimler ve Savcilar Yuksek Kurulu His special interest concerning the development of –HSYK) suspended the prosecutors of the democracy in the entire world and the Muslim graft investigations. The government’s East is worth mentioning. Gulen “suggests strong retaliatory actions raised more questions than integration with Western institutions such as the answers. EU and defends the continuation of close relations “Millions of dollars were said to have been suddenly with the United States” (Kosebalaban, 2003: 173). discovered in shoe boxes in a closet belonging to the chief Gulen neither develop a political goal nor have executive of a bank. Shady gold-for-oil schemes with Iran any desire “to establish an Islamic state as a were exposed. Bribery for construction projects unexpectedly political entity that would lead to a unified Muslim came to light. Corruption is an open secret in Turkey, but the ummah, or community of believers around the AKP had been untouchable” (Hansen, 2014, February globe” (Oktem, 2011: 129). 9). The misconstruction of so-called “alliance between As a result, the AKP leadership empowered the the Hizmet movement and the ruling AKP” (El- executive branch over the Legislative and Judiciary, Kazaz, 2011) needs some clarification. First and which was done knowingly and maliciously, violating foremost, to this day, Fethullah Gulen has never the principles of the rule of law. The AKP leadership endorsed any political party publicly. “The Gulen asserted a conspiracy allegedly masterminded by Movement, aka Hizmet, is very well known for its Fethullah Gulen. They alleged that Gulen attempted capacity to maintain a certain level of distance, to overthrow the government through its followers in and proximity, to all political groups” (Yesilova, the state apparatus. n.d.; ¶12). 21

In fact, any political affiliation creates more It also introduced prison terms for the publication limitation and incapacitation for the movement. of secret documents offers agents’ greater However, as a citizen of Turkey, Fethullah Gulen immunity from prosecution” (Turkey expands has the right to criticize the wrong policies of any powers, 2014). The opposition politicians claimed government as well as compliment the ones that that Turkey would turn into a “Mukhabarat state,” guarantee one’s right to life, liberty, and the or “surveillance state,” the term commonly used in pursuit of happiness. Indeed, in his opinion article the Middle East to designate authoritarian regimes for the New York Times in 2015, Gulen described (Fradkin and Libby, 2014). the so-called alliance: “Our support then was based on principle, as is our criticism today.” ▪ On October 26, 2014, President Erdogan Yalcin Akdogan, a former deputy prime minister, appointed AKP-linked lawyers to fulfill the and advisor, also stated, “I personally believe that the four seats out of the 22-member judicial Movement does not support AKP but rather support the body at the Supreme Council of right steps and projects” (Akarsu Celik, 2010, Prosecutors and Judges – HSYK (Benli, October 17). Furthermore, Mustafa Yesil, former 2014, October 27). In other words, the director of the Journalists and Writers AKP administration immediately purged Foundation, a Gulen-affiliated organization, the prosecutors and judges who were not described such moral support during 2010 its supporters (Oran, 2014, December 14). referendum: “We still think that their efforts (referring to AKP) to curb the militarized system, and prosecute coup perpetrators were correct, and so we supported them. Mr. Erdogan’s attitude and approach at those times were more embracing and liberal” (Arango and Arsu, 2013, December 18).

▪ In February 2014, the government passed a bill to control the Internet; the new law allows the telecommunications authority (in Turkish: Telekomünikasyon Iletişim Başkanlığı -TİB) to block websites without a court order (Letsch and Russo, 2014, March 28). By late March 2014, the government suppressed and blocked the social media, mostly to prevent the release of the secretly recorded tapes about corruption and bribery within the AKP ranks.

▪ On April 26, 2014, the National Intelligence Organization, known as MIT, was given unrestricted access to records of state institutions and private companies without a court order. Politurco | www.politurco.com

▪ On December 16, 2014, thirty-five members of Besiktas’s soccer fan group called Carsi were charged with attempting to orchestrate a coup against the government in the demonstrations during the Gezi Protests. Despite being prosecutors called for life sentences, in 2015, “all 35 defendants were acquitted from ‘attempting a coup against the government,’ ‘forming and managing a terrorist organization,’ ‘forming and managing a criminal syndicate,’ resisting police’ and ‘opposing the law of demonstration and marches’ charges” (All defendants acquitted in coup case, 2015, December 29). ▪ On April 4, 2015, the AKP administration closed both the Police College and the Academy, which had 10,864 and 17,000 graduates at the time of the decision. The students were unfairly given their certificates and sent to the faculties of economic and administrative sciences at other public universities (Police College students protesting against closure blacklisted, 2015, April 12). ▪ There have been constant pressure and intimidation against Turkish media outlets in the forms of high monetary fines. “If warnings are not enough to prevent journalists and editors from criticizing the government, they are fired demonstrating the complete intolerance of the government” (Ahn, 2014: 26). Even before the pre-failed coup of 2016, the violations of human rights, media censorship, and government take-overs on critical government institutions had been on the rise. The ruling party showed a model of more ‘absolutist behavior’ and displayed a dominating force that had the ambition to control every institution in the country. “Once hailed as the leader of model Muslim democracy, Erdogan has created a political disaster at home, transforming Turkey into an authoritarian state that poses dangers not just for itself but for its a l l i e s i n N AT O , i n c l u d i n g t h e U n i t e d States” (Bilefsk, 2014, January 22). Instead of limiting the power of the government for people, the AKP policies have been empowering the Erdogan almost indefinitely. 23

The ruling AKP is building its’ version of The country lacks the liberal democracy but shows democracy in Turkey, which resembles a more an electoral democracy, because Turkey still does authoritarian model. The new Constitution that the not have the culmination of democratic Turkish people aspire never came as promised consolidation (O’Donnell, 1996). Turkey is now an during constitutional referendum in 2010 campaign. ideal worldwide observation post for being a Instead, the EU membership process seems to be textbook case of “absolutist behavior” of a political entered into dire straits; the foreign policy of ‘zero leader for the eyes of political scientists and the problems with neighbors’ pushed Turkey into more gentlemen of the long robe. The paranoid isolation. The AKP leadership changed the authoritarianism resulted in several infringements balance of power between government of the Turkish legal system. institutions and resulted in polarization In short, “a totalitarian ideology has started to be among Turkish society. The latest government shaped that those who are against the government infringements, under the AKP rule, are are the enemies of the nation” (Mert, 2014, textbook cases of flip-flop politics with the December 22). There is an intriguing story behind intention to suppress the opposition in the Turkey’s journey to democracy, and yet it has not pursuit of the more authoritarian model of been fully achieved. First of all, a simple government. explanation of the military interventions as historical events would underrate the players and A decade ago, President Erdogan, then-prime actors behind them, along with the fact that minister, was the “most likely candidate to lead the viewing the procession of the coup, as either Islamic world” (Finkel, 2014, December 22); and fortunate or pestiferous incidents would be a now “is in the grips of pathological self- sightlessness of the history. This is because the arrogance” (Kenes, 2014, December 22). When coup tradition is not a product of a few soldiers’ everybody was hoping drastic changes and more passion and greed with governmental power; prosperity after the Referendum 2010, the AKP rather, the roots go beyond the comprehension of political powerhouse, unfortunately, took a sharp many people’s imagination. turn and showed attrition. The Separation of Powers eroded among the government branches. Second, years ago, Gary Allen, a conservative President Erdogan seized the moment for the wrong journalist found the extreme events of the history reasons; instead, he chose to consolidate his power were good to be true. He said: “We believe that to build his own regime. The failed coup of July many of the major world events that are shaping 2016 was an intriguing disaster for Turkish politics destinies occur because somebody or somebodies but the enigmatic destruction began later. have planned them that way” (Mars, 2000: 9). The implication of Allen’s theory into the ‘theory of zigzag in Turkish politics’ for the last 60 years Conclusion clearly demonstrates that the interruptions instability were not born solely out of their natural Turkish politics are complex, and it takes audacity courses or conditions or necessities of the time, but to swim against the powerful crosscurrents of were created to control the larger populations in political life in Turkey. Indeed, “for much of the accordance to a very small number of power country’s history, the military had exercised tutelary greedy peoples’ own interpretation of democracy. functions without overtly intervening in democracy” For more than five decades, the Turkish people (Gursoy, 2012). Now, there seems to be a shift in have been reminded of the hidden power those fault lines towards to civilian tutelage. Turkey, structures, as in the form of a vicious cycle that has indeed, received blows both from military appeared in almost every decade. It should be interventions and the secret clandestine noted that this vicious cycle did not serve as a organizations that mostly operated to protect the constitutional system of check and balances but as interest of Republican elitists. an adjustment bureau of power politics. As a result, plans and plots for military interventions have always clouded the Turkish democracy. In sum, the path to real democracy in Turkey is full of zigzags. Turkey has been facing its demons once again. Once again there is an increasing fear for the future of democracy in Turkey. It is confirmed by recent abusive policies that once a government seizes power; it will never give it back unless there is a strong demand by the people. The AKP is now on the path of destruction of democratic principles. In other words, the military tutelage period seems to be shifting its shelves to another tutelage with an emphasis on the term, ‘civil.’ Dr. H. ARSLAN The problem with Turkey involves is Associate Professor at Western identity crises as well as democracy Connecticut State University. crises.

Politurco | www.politurco.com International indexes show the downward arrow and alarming collapse of Turkey Abdulmelik Alkan

Turkey has been struggling with irregularities in documented ongoing human rights, rule of law, many areas that became apparent after the and International law violations against Hizmet abortive coup attempt, besides social-economic Movement followers. The global purge was problems at home and diplomatic brawl with launched by the ruling Justice and Development mostly democratic countries and its exporting Party (AKP) and President Erdoğan accusing self- insecurity to the weak countries in its reclusive Fethullah Gulen of orchestrating the neighborhood through coercive diplomacy made coup. Gülen has denied any involvement in the Turkey one of the declining third world countries. coup, proposing and suggesting the establishment of an independent international commission to Obviously, the roll-up events after coup attempt investigate the coup attempt. ramifications become daily life word by many experts, diplomats, independent organizations, In order to grasp the direction and the image of international indexes and indicators agree that Turkey, it is significant to have a look at Turkey is no longer a democratic land and a rule international indexes. Almost in all international oflaw country, especially after the huge purge, led freedom indicators, transparency and rule of law widespread witch-hunt that culminated in Turkey demonstrate a downward trend arrow is

25 Politurco | www.politurco.com

convincing enough that Turkey is no longer a Another report by Bureau of Democracy, democratic country. On this rational assumption that Human Rights and Labor, International meets with empirical studies on the ground, Turkey’s Religious Freedom Report for 2016 as it was one-man regime activity on quantitative and highly released by former Secretary State Ray Tillerson scientiﬁc research and indexes are put together. This underlined several signiﬁcant violations of article will examine the last three years of Turkey in Turkey toward religious minorities and 22 pages the independent and prominent International of Turkey is full of negative image that Turkey is independent indexes. Under the light of International no longer a country of tolerance toward indexes, we hope we will have a better understanding religious minorities, non-religious minorities, of the direction of Turkey and her future. and other faith groups.

World Justice Project is a leading rule of law index The following report by Freedom House is report provides the most comprehensive, original and crucial to understanding the political rights and independent data that measures the countries in 8 civil liberties ranks Turkeys freedom upward categories such as Constraints on Government arrow close to Rwanda. Freedom House similar Powers, Absence of Corruption, Open Government, to Rule of Law indexes measures countries Fundamental Rights, Order and Security, Regulatory freedom of liberties and political life. Freedom Enforcement, Civil Justice, Criminal Justice House changed Turkey status and declined and Rule of law. In 2016 report Turkey moved from partly free to not freedom. down 8 positions compared to last year and ranked According to Freedom House Press 99th out of 113 countries, in 2017-2018 Turkey freedom and Net freedom Status are not dropped 2 points and ranked 103 out of 113. It’s free. regional rank is 13 out of 13 in Central Europe and Central Asian countries. According to WJP Turkey’s Political rights rating declined from 4 to 5, and deterioration factor is order and security. its civil liberties rating declined from 5 to 6 due to a deeply irregular constitutional referendum that put all powers under the presidency a new 2016 2017 2018 Aggregated system of Turkey, the direct appointment of the mayor mainly to Kurdish area and arbitrary prosecutions of rights activists and other imaginary enemies of the state, and continued local and global purges of state employees, all of these factors scared citizen to express their opinion on political life and other issues.

Another international index is Reporters without Borders –For freedom and information- ( RSF) measures countries freedom of reporting and to reports based on both qualitative and quantities methodology using the questionaries’ data. It promotes the freedom of media and information and advocates for it. Like other indexes, Turkey is in a great decline to RSF due to huge crackdown on media right after 2016 coup attempt. Following the order of Recep Tayyip Erdogan, hundreds of professional journalists were incarcerated. 27

Eliminating local and national critical media, Transparency International-Global Collation Erdogan targeted publications, shut against corruption is one another signiﬁcant Wikipedia, and created its own partisan media. nongovernmental organizations. It is leading It is impossible to refer a reliable or out of the to ﬁght with corruption working in over 100 state circle papers in Turkey. Turkey, countries around the globe. TI highlights the according to many Journalism platforms is the corruption perception indexes in governmental number one jailer of Journalists. Along with departments in 180 countries. that, according to many Journalism indexes Turkey for TI is one of the surprising and and data, Turkey is the number 1 jailer of thorny countries after the coup attempt, the Journalists. Around 300 journalists have emergency of state gave unprecedented power been imprisoned without trial, turning to the state to curtail private enterprise, Turkey into the world’s biggest prison further the decision within the statutory for media personnel. 155 out of 180 decree, and hundreds of thousands were countries in the world rankings in 2017, sacked and purged. Another indicator of the Turkey still continues to crack down on media corruption, that the checks and balances outlets and indiscriminating imprison mechanism is completely abolished and personnel. disappeared. Politurco | www.politurco.com

The Turkish Wealth Fund system under International Transparency presidency is not open to check and its free from The Global Coalitions against Corruption the judiciary process. Its 40$ billion budget is not transparent without publishing figures, spending Corruption Ranking Global Score and values. Besides that, the discretionary spending is alarming in 14 years. 13.7 billion are spent without checks and balances. According to Transparency International, in Turkey more than 40 percent of public procurements are not subject to the public procurement law and 28 percent of those subject to the law are not open tenders as a result of the lack transparent of public procurement turned to be exceptional rather the law. Companies and businesspeople close to the government have a chance to gain public lender. Besides the rule of law, transparency, journalism, freedom of human rights and other indicators demonstrate the downward arrow and worsening Violations of human rights, clamming down on trend of Turkey, education is another alarming educators, sacked teachers, confiscating field that Turkey fell below to the global average, Universities properties, closing down PISA under OECD is one of the leading sources educational institute speaks itself that Turkey’s to compare countries educational level. Turkey hit education system is collapsed, checking data for the below in OECD countries in three headlines of the last 3 years of so-called reforms in education Science, Mathematics, and Reading. by emergency decree law under the state of emergency, Turkey faces the unprecedented The share of low performers in Science, brain drain in its history. 100,000 public officials Mathematics, and Reading, country low and civil servants have been dismissed or performance has a huge impact on students the suspended. These include around 28,000 definition of low-performance. PISA says students teachers alleged to be Gülen supporters and can’t use the science in the daily basis, unable to labeled by the government to be part of a interpret the data and have a sound and valid terrorist organization. The day after the coup scientific conclusion. In Mathematics, students attempt, 1,577 deans — working at nearly every can’t approximate the price of an item and face university in the country — were forced to difficulty in currency exchange or compare the resign by university administrators, rectors, distance of an alternative route. In reading, please bear in mind that rectors in Turkey are students struggle to comprehend the text and appointed by President. An estimated 200,000 recognize the main idea. Erdogan strived to de- students were subjected to mobility or transfer secularize the lifestyle in Turkish society through after the closure of 15 universities (opened by education. Opening thousands religious high state approval) approximately half of this school, changing the curriculum, distort the number faced of several inhumane treatments content of the textbook, appointing party oriented such as labeling, psychological breakdown, and loyalist to the head position at school bullying, moreover, students were victimized administration, putting the 15 July ( coup and had to interrupt their studies, many students attempt) in school annual program as a national with their junior couldn’t complete their heroic holiday etc. Erdogan rocked the education education, lost their universal right of education, boat and it is sinking all the way to the bottom. and become unemployed later. 29

1,043 private top schools popular for their math and science reportedly linked to Fethullah Gulen are closed down and propertied and land transformed to public schools and mainly turned into Imam- hatip ( Religious high schools) by the means of this shift, the characterization of the regime has been changed.There is no conclusion here, Turkey will continue to decline, all international indexes show the downward arrow and alarming declining of Turkey in every direction is obvious and unstoppable, to up until the rule of law, justice and all promising democratic and liberal values are restored. It is evident that in numbers and ﬁgures collected from the leading independent international nongovernmental institutions, Turkey is not a democratic country. As long as Erdogan and his cadets are in power, it is impossible to look at the bright side of Turkey. I urge to world Abdulmelik Alkan leaders to stand to the values they have to is a doctoral researcher uphold, and the upcoming 73rd of UN focusing on International assembly meeting is a good opportunity to Relations. raise the issue of populist corrupted leaders. Erdogan’s Ambition for the Caliphate and the Failure of

Turkish Democracy Aydogan Vatandas

When the AK Party took office in 2002, many Between 2009 and 2011, the AK Party government intellectuals in Turkey and abroad were convinced successfully managed to create a legal framework that the party’s commitment to democratization was that precluded Turkish military involvement in promising. The first term of the AK Party rule, politics, which would prevent military interventions which is considered as a golden era, broadly of the kind Turkey had suffered from in the past. extended from 2002 to 2007. This era was The end result, however, was not a consolidated characterized by high, inclusive economic growth, democracy as expected, (3) but a highly coupled with significant democratic reforms, personalized autocracy embodied in the figure of ranging from a radical reordering of civil-military Recep Tayyip Erdogan. relations to the recognition of minority rights, including language and cultural rights for Kurdish What went wrong with the AK Party and its citizens. leadership during the democratization of Turkey remains an important question. Was the This initial high performance created a certain level performance of the party between 2002 and 2007 of trust in the AK Party rule among Turkish mere window dressing, with Erdogan and his close, intellectuals, including the Gulen Movement, that oligarchic circle waiting for a convenient time to in time the AK Party would eliminate all the apply their secret, true agenda? Were they never undemocratic aspects of the Turkish governmental democratic at all? system.

Politurco | www.politurco.com Or was Erdogan obsessed with the idea that he had a messianic mission like being the ‘Caliph’ of the In sum, since the assertive secular Muslim world? In this article, I will try to answer these questions. modernization never prioritized the empowerment of civil rights or civil Resilience of Kemalist institutions society, the Turkish political system has always remained illiberal and It is argued that the failure of the AK Party rule to develop a consolidated democracy is deeply rooted undemocratic even after the advent in the traditional tutelage of Kemalist institutions of a multi-party system in 1946. over the Turkish political system. Accordingly, regardless of their willingness or unwillingness to further democratize the country, the leadership of the AK Party was thwarted by the resistance of the Erdogan Fallacy Kemalist institutions to change. A proponent of this Many academics have suggested that what theory is İhsan Dağı, a liberal who gave support to Turkey gets from AK Party rule is exactly what the AK Party-led reforms in its golden era. Dağı it should have expected. Accordingly, it was a notes that many people expected the defeat of the fundamental mistake to expect that the AK Kemalist state establishment by a broad coalition of Party would promote Turkish democracy. liberals, democrats and conservatives under the Özkan argues that the AK Party is a far-right political leadership of the AK Party which would party according to political science literature lead to the creation of a democratic regime with a and that “assuming that the AKP would take liberal constitution. But today he observes that, Turkey forward was no different than thinking “Kemalism is dead, but its state-centric, Jacobin that Le Pen in France would advance and illiberal spirit has been reincarnated in the democracy. When placed in the right-left AKP.” spectrum, the AKP believes that it has a sacred mission and will remain in power forever. None Strong State and Weak Society of these are compatible with democracy. This extremism would emerge as racism in Europe, The strong state and weak society dichotomy is also while it would become sectarianism in Turkey considered an important obstacle towards and would not consider other parties as establishing a consolidated democracy. It is argued representatives of the nation. The AKP is a that Turkey followed the path of secular model not for the Middle East but for the far modernization by prioritizing the creation of a right in Europe on how to instrumentalize strong homogenized nation led by the ruling democracy.” political elite. According to this argument, the The main reason that liberal intellectuals failed Turkish system of governance has been to see Erdogan’s real ambitions was the very formulated upon the framework of a strong belief that the elimination of the military tutelage state and a weak society, which poses a major and other secular institutions such as the obstacle to the creation of a consolidated judiciary would be sufﬁcient to secure a democracy. The governors and the governed democracy. It was not. It was correct that these had a one-dimensional relationship that institutions failed to create a functional oppressed the governed. As a result of this democracy in the past, but it was wrong to historical practice, Turkish society has never been believe that weakening these institutions would able to establish an autonomous sphere free from lead to the emergence of a democracy. state control.

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It has to be stressed that it was not only the Clifford Anderson emphasized that Erdogan’s Turkish liberals and religious democrats that main goal was to establish an executive power were prey to the Erdogan fallacy. Even some over the judiciary in a move that would violate leading international think-tank organizations the separation of powers. He further elaborated failed to forecast the future of Turkish that the AK Party had subjugated the state democracy. For instance, Angel Rabasa and F. without oversight from other parties or branches Stephen Larrabee produced for Rand of government. He suggested that as Corporation in 2008 four possible scenarios. In constitutional talks have broken down and no order from most to least likely, they were: 1) new draft is scheduled, any attempt to AKP pursues a moderate, EU-oriented path; 2) institutionalize a new system of government will AKP pursues a more aggressive Islamist meet with failure. He added that executive agenda; 3) judicial closing of the AKP; and 4) decrees and legislation indicate this regime’s military intervention. For the authors, a authoritarian proclivities, which have precluded regression of Turkish democracy was not likely, progress towards EU membership, despite the even under the second scenario, in which “the party’s initial efforts to the contrary. reelected AKP government pursues a more aggressive Islamist agenda. With full control of According to Arato, while the leaders of the AK the executive and legislative branches of Party, along with many liberal intellectuals, government, the AKP is able to appoint continued to see the Constitutional Court as an administrators, judges, and university rectors enemy, the 2010 referendum represented an and even to inﬂuence personnel decisions in the attempt to conquer one branch in the separation military.” The authors concluded that this of powers, namely the judiciary. Arato contends scenario is less likely because it would lead to that some of the more attractive provisions of greater political polarization and would the package served as window dressing for a probably provoke an intervention by the monolithic project that actually aimed at military. Most Turks support a secular state and creating a type of hyper-presidentialism. It oppose a state based on the shari’a. In addition, sought to remove all impediments to this new EU membership is a key element of the AKP’s system, especially the judiciary which had foreign policy. established its jurisdiction over constitutional amendments. It is now evident that further Andrew Arato suggests that the liberal attempts have been made to realize the same intellectuals understandably failed to see the project, either by constitutional change or by the logic of Erdogan’s actions, because of their own establishment of a de facto hyper-presidential conﬂict with the military tutelage. They saw the system. Constitutional Court as merely an instrument of that tutelage, despite the fact that the Court had Erdogan’s charisma and the its battles with the military-bureaucratic re-construction of the political structures as far back as the 1970s. The Court took several decisions supporting AK Party system through the caliphate positions (e.g. in 2007, the quorum decision was and Ottomanism soon balanced by one permitting a referendum on the presidency) and refused to dissolve the Besides all the systemic obstacles to a party in 2008, admittedly in a very close vote. consolidated democracy in Turkey, I would They failed to understand that in the Turkish strongly suggest that Erdogan’s personality system, especially with the existence of a traits and leadership style have also played a hegemonic party, the court and the judiciary crucial role in the transformation of the political were important counter-weights. system in Turkey. 33

Aylin Görener and Meltem Ucal, using the Leadership Trait Analysis designed by Margaret Hermann as a research tool, examined Erdogan’s rhetoric to analyze his leadership style. Their research concluded that Erdogan’s convictions “are so tightly held and preferences ﬁxed, and that he tends to see only what he wants to see, [which] renders him incapable of deciphering the nuances of diplomacy and successfully navigating the tricky waters of international affairs.” The research also reveals that, “his dichotomizing tendency predisposes him to view politics as a struggle between right and wrong, just and unjust, villains and victims.” The research points out that Erdogan’s pattern of scores indicated that, “he has an “evangelist” orientation to politics which is the leadership style that results from a combination of the tendency to challenge constraints in the environment, closedness to information and having a relationship focus.” Irfan Arik and Cevit Yavuz state that Erdogan has the qualities of a charismatic leader. However, this is not necessarily good news for Turkish democracy. Historical data shows that authoritarian tendencies coupled with a charismatic personality most likely give way to dictatorial that AKP’s initiatives would make Turkey a global rule. Lewis, for example, shows how actor by the year 2023, the one-hundredth charismatic leaders frequently aggravate their anniversary of the establishment of the Turkish followers’ frustrations and prejudices through Republic. Having considered the AKP’s the use of “polarized aggression. ” António opposition to the founding symbols of the Costa Pinto, Roger Eatwell, and Stein Ugelvik Republic, the goal and the vision of 2023 is related Larsen contend that every fascist dictator has to to the re-production of the new identity of the possess some individual abilities that made them state and the nation. Since the process of state ‘extraordinary’: “They need followers to building refers to the development of a political ‘understand’ or ‘appreciate’ and connect their entity with rulers, institutions and citizens, the qualities and there must be a situation or an event AKP’s 2023 vision is an important indicator to see that which required these unusual abilities, or how an ‘imagined future projection’ is being used which could ‘call’ for the reconstruction of the to mobilize the nation and to recreate the Grand regime in such a way as to allow the application of Turkey that lost its grandeur a hundred years ago. new solutions to problems.” This should be considered not only a journey to an imagined future, but also a journey to the past Idealization of the 2023 target and where the grandiose Turkish collective identity the caliphate was lost. Examining this vision, it is quite clear that its intention is to reconstruct a Grand Turkey, In several articles and speeches of Erdogan and while promising nothing about a strong society, Ahmet Davutoglu, both leaders seem convinced civil rights or a consolidated democracy. Politurco | www.politurco.com

The leader-follower relationship is not ‘a one- way relation’ and both agents deﬁne each other. In other words, leaders cannot operate without followers. As for Erdogan’s followers, it is evident that many of them see him as a ‘caliph.’

According to Maria Chang, malignant narcissism begins with a collective trauma, such as a national defeat, an economic crisis, or subjugation by another―often more powerful―group. This defeat leads the nation to question itself and its history, “resulting in a pervasive sense of insecurity and an uncertain and weak collective identity.” Chang argues that narcissistic nationalism “functions as ‘a leap into collective fantasy’ that enables threatened or anxious individuals to avoid the burden of thinking for themselves. (18) ” For example, the humiliating results of the Treaty of Sevres, the abolition of the Caliphate and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire left a broken and wounded Turkish nation in its wake. This painful history is recalled and used by the AKP leadership as both a rhetorical factor and a tool as compensation device over the last decade.

For instance, Turkish writer Abdurahman Dilipak, who is close to Erdogan, said that the caliphate will return again with Erdogan’s reelection victory in 2018.

During his participation in a conference in Canada, Dilipak said that “if Erdogan wins the presidency next year, he will become the Caliph and that the [Islamic] caliphate will have commissioners working from the rooms of the presidential palace that has 1,000 rooms.” He added that the caliphate has moved to the Turkish parliament, stressing that if Erdogan wins re-election to the presidency, it means that he will appoint advisers from all Muslim regions of the caliphate from various Islamic countries. These will commission the Islamic Union to have representatives of the areas of the caliphate in the thousand rooms. 35

And it is not only Dilipak; Suat Onal, a changed. Forms of government have changed… member of the Governing Council of the Ruling But the essence is the same, soul is the same, Justice and Development Party, has already even many institutions are the same.” mentioned on his Facebook account that “Erdogan will become the Caliph in 2023 and Kadir Mısıroğlu, who has worked with Erdoğan Allah will shed his light upon him.” since the 1980s, remains staunchly anti- secularist. He has claimed that Turkey’s Similarly, in 2013, Atılgan Bayar, a former incursions into Syria and Iraq will advisor to the pro-government news station A empower Erdoğan to resurrect the Haber, wrote that he recognized Erdoğan as the Ottoman Empire and declare himself caliph of the Muslim world and expressed his caliph. allegiance to him. In one of her recent tweets, The obsession with the caliphate is not limited to Beyhan Demirci, a writer and follower of political Islamists. For example, the number of Erdoğan, also wrote that Erdoğan is the caliph recruits to ISIS increased enormously after its and the shadow of God on Earth. Some of his leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi proclaimed himself followers have gone even further and said things like, “Since Erdoğan is the caliph, he has the caliph. “Regardless of ideology, individuals right to use money earned through corruption from around the world who felt repressed for his political goals.” by their own governments, most of which were unable to guaranty their personal In her dissertation entitled Loss of the caliphate: safety or sustainable infrastructure, rushed The trauma and aftermath of 1258 and 1924, to join his army. The bottom line is that the Assistant Professor Mona F. Hassan of Duke concept of a caliphate is not a hard sell, University notes that many Muslim rulers have whether in an authoritative state, in under- aspired to augment their prestige with the developed Muslim countries or in supreme title of caliph. As I wrote previously, developed countries where Muslims are “In addition to the claims of the deposed more often than not stigmatized.” Ottoman caliph, Abdülmecid and the apparent ambitions of Sharif Husayn of Makkah, A caliphate is a state ruled by an Islamic steward the names of King Fu’ad of Egypt, Amir known as a caliph —a person considered a Amanullah Khan of Afghanistan, Imam Yahya of successor to the Islamic Prophet, Muhammad Yemen, the Sultan ibn Sa‘ud of Najd, the Sultan (Muhammad bin ʿAbdullāh), the Prophet of the Yusuf bin Hasan of Morocco, the Nizam of entire Muslim community. The word caliph Hyderabad, the Shaykh Ahmad al-Sanusi of actually refers to the ruler of the global Libya, the Amir Muhammad bin ‘Abd al-Karim community of Muslims, or ummah. During the al-Khattabi of the Moroccan Rif, and even that centuries following the death of Prophet of Mustafa Kemal were all claimed to have Muhammad in 632 CE, the rulers of the Muslim ambitions for the position of caliph.” world were called caliph, which means “successor” in Arabic. In 1924, Mustafa Kemal It is also worth mentioning that Erdogan stated Atatürk, founder of the new Turkish Republic, in February 2018 that, “The Republic of Turkey abolished the caliphate. is a continuation of the Ottoman Empire.” He continued, stating that, “The Republic of Turkey, The caliph has long been viewed by many just like our previous states that are a Muslims as the legitimate representative of God continuation of one another, is also a on earth, heir to a chain of uninterrupted continuation of the Ottomans.” Erdogan succession reaching back to Prophet explained that, “Of course, the borders have Muhammad. Professor Zeki Saritoprak emphasizes that He explained that, “After Erdogan became ISIS and some political Islamists use president he started positioning himself in image eschatological themes and ‘caliphate’ extensively ads not only as the president of the Turkish in their ideology, especially certain narratives Republic, but as a reader of the Quran, as found in the hadiths, the collection of reports of though he radiates some nur, light. It is more an sayings and teachings of the Prophet. “Nowhere image of a caliph, a ruler of true believers, than in the Qur’an or hadith does it say that the duty the president of a republic, especially of Muslims is to establish a caliphate, and in fact, considering that Turkey has very great the idea of an Islamic state did not exist prior to experience in this aspect. So the claims are not middle of the 19th century. I think that they are that groundless.” so obsessed with a state because they have forgotten how to apply the rules to themselves, Methodologically speaking, establishing an and so they have a desire to impose the rules on Islamic state may sound very attractive to many others. ISIS is thus a version of political Islam, Muslims, but in reality it may not solve the which as a governing philosophy holds that problems of human beings. If you provide the Islam can be imposed on a population from the best rules and put them in the hands of corrupt top down. This actually goes against Quranic people, those rules will be used for corruption as principles, which focus on the individual as a well. The attraction of the caliphate blinds many universe in and of her or himself. ” He Muslims to the reality of their situation and continued, “One thing that followers of political morality. Islam are generally not aware of is that time is an Erdogan did not declare himself as the new interpreter of the Quran. Some Quranic verses caliph of the Muslim world. But his actions may should be interpreted under the conditions of be a harbinger of what may come. our time and not under the conditions of the Middle Ages. Therefore, I do not think that a It is important to keep in mind that caliphate or an Islamic state is necessary for establishment of the Turkish state always played Islam to ﬂourish in the 21st century. It seems the a crucial role in shaping the society as a future of Islam is in cooperation with the West constituting agent. While the constituting role of and with Christianity. There is no imperative in the state was performed in the past with a the Quran to destroy the West or Christians. secular world view, today this constituting role Quite the opposite; Islam should be built upon seems to have passed to the AKP leadership and Western civilization, not seek to destroy it. particularly to Erdogan himself, suggesting that Those who see problems in the West should take the mission of the state is now to bring up a solace in the words of Said Nursi, who said that religious generation. This indicates that the eventually the negative aspects of the West will “social engineering” aspect of a “constituting dissipate and there can be a coming together of state” is not ruled out as Erdogan clearly said: Western and Islamic civilizations.” “the new constitution will be in harmony with the values of our nation.”

According to Ali Vyacheslav Polosin, While Ataturk saw himself as the savior of the Deputy Director of the Fund for Support nation―a kind of demigod―the secular state establishment acted accordingly. Erdogan and of Islamic Culture, Science and Education, his bureaucracy seem convinced that they also “Erdogan used the image of the caliphate have the ability to construct their own state, and traditional Islamic values to gain society and even myths. Erdogan’s authoritarian charisma and narcissistic personality provide popularity in the Middle East, expecting evidence that he would be willing to rule Turkey to gain it all over the world.” as the ‘undisputable sole leader,’ but not as a democratic leader. Politurco | www.politurco.com Readily available data demonstrates that authoritarian charismatic leaders with narcissistic personalities tend to be dictators.

I would strongly argue that Erdogan’s 2023 target and his ambition to resurrect the caliphate was not formulated only to idealize his rule, but also to serve as the ‘call’ for this reconstruction of the regime. Conclusion Despite elimination of the military tutelage from the political system during the AK Party era, Turkey has had several historical and structural shortcomings that have prevented it from becoming a democratic state. Erdogan’s efforts to exclude the Turkish military from the political system did not aim to consolidate democracy, but rather to create an autocratic system according to his wishes. What Turkey has therefore been experiencing for years has been the ‘charismatisation/Erdoganization’ of Turkish political institutions through the idealization of the 2023 target and an imagined future of the caliphate which damaged not only democratic institutions, but also led to radical shifts in Turkish domestic and foreign policy. Due to the systemic obstacles to democracy, whatever emerges in Turkey in Aydogan Vatandas the near future, will not be a consolidated is an investigative journalist from democracy, but rather an exchange of Turkey, specializing in Political Science and International Relations. power between elites.

37 TURKISH-FINANCED MOSQUES ARE EMBASSIES OF POLITICAL ISLAM David L. Phillips

I strongly reject Islamophobia. Almost all people whose human rights I work to defend – Rohingya, Kashmiris, Kurds, Kosovars, Bosniacs – are “Diyanet”, Turkey’s Department of Muslim. I believe that religious freedom and other human rights are sacrosanct. Religious Affairs, is Erdogan’s vehicle for spreading political For this reason, I have struggled to understand Islam. It is not staffed by imams and Turkey’s financing of mega-mosques. After deep soul searching about the meaning of spirituality and religious scholars. Rather, Diyanet Turkey’s political agenda, I have concluded that is run by bureaucrats and political Turkish financed mosques are not legitimate places of worship. They propagate political Islam as henchmen who undermine the sources of division and proponents of discord. noble principles of Islam as a Turkish financing of mosques outside of Turkey should be banned. religion of peace. Diyanet has become Erdogan’s instrument for Turkey’s foreign policy aims to propagate Islamism, corrupting Islam by pursuing a destabilize secular democracies, and thereby enhance Turkey’s influence. It finances mosques political agenda.” across Europe to support for President Tayyip Erdogan’s Islamist and neo-Ottoman agenda.

Politurco | www.politurco.com The latest controversy around a Turkish funded The Great Mosque of Tirana — Namazgâh mosque occurred in Cologne, Germany. When Mosque – will be the largest mosque in the Erdogan showed up last weekend to open the Balkans. In Kosovo, the Turkish Cooperation and Cologne Central Mosque, thousands, including Coordination Agency (TIKA) – in coordination many Muslims, gathered to protest and criticize with Diyanet — has restored more than 30 Erdogan’s presence. religious structures from the Ottoman period and built at least 20 new mosques since 2011. Erdogan The ceremony in Cologne occurred at the end of personally pledged to sponsor construction of Erdogan’s contentious trip to Germany. At every Kosovo’s mega-mosque in Pristina. event, Erdogan was chastised for Turkey’s abysmal human rights record, restrictions on press freedom, The same occurs in the Turkic republics of central and violations of minority rights. Chancellor Asia. Rather than nation-building in newly- Angela Merkel refused to attend the state dinner independent states, Turkey supports Muslim for Erdogan and many members of parliament community building. boycotted his visit. Hurt feelings linger after Erdogan called Merkel a Nazi last year. These mosques have classrooms for Islamic education as well as Turkish language instruction. Germany is not the only country where Turkey TIKA-supported facilities function like madrassas, uses Islam as a wedge issue to divide societies corrupting Qur’anic education to radicalize and radicalize youth against the West. Turkish impressionable youth. Some from the western ﬁnanced mosques in Albania and Kosovo are also Balkans have joined the Islamic State to become embassies of Islamism. ﬁghters in Syria and Iraq.

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There are different interpretations of Islam, as in Under Erdogan’s direction, Turkish authorities every religion. In one view, Islam is a righteous restrict the restoration and construction of non- religion, which teaches that believers must live in Muslim shrines and places of worship in Turkey. modesty and peaceful co-existence with each other Requests to open new places of worship by and their environment, exempliﬁed by the life of religious minorities are routinely denied. Even the Prophet Mohammed. Religious devotion and assembly houses (“Cemevi”) for Alawites, a love of God are the basis of a just world order. division of Islam, are restricted. Non-Sunni Muslims are seen as heretics. In another view, mankind can only attain personal peace by utterly submitting to Allah. Islam means The mosque in Cologne is a lightning rod for submission to God, accepting His authority, as well controversy, highlighting Turkey’s insidious as obeying His orders. Individuals who submit are perversion of Islam. Muslims in Germany should more vulnerable to manipulation. Some have been build their sanctuaries without support from convinced to commit acts of sensational violence Turkey. By politicizing Islam, Erdogan poisons against unbelievers, moderate Muslims, and the purity of their devotion and gives Islam a bad Muslims who belong to other sects. name.

Of course, all people including Muslims have the David L. Phillips right to worship as long as their religious practice is Director of the Program on Peace-building and Rights at brings no harm to others. They have the right to Columbia University’s Institute for the Study of Human Rights. build places of worship, as long as those places of worship espouse personal puriﬁcation rather than acts of violence. The noble qualities of Islam must be upheld.

However, Turkey practices a double standard. Erdogan has used religion to divide Turkish society and galvanize his political base. In 2002, Erdogan was jailed by secular judges for preaching: “the mosques are our barracks, the domes our helmets, the minarets our bayonets, and the faithful our soldiers.”

By embracing political Islam, Erdogan has created a fertile ground in the name of Islam for radical groups such as ISIS. He rhetorically rejects radicalization, but Erdogan should be judged by the result of his actions. Syria is a case in point. At home and abroad, Erdogan continues to use religion in service of his political agenda. 41

THE ROOTS OF ANTI AMERICANISM IN TURKEY

AYDOGAN VATANDAS

For the last several years, it is no secret that Anti-Americanism has reached a new peak in Turkey. While Turkish political ﬁgures consistently use harsh anti-American rhetoric, Turkish pro-government media disseminate parallel conspiracies about the U.S. The vast majority of the Turkish public believe that almost entire animosity against Turkey is rooted in American policies. Thus, it’s essential to analyze the dramatic rise of anti-American sentiment in Turkey in the historical and ideological context to further see the potential risks in the future for the American-Turkish relations and the world. Politurco | www.politurco.com

Historical Context Turkey as a Muslim country with Ottoman past could never end up with a Communist rule. However, Soviet Government is also cognizant of The significant rapprochement between the two the fact that they could have political and countries begun with the famous symbolic gesture ideological alliances in Turkey by anti- when the remains of the then-Turkish Ambassador Americanism. In this way, the Soviet Union would Munir Ertegun who passed away in Washington be able to influence Turkish politics as well. Right during his active duty carried out to Turkey by the after the war, the Soviet Union tried to boost battleship Missouri which was also used by democracy and free elections in Turkey attempting General McArthur for the peace agreement to benefit from the dark atmosphere. Therefore, between the U.S and Japan. after the II. World War, the Turkish government, was labeled as “reactionary” and “fascist” by the On April 5, 1946, Missouri was welcomed by the Soviet Union and Balkan states. Turkish battleships Yavuz, Demirhisar, and Sultanhisar in Gallipoli and saluted in front of the Soviet efforts in Turkey led to the strengthening of Maiden’s Tower which is still a famous symbol of the left-wing political organizations and anti- Istanbul, Turkey. Turkish Post Office published American sentiment in Turkey. three series of new stamps for the memory of Missouri.

The American containment strategy towards “Between 1945 and 1960, Turkish Turkey began on February 12, 1947. President ofﬁcials applied harsh policies Harry S. Truman proclaimed his vision about against the left wing political Turkey stating that it would be the policy of the United States “to support free peoples who are organizations in Turkey; sometimes, resisting attempted subjugation by armed they did this to emphasize the minorities or by outside pressure,” apparently “communist threat” in Turkey.” referring the Soviet threat against Turkey. It is evident that strategy and security were at the very basis of this emerging alliance between the two The left-wing political parties and organizations countries. This new security paradigm has also led used this treatment to empower the Anti-American Turkey to change its constitutional design from sentiment in Turkey. The military coup in 1960 and one-party to multi-party-political system. Thus, it is adoption of a new constitution provided more also evident that it is this security environment that freedom to the political parties that also led to led Turkey to start her Democracy not the demands clashes between the leftist and rightist groups in of the people. While Turkey distanced itself from Turkey which eventually resulted in another Germany and USSR during this geopolitical shift, military coup in 1980. Turkey was merely ﬂowing to the orbit of the U.S. after the II. World War. President Johnson’s Letter In 1964, President Johnson wrote a strong- The Turkish-American alliance has created its worded letter to the Turkish Prime Minister Inonu dissidents and Anti-Americanism in the upcoming which increased tension between the two countries. years. After that sharp geopolitical shift in The President Johnson’s letter which aggressively Turkey, the Soviet Government started a robust reacted to Turkish ambitions to militarily intervene campaign to spread anti-American and anti- Cyprus in 1964 to protect Turks in the Island also imperialist sentiments in Turkey. The Soviet played a vital role in the development of the anti- Government, however, was aware of the fact that American sentiment in Turkey. 43

“According to a public opinion poll in 1965, ‘85 percent’ of the people believed that the Johnson letter and the U.S. policy in Cyprus negatively affected their feeling towards the United States. In the following years, negative public sentiment against the United States grew even stronger, especially among the left. They viewed American policy towards Turkey as imperialistic. The critics voiced their anger by claiming that Turkey had ceded its sovereignty to the United States over the NATO and American military bases. They even went so far as to say that the United States determined Turkish domestic and foreign policy. They publicly demanded that the Turkish government should expel American forces, which was believed to be nearly 30,000 people. In 1966, when U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk came to Turkey for a Soviet Effect Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) “The readily available historical evidence meeting, some university students and suggests that the left wing and an anti- workers’ unions gathered in Ankara and American wave of late 60’s in Turkey found a shouted anti-American slogans for the ﬁrst full ground within the Turkish military as well. time.” Some critical segments of the Leftists and anti- American wave in the Turkish military were purged as a result of the Militar y Memorandum in 1971. However, it is safe to Left wing demonstrators protested the analyze that the anti-American rhetoric and visit of the U.S. 6th Fleet in 1968, and some Eurasians/Pro-Russian perspective which is American sailors were thrown into the sea extensively presented by Dogu Perincek, the by some university students. This particular Chairman of Homeland Party (Vatan Partisi in incident remains a vital source of pride in Turkish) and retired generals linked to him the memory of the leftist generation of the today had their roots in this period. The impact time. In 1969, the protestors burned the car of this period was widespread in the upcoming of the U.S. Ambassador in Ankara. All years. After all, the ambivalent and supportive these events signaled a strong anti- attitude of the left to February 28, 1997, American sentiment in Turkey. military intervention shows that such approaches could not be explained by only conjectural developments and the opportunity for a left-inclined intervention in 1960.” Pro-Russian Effect

The anti-American and pro-Russian rhetoric led by Homeland Party under Perincek leadership in recent years is the continuation of this political climate of the 70’s which provides a good illustration of this historical timeline. Homeland Party increased its publications through its publishing house, Kaynak, on the history of the Turkish Revolution, military’s progressive role, and Along with Perincek, the Lt. Gen. Ismail Hakki Kemalist – Bolshevik relations. The Kemalist Pekin, the former head of the Turkish Armed reorientation did not lead the party to repudiate its Forces’ Military Intelligence Pekin and other Marxist–Leninist–Maoist ideology, as Kaynak retired senior Turkish officers who are also continued to publish the works of Lenin, Stalin, members of the Homeland Party, Rear Adm. Soner and Mao. Homeland Party also boasts international Polat and Maj. Gen. Beyazit Karatas, subsequently connections and affiliations in line with its anti- visited Damascus three times. Pekin said that American, nationalist–socialist ideology. For during these visits the delegation met with several example, in the past, they published a letter from of the most influential security chiefs, diplomats, Slobodan Milosevic in Aydinlik, their weekly and political officials in the Syrian government. publication at the time and signed a protocol of cooperation with Saddam Hussein and most In December 2015, the same delegation paid a visit recently arranged many meetings with President to Moscow to meet the Russian Intelligence and Assad of Syria. security experts to warn the Russian Government not to back a potential military coup attempt in On the 3rd of March, 2015 the Turkish Delegation, Turkey since a potential coup in Turkey could led by Perinçek, met with Syrian President Bashar possible serve American interests. al-Assad to discuss the topics such as developing economic cooperation and solidarity between the Perinçek also stated that he and Russian strategist two countries and ceasing ethnic and religious Alexander Dugin, who is known for his proximity conflicts and terrorism in the region. to the Kremlin, told vital Erdoğan advisors about

Politurco | www.politurco.com unusual activity in the Turkish army on July 14th, In an interview with the NY Times, on July 4, 2016, a day before the failed coup attempt.5 only 11 days before the attempted coup in Turkey Perincek claimed that they even had control over In an interview with the NY Times, on July 4, President Erdogan. only 11 days before the attempted coup in Turkey Perincek claimed that they even had control over ‘Erdogan today has been captured by the President Erdogan. patriotic forces of Turkey.”

“There’s no reason for us to ﬁght. We became side “There’s no reason for us to ﬁght. We became side by side. They are now following our program,” he by side. They are now following our program,” he said, referring to Mr. Erdogan’s government. said, referring to Mr. Erdogan’s government.

The Foreign Policy described this cooperation as a “It is noteworthy to emphasize that even marriage made in hell which Erdogan is aware of. though Perincek and his Homeland Party ‘During the early Erdogan years, when the is an entirely insigniﬁcant actor in Turkish reactionary puppet of the Crusader West was public and political scene, Perincek has opening up to the Kurds and jump-starting a peace disproportionate inﬂuence over the elite process with the PKK, the Perincek group was viewed as a spent force, a vestige of Turkey’s hard- and in Turkish Military and bureaucracy.” line secular past.

45 Politurco | www.politurco.com

The Perincek goose was further cooked during right now!” Flynn told his audience. The Turkish the Ergenekon trials when Erdogan made allies military, he continued, was a secular institution, with the Gulenists to purge the military of the old whereas the country was heading “toward secularists allegedly cooking up a coup against the Islamism” under the leadership of President Recep AKP government. But then the Gulenists made the Tayyip Erdogan. His audience broke into applause; fatal error of digging into corruption allegations the event was hosted by a local branch of the ACT against Erdogan’s inner circle, including the for America, a national security group with strong president’s family. With the launch of an intra- Islamophobic tendencies. “Yeah,” Flynn said, “that Islamist green-on-green war between the AKP and is worth applauding.” the Gulenists, Perincek was suddenly released from jail — where he had been serving a life sentence for The pro-Government Turkish Media an alleged coup plot against the Islamist AKP extensively used General Flynn’s speech as government — and was back in business.’ evidence for the U.S support for the coup spreading anti-American sentiments in the Turkish public opinion.

“Shaken by a failed coup attempt in July The coup attempt was successfully used to increase the anti-Americanism in Turkey. A recent survey 2016, Turkey’s government directly revealed a worrying result regarding the relations accused of the United States is between the US and Turkey. responsible for the coup instead of When asked the question in the ODPAR research, undertaking a thorough investigation of ‘Which countries should act with Turkey in foreign policy?’ The respondents replied as “the U.S.” by the facts, igniting a new wave of anti- 23.1 percent in 2015, today the rate is 13.6 percent. Americanism. This also coincided with a In the meantime, while the request for the sweeping government crackdown and a cooperation with the United States is declining, the demand for the cooperation with Russia and China witch-hunt against the entire dissidents in is increasing. Turkey which posed a severe risk to NATO, However, the recent ﬁndings of the Mueller’s relations with the United States and Russian investigation revealed that General Flynn Turkey’s long-term stability.” was not only under investigation with his ties to Russian Federation but also the Turkish Government and his pro-Russian allies in Turkey.

Flynn Connection According to some new ﬁndings, the relations between General Flynn and his Turkish A few minutes after the coup attempt in Turkey, counterparts began even long before the coup Dogu Perincek claimed that the coup was an attempt. This makes Flynn’s initial American conspiracy. It is noteworthy to remember statements about the Turkish coup more that at the very same moments, the former suspicious. The question is whether Mr. lieutenant general Michael Flynn was giving a Flynn made these statements by his pro- speech in Cleveland just as soldiers were taking Russian counterparts in Turkey to make it over the bridges and airports of Istanbul. “There’s look like a pro-American coup in favor of the an ongoing coup going on in Turkey right now— anti-American camp in Turkey? 47

“Perincek on the other hand proudly claims that the generals loyal to his party bragged about preparing purge lists earlier the coup attempt describing why 30,000 military people were purged from the Turkish military right after the coup attempt: “Turkey is clearing up NATO’s cancerous tumor inside it.”

Kemalist, Islamist and Nationalist anti-Americanism

The Soviet-infused interpretation of the United States resonated well with the country’s two main (and opposing) groups, secular Kemalists and conservative Islamists. According to conventional Kemalist thinking, modern Turkey is deﬁned regarding its struggle against imperialists.

Islamists, on the other hand, tend to believe Israel or Zionism in general mostly determines the U.S foreign policy. Thus, for the Islamists in Turkey, American systems, and Zionist conspiracies are almost identical. The Islamism in Turkey had two primary sources. One is Necmettin Erbakan’s ﬁrst Islamist party, National Order Party (Milli Nizam Partisi – MNP) which took different names in the future such as, the National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi – MSP), Virtue Party (Fazilet Partisi – FP) and The Felicity Party (Saadet Partisi – SP). These Islamist parties were broadly supported by various Sunni Suﬁ orders and Islamic societies in Turkey.

“Iran also had a significant influence on Islamism in Turkey. After the Islamist revolution in 1979, Iran increased her efforts to influence Turkish Islamist movements. However, Iran was also aware of the fact that spreading ‘pro-Shia’ sentiments would not work in Sunni communities. Thus, Iran mostly focused on using anti-Israel, anti-Zionist and anti-American sentiments to influence Turkish Islamist realms. Iranian Revolution at its time was regarded as a real Islamic revolution among Turkish Islamist groups and envied as an example in Turkey.” Politurco | www.politurco.com

The nationalist and right-wing parties on the other charges, including pastor Andrew Brunson who hand also tend to believe the U.S is committed to was accused of supporting Gülen. establishing a Kurdish State in the Middle East including southeastern part of Turkey in alignment Erdoğan appears to be engaging in “hostage with Israel and Zionist conspiracies. These are diplomacy,” viewing these prisoners as useful some of the common elements which have been bargaining chips for a prisoner swap. Zarrab nourishing anti-Americanism in Turkey among has also featured highly on the list of both Kemalist, Islamist and Nationalist circles. bilateral irritants. Both Islamist and Nationalist circles in Turkey tend to believe that the U.S hegemony in the world is the continuation of the British Empire which defeated the Ottoman Empire and resulted in Atatürk’s abolition of the caliphate in 1924 and the “When Erdogan came to power, during the enactment of a series of sweeping secularization first years of his rule, he honored measures significantly reinforced a robust trend toward secularization. Therefore, the hatred and democracy by advancing judicial distrust against British Empire in the past has been independence and the rule of law by a directed to U.S hegemony which is capable of series of amendments. However, when his dismantling Turkey. It is also argued that the right- wing political parties problematize the Jewish inner circle and he himself was threatened conspiracy to express their ontological insecurities with prosecution on corruption charges in emerging from the Sèvres syndrome which appeared after the defeat of the WWI and collapse late 2013, Erdogan’s government brought of the Ottoman Empire. the courts back under the sway of the government through the introduction of “It is evident that Erdogan not only is the central administrative judiciary organ increasing the tension and strengthens which reduced government accountability. the anti-American sentiment in Turkey but While the prosecutors who started the he is also exploiting it for political gains. Erdogan achieves to reinforce the set corruption probe were discharged, the around himself and to gain a power that police officers who applied the orders of regenerates it’s both internal and the prosecutors were imprisoned. Erdogan international sources through using the has been able to effectively replace the anti-American rhetoric. rule of law with his own order.”

One of the other signiﬁcant reasons for Erdogan’s increasing the anti-American sentiment is because Since then, Erdogan has been demonizing the of the potential impacts of the Reza Zarrab trial in American Government and European Union, NY which could end up with some severe economic Gulen Movement, liberal intellectuals and other sanctions against Turkey. By taking reciprocal opponents accusing them of conspiring against him measures, the Turkish Government arrested 12 and his government. Americans in Turkish prisons on spurious terrorism 49

Conclusion The anti-American sentiments in Turkey are not new and deeply rooted within the signiﬁcant Turkish political and ideological spheres such as Kemalism, Islamism, and Nationalism for different reasons and motivations. Russia and Iran had played a crucial role in this development, as the historical geopolitical actors in Turkey. A potential Kurdish state backed by the U.S in the region also nourishes this development. Erdogan not only strengthens the anti-American sentiment but also exploits it for political purposes. Potential economic impacts of Zarrab case appears another signiﬁcant reason for Erdogan to enhance the anti-Americanism in Turkey. While Russia and Iran aim to pull off Turkey from NATO, for Erdogan, it’s a matter of survival. The Government purges after the July 15 coup attempt is linked to this new Aydogan Vatandas geopolitical development which is an investigative journalist from resulted in an authoritarian regime in Turkey, specializing in Political Turkey. Science and International Relations. How many arrested

journalists are there A DIGNITY CENTERED in Turkey? METHODOLOGY FOR CPJ Turkmen Terzi

Erdogan’s senior adviser Professor Dr. Gulnur your place, this nation will hit you in the back of Aybet’s denial of any violation of journalists your head.” This particular incident indicates the rights in Turkey shocked HARD TALK’s great jeopardy that the journalists face in Turkey Stephan Sackur following The Committee to when they criticize Erdogan. Protect Journalist’s (CPJ) latest report. CNN In a news report appeared at Bianet.org, Mustafa also cast light on how “jailing journalists has Kuleli from Journalists’ Union of Turkey (TGS) become a ‘new normal,’ following the advocacy stated that Erdoğan has been giving the following group’s report. While Aybet says that there is no message to the media and society of Turkey: ‘I will journalists in prison, CPJ documents that there oppress you with violence. No one can say a word are at least 68 arrested journalists in Turkey. to me, you cannot take to the streets.’ It was only a few days ago, President and Justice Considering what Erdoğan said, ‘Prosecutors and Development Party (AKP) Chair Recep will take action’, he apparently makes it very Tayyip Erdoğan has targeted Fox TV clear that he is above the judiciary and there is no anchorperson Fatih Portakal for the third time independent judiciary in Turkey and prosecutors over the last week by saying, “If you do not know take action upon his instructions.

Politurco | www.politurco.com It was only a week ago, that prosecutors accused CPJ exposes that fact that the Turkish judiciary’s also the most secular columnists Emin Colasan and practices contravene Article 10 the European Necati Dogru as well as three editors of Sozcu Convention on Human Rights, highlighting that Daily of aiding Gulen movement which, Erdogan Article 10 does not protect any individuals from Government recognizes as a terrorist organization. criticism, including the president. CPJ also urges The European Union, The Council of Europe and How many arrested journalists are there in the United States to force Turkey to free journalists Turkey? If Fatih Portakal, Emin Colasan and and to respect its obligations under the European Necati Dogru would be arrested, would they be Convention on Human Rights. CPJ’s activism aims considered as arrested journalists, or terrorists as to force Turkish leaders to abolish the penal code President Erdogan suggest? They could probably and anti-terror law. be in the list of arrested journalists of CPJ since they are so famous and international media paid In light of CPJ’s findings, it is perhaps pertinent attention to their situation. But what about other for colleagues in CPJ to listen and increasingly journalists, who can’t find enough media coverage engage with Turkish nationals from different and can’t make their voice heard? segments of society. Indeed, a reading of CPJ’s As CPJ is one of the last protection shields for 2012 and 2017 reports, makes clear that CPJ journalists, it is important for CPJ to develop its engages all critical groups face to face in order to methodology. finalize the reports. On the other hand, what is less clear is how CPJ decides who is journalist and who is not. CPJ 2018 report names Turkey as the worst jailer of journalists in the world. CPJ’s December 2011 report prompted criticism CPJ’s country reports are one of the main from many journalists and defenders of press freedom, as the report identified only eight sources which aid the understanding of individuals jailed in direct relation to their the root causes of restrictions of freedom journalistic activities. The number was much lower of expression and freedom of speech. than other international estimates. During that time CPJ admits that “The complexity and opaqueness CPJ’s 2012 report on Turkey gives a of the Turkish legal system, especially in cases in thorough explanation of article 314 of the which terrorism and sedition is alleged, also pose Turkish penal code and anti-terror law, unique challenges.” In order to not repeat previous which “criminalize news-gathering and mistakes, CPJ announced that “beginning in the early 2012, the organization undertook a publication of critical or opposing thorough case-by-case review, led by a team views.” (CPJ 2012). Turkish prosecutors of Turkey-based researchers.” The biggest and judges have a long-standing tradition concern here lies in the use of “Turkey-based of abusing the penal code and terror researchers.” CPJ’s latest report shows that legislation to silence the regime and now, Turkey is holding 68 journalists behind bars. The same report says that Turkish leader critiques of the authoritarian AKP-led Recep Tayyip Erdogan shut down more than government. 100 media outlets by decree since the July 2016 failed coup attempt. It is also evident (and It is obvious that CPJ clearly understands the by no means hidden by the regime) that the regime’s anti-democratic tendencies and advises Turkish government jailed dozens of journalists that the Turkish government release “all journalists from Gulen-affiliated media alone. This number is who are being held on the basis of journalistic higher that CPJ’s data. activities.” 51 Politurco | www.politurco.com

Perhaps a more prudent approach would be Turkey’s secularist-elite Cumhuriyet’s for CPJ to investigate each jailed journalist’s columnist Gursel’s ego didn’t tolerate even the “pure professional works” to decide whether solidarity from his ordinary colleagues, these reporters are convicted for their highlighting the intricacies of the journalistic journalistic work or not, regardless of their world in Turkey and the industry’s internal affiliation with their media house. CPJ could politics. assess whether these journalists have criminal records or have faced any other convictions or CPJ should carefully analyze the arrogance charges previously. For instance, the Erdogan of Erdogan’s senior adviser Professor Dr. government arrested and jailed more than Gulnur Aybet who was chosen as one of “the 150,000 people in the post-coup purge. UK’s most powerful Muslim women” in 2009 Statistics shows that almost all these people by the Time magazine. Remember that, never committed any crime in their lives. without any embarrassment, Aybet said that Almost all of them have been jailed without there are not a single journalist in jail in Turkey charge by a politically-motivated judiciary. because of their journalistic work in Stephan CPJ should also understand that Turkey is a Sackur’s HARD TALK. This Professor, who highly polarized country. For instance, CPJ participated in many academic works in reports that more than half of the jailed prestigious institutes such as John Hopkins journalists are Kurdish, whom the Turkish University, Oxford and NATO, defends the government has jailed because of their idea that Turkish academics can openly criticize affiliation with armed PKK forces. CPJ reports Erdogan. CPJ should consider that Kemalist that “deep state Ergenekon” suspect Mustafa Secularists, Islamist AKP members and Balbay was jailed because of his journalistic Nationalists collectively rule Turkey and are all work. Leftist journalists are in CPJ’s complicit in their oppression of Kurdish, “journalist in prison” list. A point to illustrate Alawite, Gulenists, and other ethnic and the challenges in CPJ’s methodology, is that a religious minority groups. As one group refuses far-right Ergenekon suspect would not agree to recognize others as human beings, CPJ that Kurdish reporters are doing journalistic should determine the criteria for what work as the state see them separatists. constitutes a journalist or not, based on each Likewise, most liberal or secularist journalists individual’s professional work and regardless of will not believe that reporters who work for their position against the government or their Gulen-affiliated media houses are doing religious and ideological backgrounds. journalistic work as the traditionalist Kemalist regime had never accredited these journalists Freedom of press in Turkey is far for military and state functions for many years in the recent history. A prominent journalist worse than you think. from Kadri Gursel who was jailed and later released, harshly criticized his media colleagues Turkmen Terzi who affiliated with the Gulen movement for is an investigative journalist including his picture in the “photo exhibition of based in South Africa. jailed Turkish journalist” in Europe. 53

Heartbreaking stories of Turkish Refugees in Greece

In Turkey, thousands of families and tens of How Greece is responding to thousands of people had to leave their country soon after the failed coup attempt on July, 15, 2016. Turkish refugees? 151,967 people were dismissed from their jobs, 136,995 people were detained, 77,524 were arrested. Greece is no doubt the foremost among these countries. Greece, which has been preferred by Children were definitely the most affected ones by refugees mainly from Syria, Iraq, Iran and many this genocide, committed against the followers of other Middle East Countries for a long time, is facing Gulen Movement. now with the mass of refugee, composed mostly of The members of Gulen Movement, who sat out Turkish judges-prosecutors, doctors, academicians from the coasts of the Aegean Sea and the Meric and journalists. According to informal figures, 1200 River with the hope of freedom, are still suffering for families, walking for long distances and paying out leaving their families behind as well as their goods thousands of dollars, are living in this country. 200 of and homes. These people, who served their country these families are located in Selanik and the rest 1000 and made an effort for building a fair world order for are in Athens, struggling to survive. Although these years, have been nowadays fleeing from injustice and families, who had to flee from autocracy in lawlessness and endeavoring to take refuge in other Turkey, live with limited means but feel countries without even speaking their languages. themselves at least free. Politurco | www.politurco.com

These people who were regular and well-disciplined during their life, have now only one goal: to leave from Greece and to ﬁnd asylum in other developed European States. But this is not so easy. These refugees have to meet with human smugglers whom they only saw them in movies and they have to ask for help from them. This is necessary because of the present circumstances.

The mass of refugee, staying in Greece live mainly in Athens. The top priority of these people is to be able to go to other countries. The European Union Funds pay a specific amount of money to these people, spending all money on this priority. But it doesn’t grow on trees because the authorities of EU make appointment with Turkish refugees once a week for this aid. If you went to the appointment, if your turn came, and if you managed to make yourself understood, they would give you a court day. The date of court takes at least 3 months. The refugees, “I was working as a manager at a state- participants of Gulen Movement, are staying in small controlled corporation of Hizmet Movement and houses by paying rent where can be found from a I became unemployed when the pressures of system called “airbnb”. It is difficult to find a house government went off increasing in 2013 and our for rent in summer, furthermore the rental charges corporation was closed with statutory decree double compared to winter months. Therefore, two after the coup attempt in 2016. families prefer to stay together in a two-roomed house. A monthly expense for a family costs 1000 I had to live in Turkey financially embarrassed Euros despite all limited means. Turkish refugees, for a long time. I made an effort to earn to making an effort for learning language in free survive with my own means. Then the life spaces language courses, try to find a way for going other ran out, I applied for other jobs. Nobody countries in their remaining times. On the other employed me by the time they learned that I was hand, it is difficult to find Turkish products and halal Gulenist. A.G told Politurco. foods in Greece. There are two markets, two butchers and three restaurants, they can go for shopping in A.G added that he tried to make his living a Athens. Although prices are a little bit higher than little more time by selling his car. But he couldn’t marketplace, they have no choice apart from these stand and decided to flee abroad when he saw shops. A.G, the father of a single-child family and the his neighborhood froze out his family. participant of Gulen Movement, is only one of them who had to take refuge in Greece in this period. In this period Z.G, the wife of A.G, is without no doubt his pillar of support. Z.G, helping his husband and promoting his plans since their marriage, is aggrieved mostly because of disloyalty of people in her country. She said: “We served these people. Even if I had died, I couldn’t have imagined the insensitivity of these people.’ 55

The family, setting off to take refuge We had neither a boat nor something in Greece on Meric River, contacted else for crossing. The opposite coast with a smuggler on Internet. They was about 30 meters from the islet. negotiated with smuggler in turn of The river was floating too fast. We 2.500 Euros per person for crossing couldn’t see the river because of the the border from the Meric. A.G said darkness but we could hear the rate of that this was no longer necessary, in the flow. We called again the smuggler. order to live freely. He told Politurco We told him that there was a second that smuggler asked them to rely on river and he left us in the middle of the him in any circumstances involving Meric. Smuggler said that he came but lifejacket. A.G stated that they were nobody came.’ deceived by him. A.G and his family had to stay there Smugglers left them in the middle of from 8.00 p.m to 06.00 a.m in the Meric River “All the means and middle of the Meric River. The family, promises which smugglers had who had to stay there up all night with offered us, were completely a lie. wet clothes, stated that they had They told us that there were life trembled during the night with three jackets while crossing the river. All children and four adults. A.G, trying of them were rubbish. We came to to warm the children up with dry Edirne, they left us somewhere clothes in the bag, was worried about unknown. Gendarmeries were crying of his children. He couldn’t standing near there. We thought sleep all day because the security that these gamblers would sell us forces, hearing the crying of children, to gendarmeries. Immediately could come and find them. In the we diverged around in order not morning, the family who can see the water clearly, decided inevitably to draw attention. crossing the river with their own means. ‘According to the contract we would give money in the coast of river. But A.G and his family began to feel safe they wanted from us the money, we after they had crossed over the didn’t give. Then they took us to the opposite side thanks to the ‘tall one’ of coast of Meric. We were anxious. adults. But we had no other solution.’ ‘We got on the boat and crossed over 5 A.G said: “We relaxed just after we minutes later. The people, crossing stepped the land of another country over us, returned. We walked a few by fleeing from own country. We meters more. Just as we were getting went to the police station. We told happier, we saw a raceway near them that we had fled from the there. We realized that they left us in tyranny of government in Turkey a small islet on the middle of the and we were the member of Gulen Meric River. The other side of the Movement. The police welcomed us. Meric had deluged with floodwater. We stayed in detention room for two This side could be passed merely by days. We took the certificate of free boat. circulation. Politurco | www.politurco.com

Blankets and beds were the only things in our minds At that time, we were in the hometown of my wife. after the coldness of the Meric River. Our clothes Two days later our journey started through were completely sandy and muddy. We came to unbeknown. We stayed in a different house for two Athens. A friend of us hosted us there. We were months. We learned there that both my wife (B.H.S) searching for the ways to go to other countries. But and my wife’s father were taken into custody. we had a little amount of cash.” Although my father-in-low had no relation with Hizmet, he was arrested because of my wife. He is a “Nevertheless, we are very grateful. I don’t think Parkinson patient. A difficult period started for him that we have the right for complaint. This is a test and us. My wife wanted to surrender many times for and we want to pass the test ideally without the release of his father. I hardly prevented her.’ complaining.” The mother Z.G said to Politurco. She also told that they were so happy about the ‘My father in law was released after 21 days by visitors, coming from other states in Europe. ‘They means of bills of exception and doctor reports. His visited us and concerned with our troubles. They illness unfortunately became much worse. We lived were giving us moral support.’ in this 2-month period for fear of detention with every door bell.’ A.T.S, the member of a different family, escaping from heavy persecution in Turkey, said: ‘There were ‘By the way, I went to a very close friend of mine in also heavy pressures before July 15 coup attempt. the city where I hided first. He told us that we could The corporation, which I was employed was closed stay only a night. He was confused. We had to go in down a week after the failed coup attempt. Two the morning. He said that he couldn’t help us. After weeks after the coup attempt the police made an two months, we learned that our neighbor was an operation to my house in order to take me into undercover police officer. Then a paper, which we custody. have to write our credentials, was put in front of our door by the neighbor. We didn’t sleep during the night. On the following day we left this place. My brother’s friend had a slum. We went there and stayed there about 15 months. We have two children. We couldn’t school them for 2 years. So we were frightened, the neighbors could suspect from our children not going to school and could report the police. One day, we went out with our children. The police came to both places where we sat. Immediately we returned to our house without feeling joy of feast.’ Why they fled to Greece?

‘First of all the police raided my places for the second time. We realized that our right to live in Turkey was completely imperiled with the statutory decree which enables para military groups a license to kill they want. We preferred this difﬁcult way which had the risks of dying and detention. We started this through journey with smugglers who didn’t value the human life. While crossing from the Meric River, we learned that the freedom was a big blessing.’ 57

A.T.S told Politurco that Greece authorities behaved them well. ‘They adopted us with our muddy clothes, they offered us food. They didn’t take any charge. They said: “You are safe.” We asked for calling the authorities after eating and getting warm. Then the ofﬁcers came to take us. Then they held us for a day in custodial prison and migrants camp. The conditions were so bad but they behaved us politely. One of kindness that we also experienced: ‘While going to migrants camp, I tossed my old and muddy pants out. When we arrived the camp, I realized that I had tossed out also our money (1700 Euro) in the pocket of pants. We asked from police to ﬁnd our money. After three hours they brought the money.’

A.T.S told that their next plan was to live in a state where no pressure and tyranny would harm them anymore. “We want to go to a country where we can live humanely, where our children can receive good education, where there is no pressure and tyranny.”

A.T.S , told Politurco that Turkey is now the land of pain and sorrow for them. ‘Unfortunately the darkness in our country still remains. When we hear the name of Turkey, ten thousands of victims, their sorrows and thieves stealing all we had including the future of our children come into our minds.

POLITURCO Team Enforced Disappearance: Cases of Hizmet Movement members and International Law

Abdulmelik Alkan

Moldavian Intelligence Service (SIS) in They all applied to UN protection and asylum in coordination with Turkish intelligence service (MIT) Moldova with the possible risk of illegal abduction to unlawfully and forcefully detained and kidnaped six Turkey. educator Turkish nationals in Moldova on September 6, 2018. Six educators were taken from their homes On March 31, Turgay Sen, director of the Horizon to unknown places later to be extradited to Turkey High School was detained by SIS. He was accused of on the demand of Turkish government. The ﬁnancing terrorism and barred from traveling to another country. After 10 days of hold up, he was detainees have been teachers in private schools released applying political asylum in Moldova opened in 1993 a sign of goodwill friendship otherwise he would be extradited to Turkey to face between Turkey and Moldova. Schools serves torture and inhumane treatment. 1,691 students and employ about 376 personnel from Moldova, Turkey and Albania. Erdogan government pledged to crack down on Hizmet movement members outside of Turkey to Victims are included namely Riza Dogan, director of bring them to Turkey accuses once the largest civil the Durlesti branch of the Horizont school network, society of abortive coup attempt in 2016. Hizmet Hasan Karacaoglu, deputy general manager, Yasin movement publicly denounced the putsch and rejects Ozdil, responsible for public relations at the same the allegations on strongest terms. The recent school, Ahmet Bilgi, director of Ciocana branch of relationship between Turkey and Moldova is highly the school chain and Feridon Tufekci, director of the awkward, especially between two countries leaders. Ceadir-Lunga branch of the network.

Politurco | www.politurco.com Two weeks before Sen’s detained, Igor Dodon, What does International law bodies Moldovan Presidents had a meeting with President Erdogan at Istanbul airport on March 18. Dodon say about the abduction and said they hold a talk about Turkey offer for extradition? renovation of the Presidency building in Chisinau, capital of Moldova. The building was damaged International Convention for the Protection of during the riot in April 2009 that brought the pro- All Persons from Enforced Disappearance came c o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t d o w n . D o d o n to in force in 2010. administration is critized by opposition to sliding in authoritarian course and moving away from the EU On 7 October 2016, committee held a public commitment as EU helps Moldova with financial meeting with member states, Turkey was one of assistance as part of Eastern Partnership the member states vowed the commitment to Framework. Moldova is granted a visa free regime work with committee on the enforced by EU along with Georgia and member of the disappearance, should it be applied to recent Council Europe. USAID also provides huge cases in Turkey, Kosova, Bulgaria, Pakistan, amount of financial assistance to Moldova. Malaysia, Albania, Georgia, Somalia, Mongolia and very recent case in Mongolia. The presidential palace was repaired by Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TIKA) and According to Trial International, Enforced Erdogan was invited to open ceremony on August Disappearance literally means is the act of 27 which was planned on National Day of making someone disappear against his or her Moldova, however the ceremony rescheduled on consent. It therefore refers to the arrest, October. detention or abduction of a person, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the fate of that TIKA is very active in many projects in Moldova, person. recently TIKA organized a 10 days training for the first aid trainers to 2000 Moldovan police force. In Agents of Repressive states use this method to get countries that TIKA is active, cases of abduction rid of their oppositions, with no arrest warrant, no are taken place casts suspicions and call in legal procedure, no charge, no persecution. It is questions regarding its activities. Those countries conducted completely out of law frame and victims happened to be lacking rule of law with unstable find themselves vulnerable to torture, inhuman institution of justice and human rights. In plain treatment and execution. English, money talks and commitment to international law is swept under the rug and International law and other prominent forgotten. International law structures urge states to avoid enforced disappearance on their territory. United Nations Human Rights office of High Concerning the country case in Commissioner (OHCHR) has 45 articles about enforced disappearance and is binding to each European Court of Human rights, member states. Turkey image is not so well, and I am going put down several articles that Turkey and the country helps Turkey for the illegal it is one of the most sued abduction violates. countries with 7500 cases. In Article 1 future, it is expected to be 1. No one shall be subjected to enforced higher with admissible rate. disappearance.

59 2. No exceptional circumstances whatsoever, Article 13 whether a state of war or a threat of war, internal political instability or any other public 1. For the purposes of extradition between emergency, may be invoked as a justification for States Parties, the offence of enforced enforced disappearance. disappearance shall not be regarded as a political offence or as an offence connected Article 2 with a political offence or as an offence For the purposes of this Convention, “enforced inspired by political motives. Accordingly, a disappearance” is considered to be the arrest, request for extradition based on such an detention, abduction or any other form of offence may not be refused on these deprivation of liberty by agents of the State or grounds alone. by persons or groups of persons acting with the Article 16 authorization, support or acquiescence of the State, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the 1. No State Party shall expel, return deprivation of liberty or by concealment of the (“refouler”), surrender or extradite a fate or whereabouts of the disappeared person, person to another State where there are which place such a person outside the substantial grounds for believing that he or protection of the law. she would be in danger of being subjected to enforced disappearance. Article 3 Article 17 Each State Party shall take appropriate measures to investigate acts defined in article 2 1. No one shall be held in secret detention. committed by persons or groups of persons 2. Without prejudice to other international acting without the authorization, support or obligations of the State Party with regard acquiescence of the State and to bring those to the deprivation of liberty. responsible to justice. European Convention on Extradition of Article 4 political offences. Each State Party shall take the necessary Article 3 – Political offences measures to ensure that enforced disappearance constitutes an offence under its criminal law. 1. Extradition shall not be granted if the offence in respect of which it is requested is In case of Hizmet movement members, they have been regarded by the requested Party as a political educators in respective country for over 25 years and offence or as an offence connected with a they have never been committed any offenses. If they political offence. had, then they the article 3 must be applied. 2. The same rule shall apply if the requested Article 5 Party has substantial grounds for believing that a request for extradition for an ordinary The widespread or systematic practice of criminal offence has been made for the purpose enforced disappearance constitutes a crime of prosecuting or punishing a person on against humanity as defined in applicable account of his race, religion, nationality or international law and shall attract the political opinion, or that that person’s position consequences provided for under such may be prejudiced for any of these reasons. applicable international law. 3. The taking or attempted taking of the life of a Turkey is a member states of this Head of State or a member of his family shall convention. As it is aforementioned, all cases not be deemed to be a political offence for the must be opened, as pending cases or subject purposes of this Convention. to hearings in bodies of International law.

Politurco | www.politurco.com 4. This article shall not affect any obligations which the Contracting Parties may have undertaken or may undertake under any other international convention of a multilateral character. EU Charter of Fundamental rights. Article 19 Protection in the event of removal, expulsion or extradition

1. Collective expulsions are prohibited. 2. No one may be removed, expelled or extradited to a State where there is a serious risk that he or she would be subjected to the death penalty, torture or other inhuman or degrading treatment or punishments. Hizmet Movement members’ cases swiftly must be submitted to international human rights bodies against the repressive country and respective country. • UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances • UN Human Rights Committee • U N C o m m i t t e e o n E n f o r c e d Disappearances • European Court of Human Rights • African Commission on Human and Abdulmelik Alkan Peoples’ Rights is a doctoral researcher focusing on International Relations. • Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

61 Politurco | www.politurco.com

In the light of Islamic values, is it war or peace that is essential?

Dr. Ahmet Kurucan

Nicolas Sarkozy, the former president of France, together with three former French prime ministers and the leaders of several French Jewish and Christian organizations, recently released a declaration calling for the removal from the Qur’an of the verses on “the killing and punishing of the Jews, Christians, and inﬁdels.” In total, there were 300 signatories to the declaration. Such actions are a result of misunderstandings about Islam. I will try to address some of these issues in this paper. 63

Jihad and Ambiguity The oldest and simplest classification of jihad The nature and meaning of jihad is one of the known by nearly everyone is the greater and lesser main concepts that has been debated since the early jihad classification. The lesser jihad is the military period of Islamic history, without coming to a struggle which calls for an eye for an eye and blood consensus. While this confusion is not unique to for blood on the battlefields with the enemy; the jihad, it is certainly more complicated than other greater jihad is the fight of the person against his topics of dispute. desires (nafs), which are considered the biggest enemy of mankind. According to the analysis of the Why so complicated? hadith scholars and in respect of the sanad (the The countries that suffered under the effects of certainty of the names who report the hadith), this colonialism played a huge role in defining the term classification, which is attributed to an indisputable jihad, because they used the motivational side of hadith report, is among the historically well- Islam to inspire and mobilize the masses, calling accepted classifications and corresponds to truth their struggle for independence and freedom and reality. “jihad.” There is also evidence supporting this The second classification is that made in four usage of the term, based on verses in the Qur’an different fields: 1) the generation of ideas and and the Prophet’s (PBUH) discourses and actions. knowledge is scientific; 2) the activities which are But this interpretation, which has been used mainly in favor of humanity are social; 3) the fight to reject on the battlefields where military struggles were the desires and wishes which are not welcomed by ongoing, pushed aside the real meaning, content religion is called nafs; and 4) war, meaning jihad in and usage of “jihad” in different fields, and the military field, is a last resort when there is no constrained it within brackets. possibility to live in peace together through After terrorist groups began using the term in diplomatic relationships. 1979, during the Russian occupation of The third classification, made by the great Hanafi Afghanistan—a phenomenon that peaked with the scholar al-Kasani, is one we encounter often in our September 11 attacks—the ambiguity around the books. According to this classification, the heart word “jihad” increased even more. represents the human fight against the devil and Different jihad classifications nafs, while the tongue encourages people towards good things and keeps them away from bad ones. In order to explain the topic better, we should have The hand prevents the existing malignancy and the a look at the basic texts of Islam, and the founding sword represents the fight against the enemy. will which was formed by The Prophet (PBUH). Preventing malignancy is the expertise of the state In the meantime, it is imperative to remind readers and the security forces reinforce this through the that there are three different classifications of jihad law. Otherwise, vigilantism will take over, bringing that exist in traditional Islamic studies. It is very not order, but chaos to the community. important to know these classifications, since they show us on which basis they are accepted, when we It is also very important to have a look at the discuss the verses of the Qur’an and the hadiths at verses of the Qur’an to see how jihad in the military the end of this article. An intensified study of the field was routinely conducted during the life of the founding texts opens the door to different Prophet (PBUH), who served as the messenger of interpretations, since the political, social, cultural Allah between 610-632. There are some parts and economic backgrounds are always changing depicted of the Prophet’s (PBUH) practical life in and improving. It enables us to find its place in the Qur’an. The meaning of this classification is different historical periods, with related Allah’s reflection of His divine will; He intervenes classifications and additions. in the hadith as the “subject” himself, so to speak. Politurco | www.politurco.com

When examining the verses of the Qur’an from The best evidence we have is our method books this point of view, there are hundreds of narratives, for the Qur’an, hadith, kalam, and Islamic law. including those of the battles of Badr, Uhud, and Their interpretation is the subject of many Khandaq; how to treat prisoners of war; the Treaty discussions among experts. of Hudaybiyyah; the conquest of Mecca; expeditions to Mu’ta and Tabuk; slave and A mentality that tries to make every single letter, odalisque law; descriptions of how to perform the every single verse, functional through a totalitarian prayers at war, and many more. approach divorced from its purpose, is troubled. It begets evaluations like “the kalam means the verses A number of these narratives mention the names of the Qur’an and the statements of the Prophet of people living at the time. For example, the (PBUH). Living based on these is better than not Qu’ran mentions that Khawla bint Tha’laba argues living based on them” and “it does not mean that with her husband, Avs ibn al-Samit, and complains the verse was revealed for that particular incident. about this to the Prophet (PBUH). Allah resolves The same provision could be valid for similar this matter with the verse He reveals. This example incidents.” This approach is the starting point of is important in terms of showing the dialectic the declaration in France mentioned at the relationship between the people who lived in that beginning of this paper. community with the presence of divine will. Similarly, the Qur’an mentions that Zayd ibn As a matter of fact, it is quite easy to believe the Haritha divorces his wife, Zaynab, who then evaluations generated by this approach and put marries our Prophet (PBUH). It also mentions a them into words. Moreover, it gives believers a man named Abu Lahab and his wife Umm Jamil, great pleasure to be followers of the last religion. who were hostile towards the Prophet (PBUH). But we face major difﬁculties when we personally These examples make it impossible to envision a try to apply every single verse in the Qur’an to real Qur’an independent from real people, events, and life. For example, the exhortation to “Kill the society in general. polytheists whenever you see them.” Why are we not killing the polytheists despite the fact that the Qur’an has ordered us to do so? Why haven’t Muslims declared war against the polytheists Where does the problem begin? throughout history? Many more questions could be raised and we could go back to the era of the The problem is not with the verses written in Prophet (PBUH). We might say that since it is a the Qur’an, but in the perspectives of direct order in the Qur’an to kill the unbelievers, not killing them makes the Muslims sinners. And Muslims and the way they would like to since the polytheists were actually living in the city- approach the verses. In the most general state of Medina, where our Prophet (PBUH) was sense, some Muslim interpretations of the the head of the city-state, does this fact allow us to say that our Prophet—perish the thought—was a Qur’an are troubled. The way in which they sinner? give meaning and apply the verses to real life How are we supposed to interpret and is wrong. According to one such approach, implement the Surah Al-Mumtahanah which the Qur’an is above history, universal, and all reads, “Allah does not forbid you from those of the verses of the Qur’an that have orders or who do not ﬁght you because of religion and do not expel you from your homes—from bans are always legitimate for every place, being righteous toward them and acting and every human being until the end of time. justly toward them. Indeed, Allah loves those Not everyone thinks like this, however. who act justly”? Should we say it is extinct, meaning it is not valid anymore? 65

Are we going to practice the naskh theory, which could be described as “nullifying a provision of sharia with a subsequent evidence/provision”? Or announcing the nullification of the fifth verse from the Surah At-Tawbah, also known as the “sayf” or “sword” verse, together with the hundreds of other verses which focus on peace? This is the way ISIL thinks. It is, however, an interpretation style. It might provide satisfactory results for some people for particular verses, giving them comfort and a clear conscience. But I must emphasize, considering the importance of the subject, that you cannot interpret the discrepancies in the verses by giving them implicit meanings taken out of context only by using the naskh theory. Hence, the ulama who were aware of this tried different solutions using the concept of preference as well as concepts and interpretations in Islamic law such as taqyid, tahsis, ta’lik, and maqasid. Briefly, taqyid means to limit a provision with an incident and tahsis makes the provision peculiar to an incident, while ta’lik means to link the provision with a condition or a reason. In fact, if all of these concepts are embraced that Allah actually intervened history between 610-632, and would be considered according to the context by concentrating on the lines of “gai” (purpose, teleological) and “maqasid” (wish, intention, aim), and finally if the interpretation is made on this basis, the divine message would serve the purpose of the revelation better than the one mentioned above. Is the subject related to historicism? I would like to note that the ideas I am trying to convey are not related to historicism or the approach which is qualified as historicism. There could, however, be an overlap and this is quite normal. The point I wish to emphasize is that this is an evaluation to understand the very first intellectual efforts towards showing the importance of why the verses were revealed and how they were then interpreted and applied to specific incidents during the ongoing revelation of the Qur’an. Politurco | www.politurco.com

Together, the discourse, actions, and approval of To make it clearer, we should lay emphasis on the Prophet (PBUH) and the verses of the Qur’an the verses that include words derived from the “j- were sufficient, until Islam encountered foreign h-d” roots such as “jihad,” “yucahidi,” “jahid,” cultures bent on conquest. In other words, no new “jahiduu,” “jahd,” “juhd,” “mujahidun,” interpretations were required until the revelation- “mujahidin,” etc. period geography started to be in harmony with the social, political, economic, and moral living As a method, we are going to focus on these conditions. Although the verses and the hadiths verses in the order of their revelation and by the were applied with their implicit meanings to the reason for their revelation. Because any study of problems of the period, when change and their meaning that does not consider when and transformation took decades contrary to rapid why they were revealed is the main reason for the developments nowadays, they mostly provided semantic shift which we are highlighting. Since case-by-case guidance. On occasions where this Allah intervened in the incidents with the verses in was not enough, the ulama stepped in and started question during the revelation period, we need to to look for solutions through the accepted first know and understand what the divine will methodologies. says (not what it intends to say). This is the visible reality of the differences Without a doubt, it is not enough to only know between the “ahl al-ra’y” (the person who reaches a the order of and reason for revelation to conclusion and opinion through better understand the verses correctly. Most of the functionalizing the wisdom, including the verses Qur’an interpretation books, especially the and hadiths, by considering the changing quotation interpretations, mention the related conditions) and “ahl al-hadith” (the person who hadiths, if the reason for revelation is known, but believes in putting the verses and hadiths into they do not provide enough background practice together with their norms and forms, knowledge. However, the background, which without considering the changing conditions). Ahl reveals the social, political, cultural, and economic al-ra’y is a group generally formed by the Hanafis, context surrounding the incidents, is as important Malikis, Maturidis, and Mutazilas, who as the reason for revelation. approached the people by supporting the maqasid Because the verse was revealed specifically al-Shariah (the purposes of the law) and maslahat to refer to, address, or provide advice al-nas (benefits provided by the people) and towards a solution; to give orders; or impose functionalized wisdom, while the group of ahl al- a ban regarding the incident that took place, hadith concentrate more on virtual in the context of that place and time. In this approaches, and believe that the verses and respect, we are obliged to know the Arabic hadiths constitute a fixed answer to the community before Islam in all its aspects. problems faced in daily life. 67

Pushing aside that era by calling it the military, and economic lives of individuals, the “jahiliyyah” (pre-Islamic age of ignorance) era is community, and the state, in consideration of wrong. It is not a correct approach to glorify Islam various kinds of potential incidents and realities. by denigrating the pre-Islamic age with a generalized approach. It is not possible to interpret For example, the people who supported the idea and explain the Qur’an without the data from that the dominant factor must be war in studies of hadiths, history, seerah and maghazi. international relations (such as Imam al-Shafi’i), came to this conclusion on the basis of the belief After understanding what the verses say, the next that non-Muslims always create a frontier against step is to examine what they actually want to say, Muslims, and that they are perpetually fighting a especially to us, in this day and age. The first war against Muslims to exterminate them. source of knowledge is without a doubt the practices of the Prophet (PBUH), and then the When war coincides with the idea that religious interpretations and practices of the ulama identification is the key element in the conflict, throughout history. We are obliged to consider how supporters of this idea can take another step and the matter has been understood and practiced, and identify the cause of war as “blasphemy” and “being what theories were developed around these a non-Muslim.” As a matter of fact, when understandings since the time of the companions of confronted with the counter-argument that the the Prophet (PBUH) until today, which is simply Prophet (PBUH) made an agreement with the called “tradition” in the scientific literature. polytheists, they do not disagree, but show the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah as evidence because it was Perspective of Early Period Ulama only valid for ten years, which they use to defend the argument that a peace treaty cannot be longer Towards War and Peace than ten years. After putting these two elements in the center, Others take the argument even further and say when we check the literature from the Islamic law that to keep the warfare ability of the armies of books we come across many different classifications Islam sharp, war must be declared on those of jihad made by the ulama. The most meaningful countries listed under dar al-harb every ten years. classification to comprehend jihad as a military concept is the one which answers the question, “Is peace or war essential in Islam for international relations?” Could we call this a theory of This doctrine of war must be built on a international relations? Of course, the answer is solid theoretical basis. At this stage, the first yes. We are indeed talking about such a theory. The following concepts both form the building blocks of source that comes to mind is without a the theory and reveal the results of it: “holy war, doubt the Qur’an. The verses of the Qur’an continuous war, war of defense, dhimmi, harbi, dar al-harb, dar al-islam, dar al-sulh, dar al-aman, ahl are classified according to this perspective; aI-harb, ahl al-bagy, hudna (temporary ceasefire thus, the human opinion finds a agreement), jizya.” More importantly, these foundation for justification. So, does this theories were formed around the doctrines over the practices of the Prophet (PBUH) and his mean that the Qur ’an is being companions. instrumentalized? The answer is both yes There are two different opinions with a rough and no. Yes, because the verses could classification in these theories generated by the occasionally be interpreted out of context ulama of the early period: war and peace. The in order to support the theory. Islamic scholars of the time interpreted the concepts in terms of the religious, political, cultural, Politurco | www.politurco.com

The reason for the revelation might be forgotten, wronged” (22/39). However, should the oppressors while the Prophet’s (PBUH) different practices choose peace, the Muslims must accept it. regarding the same matter might be disregarded. But also no, because the actual state designates the 4– Declaration of war when war was allowed in the perspective and methodology. This is the result non-sacred months: “And when the sacred months when the Prophet’s (PBUH) practice matches have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you with the revelation order of the verses. find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if The Verses Classification of the View they should repent, establish prayer, and give That War Is Essential in Islam zakah, let them [go] on their way. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.” The people who support The testing of this classification of the verses the idea that “war is essential in Islam” accept this which read “war is essential in Islam” belongs to verse, which is also known as the “sayf” or “sword” Profesor Talip Türcan. Türcan focuses on the life verse not in self-defense, but as the beginning of a of the Prophet (PBUH) as a whole in his wider offensive war, directed not only against the presentation of “Evolving from War to Peace” at people who fight with the Muslims, but also the the Jihad symposium on 21-22 April 2016 at the people who do not. Centre of Qur’anic Researches (KURAMER). 5– The limitation on war in the sacred months was This reading model is based on both the order of removed, and absolute war was ordered: “Fight and reason for revelation, as well as the tradition. them until there is no [more] fitnah and [until] The theory of this model is “war is essential in worship is [acknowledged to be] for Allah.” The international relations.” Prophet’s (PBUH) statement, “I have been 1– Early Mecca period: “There shall be no instructed not to stop fighting until the people say c o m p u l s i o n i n [ a c c e p t a n c e o f ] t h e ‘La Ilaha Illallah’” is a hadith which supports the religion” (2/256); “Turn away from the polytheists” verse revealed in this period. (15/94). The emphasis on the freedom of religion is dominant here. The command was revealed during Briefly, this is a chronological, text-based reading the time when the balance of power was in favor of made without consideration of the reasons for the polytheists, to announce the religion without revelation and especially the context in which they enforcing it and to avoid any conflict, even verbal. were made. By the end of the classification, Muslims were obliged to fight nonstop and 2– Late Mecca period: “And do not argue with the unconditionally with the infidels and the People of the Scripture except in a way that is polytheists. This total warfare approach was best, except for those who commit injustice among justified when the non-Muslims were at war against them” (29/46); “Invite to the way of your Lord the Muslims. with wisdom and good instruction, and argue with them in a way that is best” (16/125). At this point, So, is this interpretation correct? Could such a the Prophet (PBUH) was living in Mecca and methodology give us correct results over the lines Muslims were equal to the polytheists, and the of maqasid al-Shariah and maslahat al-nas towards command was revealed to have discourse with approaching and interpreting the Qur’an and the both the polytheists and the people of the book. Prophet (PBUH)? If your answer is yes, that And this continued until the hegira. means you are saying just like Imam Al-Sarakhsi, “If the Muslims are not strong enough to fight with 3– After the hegira to Medina: War was allowed their enemies, they can make a peace treaty, for the first time during this period. The people otherwise they cannot.” If you really support this who had oppressed Muslims back in Mecca view, you believe that “not believing” is a cause of continued their oppression in Medina as well. war. Therefore, you have no right to complain Therefore, “Permission [to fight] has been given to about the actions of organizations such as ISIL and those who are being fought, because they were Al-Qaeda, and their acts of terrorism. 69

You could shout “Islam is a religion of war, religion of sword,” just like the enemies of Islam nowadays. With emphasis on the “sayf” verse, hundreds of other verses which focus on peace are abrogated. You could comment on this by saying, “The peaceful relationship of the Prophet (PBUH) throughout his life with non- Muslims and the verses of the Qur’an which instruct us to live by accepting the differences, focusing on peace and pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be kept), are all cyclical.” But if your answer is no, and you say “Different evaluations and readings can be made in accordance with the revelation order, reasons for revelation, the holism of Qur’an, and the practices of the Prophet (PBUH), and further theories can be developed other than war,” then I am with you. Politurco | www.politurco.com

Is peace essential in Islam? not like transgressors” verse, it restrains feelings such as anger, resentment, and hatred which can First, let’s point out the reason for revelation of a form a basis for hostility or hostile behavior. It asks group of six verses (190-195) in the Surah Al- Muslims to guard justice and truth, and to comply Baqarah. At the time, according to the Treaty of with the basics which are included in the law of Hudaybiyyah, the polytheists would allow the war. Muslims to return to Mecca to perform umrah (minor hajj) for three days, starting exactly one Another important point is the phrase, “Fight in year after the Treaty was signed. During these the way of Allah.” This is a theological language three days, the polytheists would leave Mecca. which we can see in many verses of the Qur’an. We When the time came for the first umrah under the are talking about a religion which imposes Treaty, some of the Muslims were concerned principles, provisions and a foundation, based on because of the possibility that the polytheists in real life facts and its book which will be valid until Mecca, who did not recognize the tradition of the end of time. Certainly, the language used in Muslims not fighting during the sacred months, this book will differ from the language used in would try and prevent their entrance into Mecca, political theories, economic doctrines, or legal like the previous year. This is the exact reason why regulations. As a matter of fact, when one this group of six verses was revealed. Especially in speaks of being “In the way of Allah,” it evokes the 195th verse, it was clearly specified that the the almighty and divine purposes in the mind of Muslims should retaliate if the polytheists violated a Muslim. You can observe the same thing the not-attacking rule, and reciprocally to respect within the hadith of the Prophet (PBUH). For the sacred months. Now, let’s take a look at these example, the Prophet (PBUH) was asked who verses in order. would be “in the way of Allah” and show usefulness at war, and he replied, “Whoever wants the word of The meaning of the first verse of the group is: Allah to be the most almighty and the highest.” “Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you but do not transgress (Do not kill the children, women, Interestingly, from this point of view, many and elders). Indeed. Allah does not like scholars throughout history have stated that transgressors.” (2/190). When this verse is Muslims cannot declare war for reasons such as considered together with the reason for revelation, land occupation, passion for the spoils of war, the it is clear that it is referring to a potential incident, urge to outclass, or political power. The remaining which is highly likely to happen. If it actually takes five verses will clearly support this meaning. The place, the verse clearly explains what attitude the reason I said “interestingly” was because Muslims should assume, without leaving room for unfortunately this idealpolitik cannot be put into doubt or hesitation. practice. The process started with the selection of the first caliph after the death of the Prophet The second important point in the verse is the part (PBUH); the incidents that happened in Karbala, which reads, “Those who fight you, skirmish with Siffin, Jamal, and Mihna were the starting points you, and try to kill you in the battlefield.” This of this. verse means that the diplomatic ways to achieve a peaceful solution are no longer available, and the I will discuss the second verse, 191st verse of Surah war has already started. Certainly, in a war which Al-Baqarah, sentence by sentence, but first, let me has already started, the Muslims need to defend give you the whole verse: “And kill them wherever themselves. This is called maqasid al-khamsa, you overtake them and expel them from wherever which means it is legitimate in all religions and they have expelled you, and fitnah is worse than justice systems in general to fight for religion, killing. And do not fight them at al-Masjid al- wisdom, property, lives, and generations. This is Haram until they fight you there. But if they fight what the verse dictates. But afterwards, together you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the with the “but do not transgress. Indeed. Allah does disbelievers.” (2/191) 71

If you interpret this verse and designate policies “Fitnah is worse than killing.” The meanings which for international relations without considering the are attributed to the word “fitnah” are as follows: context and order of and reason for revelation, as “To torture someone, to have them well as the siyaq-sibaq (before-after) relationship apostatized, to inflict cruelty and to oppress, of these sentences with the previous and following to constitute a system of shirk (polytheism), verses—the intra-textual or inter-textual the encroachment of fundamental rights and relationship—you can end up with an liberties, to constitute an environment of war, interpretation like, “Nonstop war with the chaos, cruelty, and oppression with the polytheists is essential and they must be killed conditions provided by the system of shirk wherever they are overtaken.” Those who put war in the center focus on this. Their evidence is the and blasphemy, oppression and cruelty sentence, “Kill them wherever you overtake them.” towards religion, to create an uproar, to create trouble, blasphemy and shirk.” These Actually, this group of six verses was talking about are summarized from their Turkish meanings, and the possibility of a declaration of war during the except the last two, none of them construe the sacred months as a result of the polytheists meaning which is widely used today in Turkey. As violating the rules of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. you know, “fitnah” is seen as one of the “behaviors This was the reason for revelation. Imagine you towards breaking the peace in social life, and had started your journey one year ago to disturbing the unity and solidarity, gossiping, act circumambulate the Ka‘ba, but the polytheists did acting like a hypocrite.” As a matter of fact, the not allow you to enter Mecca, so you had signed an word “fitnah” is used in the Qur’an 34 times in the agreement which appears to be disadvantageous to form of “fitnah” or “al-fitnah,” and an additional 26 Muslims. After one year, you start your journey times in derivative form. In the context in which again for the sole purpose of worshiping Allah, and they were used, the meanings include test, the polytheists declare war on you, ignoring the oppression, suffering and torture, trouble/ rules of the agreement and the holiness of the calamity, perversion, insanity, torment, sin, sacred months. In this case, these verses clarify what the Muslim reaction should be. It states, fighting (war), and chaos. These meanings do “Fight at war, but do not fight to kill at war, fight not include shirk and blasphemy, and for not being killed.” Therefore, since the first nowhere in the Qur’an is “fitnah” used to addressees of the Qur’an already understood these denote shirk or blasphemy. Moreover, there circumstances, this meaning must be included in is no doubt that breaking the rules of haram, our interpretation. Otherwise, the readings which disturbing the peace, and forcing people into are taken out of context will result in us making exile are actually included in the meanings of Allah say things which He did not actually say. fitnah. As a matter of fact, despite the different This is the context of, “Oh believers! Kill them usage in Turkish throughout nearly all of the whenever you face them in the battlefield.” meanings, we could say that this nuance is “Expel them from wherever they have expelled preserved, and the correct meaning is attributed. you.” This sentence already mentions the identity However, this verse is being used in a different of the addressees. Who were the ones who had sense than what we have stated above, since this forced the Muslims to leave their homeland? The change, which happened at the conceptual level, polytheists of Mecca. Who had travelled 500 has become widely accepted and naturally led to kilometers to Medina, for battles like those at Badr, this verse being interpreted and practiced in a way Uhud, and Trench? Again, the polytheists of that is not compatible with the divine intention. Mecca. Therefore, the identity of the enemy was By analyzing the word “fitnah” together with the clear and obvious to the contemporaries of the reason for revelation of the verse, you arrive at a Prophet (PBUH). Politurco | www.politurco.com

more appropriate interpretation: “The the verse individually, then you end up with a oppression, cruelty, and torture they conclusion where you will support that “war is committed against you is worse than killing essential in international relations,” and make it somebody at war.” As a matter of fact, some appear as if Allah stated it. of the glossators interpreted “fitnah” as “To Moreover, even if we approach the verse rule out both the danger of Muslims being individually, and give the first meaning to it, there apostatized, and the risk of the enemy to is no reference to a certain or nonstop war. Giving carry out a mass attack, in order to provide a up attacking means to end the hostility temporarily valid religion and an environment where or permanently based on an agreement, to leave the freedom of religion exists for everybody.” oppression, cruelty and the assaults aside, and to live together with mutual trust on the basis of the The sentences of the last verse read, “And do not rules of the agreement in question. As a matter of fight them at al-Masjid al- Haram until they fight fact, when we look at the Prophet’s (PBUH) life, you there. But if they fight you, then kill them. we are able to see all of these. He, as a head of Such is the recompense of the disbelievers.” (2/191) state, never refused a tribe which had requested The polytheists in the pre-Islamic Arabic peace, and desired to stay neutral and non- communities had attributed holiness to the aggressive on the battlefield and during normal Muharram, Rajab, Dhu al-Qida, and Dhu al-Hijja times. He always accepted the people who asked months and they absolutely refused to fight a war for forgiveness and assurance. He never treated with each other during these months. Moreover, someone who fulfilled their agreements as an even if a person encountered the murderer of his/ enemy. Nevertheless, he did not refuse to fight to her father, s/he would not touch the murderer. This keep religion, wisdom, property, or lives safe, practice, which has roots back to the time of against those who conspired against Muslims. He Abraham, was respected among the pre-Islamic answered traitors, punished those who violated the Arabic community. The Qur’an requested that conditions of their agreements, and retaliated for Muslims respect this prohibition by stating al- attacks that could be considered acts of war. ashhuru’l-hurum and al-shahru’l-haram. Needless Interestingly enough, the view which supports to say, this was valid until the polytheists flouted war as being essential has never evaluated this the ban. group of six verses that instructs peace. They I will provide two interpretations of the third nevertheless developed a doctrine for absolute war verse, Surah Al-Baqarah 192, consecutively, to by idolizing the fourth verse, Surah Al-Baqarah highlight the huge semantic differences between 193: “Fight them until there is no more fitnah and them. The first interpretation approaches the verse until worship is acknowledged to be for Allah. But by ignoring the context and the reason for if they stop denying and incursion, then there is to revelation: “And if they cease (you cease too), be no aggression except against the oppressors.” indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.” The Sayyid Qutb interpreted this verse as “if they stop second interpretation, which takes context and the fighting and infidelity,” thus opening the door to reason for revelation into account, is: “If they interpretations such as blasphemy/shirk, meaning (polytheists of Mecca) cease, you cease too. Indeed, disbelieving, to be an act of war. We can see such Allah is very Forgiving and very Merciful.” approaches in the quotation interpretations throughout history. Which one is correct? Of course the second one. Because, just like we have been pointing out, this I would recall the explanation of the meaning of six-verse group was revealed independently during fitnah regarding the previous verse, “fitnah is worse the “qadha umra” in response to the concerns of the than killing,” which could be summarized as “to Muslims that the polytheists of Mecca might attack oppress, torture, torment against the freedom of them. But if you ignore this context, and approach religion, to encroach upon the basic humanitarian 73 freedom and rights, to start an uproar, to create trouble.” Fitnah prevents people from choosing their desired religion with their free will and living in accordance with their beliefs. “Religion is pertained to Allah, until worship is acknowledged to be for Allah” has the same meaning. This meaning is reinforced in the second sentence of this verse: “But if they stop denying and incursion, then there is to be no aggression…”. Therefore, to make the divine intention more understandable and clear, the verse should be interpreted within the proper context, including the reason for revelation, and the siyaq-sibaq relationship. Thus, we come to the interpretation: “Fight until the polytheists of Mecca stop the oppression and cruelty they are inflicting, and the worshiping is acknowledged to be for Allah, meaning fight against the oppressors and the polytheists who deem the oppression proper, until the people are not exposed to oppression, torment, ordeal, exile, and cruelty. However, if they stop their aggression, and all of the individuals in the community can enjoy freedom of religion, then there is no need to attack them.” Worshiping being acknowledged to Allah does not mean that all of the non-Muslims in the world must be Muslims, contrary to some naïve interpretations. The essence of the verse is very important. Allah says: “You should know that hostility is to be shown only towards aggressive oppressors.” The use of “zalimun” (oppressors) is critical. Instead of this, the Qur’an could have said “mushrikun/kafirun” (polytheists/infidels), and then the ones who state that the act of war is blasphemy or shirk would be right with their literal interpretations. However, although the ones who inflict cruelty and oppression are infidels, the verse does not emphasize their infidel identity, but rather their identity as oppressors. And this is a very clear evidence which explains that belief or disbelief—in other words, religious identity—is not an act of war. Nevertheless, the ones who say that blasphemy is an act of war are right about one point: nearly all of the oppressors who deemed the oppression correct were infidels or polytheists, and they all fought war against Muslims. Politurco | www.politurco.com

The fifth verse, Surah Al-Baqarah 194, reads: To give an example, during the conquest of “[Fighting in] the sacred month is for [aggression Istanbul, a companion reads the verse “do not let committed in] the sacred month, and for [all] your own hands throw you into destruction” violations is legal retribution. So whoever has to persuade someone who attacks the enemy assaulted you, then assault him in the same way without taking any security measures, to stop that he has assaulted you. And fear Allah and know this behavior. In military terms, it is a correct that Allah is with those who fear Him.” warning, and you could say that he is attributing Given both the reason for revelation and the this warning to the verse of the Qur’an. However, contextual information previously provided, the the meaning attributed to this verse is taken out of meaning of this verse should be clear. context, and disconnected from its intended The sixth verse, Surah Al-Baqarah 195, states: purpose. As a matter of fact, His Highness Abu “The effort, struggle and fighting you are Ayyub al-Ansari corrects this mistake, and says: forced to face shall not be without expenses. “We asked the Prophet (PBUH) to let us remain Therefore, help with your belongings for this with our properties when Islam and the Muslims cause, meaning in the way of Allah. Do not let gained enough power in Medina. That was when your own hands throw you into destruction by this verse was revealed.” Thus, he prevented a huge means of not providing this help. Whatever semantic shift and a misunderstanding of Allah’s you do, bear in mind that Allah sees everything intentions. you do and how you do, and do them the best The key word in the second sentence of the way you can. Indeed, Allah loves those who verse mentioned above is “goodness”. bear in mind that Allah always sees what they Goodness means being conscious towards the do, and do them the most beautiful way they relationships between Allah and a person, can.” between two people, and between a person In my opinion, this is the clearest and most and an animal, keeping in mind that one will explanatory interpretation when taking the context answer to Allah in the afterlife; should do into account. The verse does not refer to an good to others and act fair and accurately; be absolute help, but it guides Muslims towards how forgiving, generous, and courageous. to finance the war, which is legitimate and must be Goodness, which is used more than 70 times as a done fairly. It clearly refers to the fact that Muslims name, verb, or infinitive in the Qur’an, covers all must provide this financing through material the meanings relating Allah’s and people’s behavior. sacrifices. Furthermore, stinginess in this respect Considering the rich meaning of the word will threaten the safety of the religion, wisdom, goodness, it gives guidance in light of the fact that property, lives, and the whole generation. The one will answer to Allah in the afterlife, to act fairly people must provide everything with their own and balanced both in peace and at war. Thus the hands, to protect the right to life and the safety of interpretation is given to involve both meanings. their properties. This process would naturally affect future generations. Failure to provide adequate In this paper, we have seen how those who support financing would mean a return to the time of peace as essential to international relations oppression, cruelty, torment, and torture towards answered the verses about jihad that are cited as living and believing in the religion. A war without justification for the view that war is essential. financial support, and the absence of the material According to them, by approaching the group of six preparations which require financial expenses verses focused in the fifth phase between the 190th before and during the war, will definitely result in a and 195th verses of Surah Al-Baqarah, without due defeat on the battlefield. The Qur’an uses the consideration of their context, reason for theological language used when we explained the revelation, and siyaq-sibaq, one cannot accurately words “In the way of Allah,” together with the state that these verses abrogated the previous sentence, “Help in the way of Allah, be generous.” peace-themed verses. 75

It is not correct to interpret the meaning of the verses as, “kill them wherever you see them, fight them until there is no more fitnah and until the worship is acknowledged for Allah”, or that a “nonstop and constant state of war against the infidels and polytheists is essential in Islam in international relations; blasphemy and shirk are acts of war.” Such a Norms and realpolitik are the verses which political theory or doctrine of war cannot be provide tangible solutions for the incidents built upon these verses. The verses do not that happened during the revelation period, support this view. I believe that the evidence while idealpolitik represents the values, provided by the ones who focus on peace is policies, and principles obtained as a result stronger, and for this reason I have added of studying the Qur’an and the verses about my comments when I quoted their points of jihad with a totalitarian approach. “Islam is view. a religion of war” or “Islam is a religion of That being said, could you say that Islam is a peace” are more like slogans, instead of religion of peace and peace is essential in scientific statements. Such stereotypical international relations? Could you say that reductionist discourses form a big obstacle the verses which instruct Muslims to go to towards understanding the true nature of war are the verses which provided solutions the religion. War and peace are political for political problems at the time of matters regarding international relations. In revelation, and even though one cannot say this respect, it is the administrators’ duty to they were abrogated, fighting is only limited determine policies according to the to self-defense? conditions they are living in. Idealpolitik prioritizes peace, which must be the case. However, depending on the situation, a war Conclusion: might be fought as well. Therefore, a more appropriate interpretation of Islamic values Since the jihad verses are present in the would be a balanced politics of peace. Qur’an, is it not possible to ground the theory of war or peace on the verses of the Qur’an? Of course it is possible, but only Dr. Ahmet Kurucan under the condition that we do not forget the is an author and expert on Islamic Law. relationship between facts and norms, or between realpolitik and idealpolitik. A Theological Examination of the Hadith, “War is Deception”

Prof. Zeki Saritoprak

Recently, a hadith which can be translated as: “War Most hadith scholars believe that khad’a is the more is deception [or strategy],” has been circulated accurate pronunciation. It is definitely not unending among some political Islamist groups as a justification permission for lying, breaking promises or for lying, stealing, or not fulfilling agreements. This agreements, or stealing people’s money. Thus using hadith is generally understood literally without this hadith for these purposes is a distortion of the reference to its historical use by Muslim jurists, hadith. theologians, and other scholarly personalities. Therefore the way that it is most often used today is Prohibition of Misuse of Trust and Lying in problematic and misleading. Thus, it is necessary that Islam this hadith should be examined and elaborated upon based on the principles of Islamic theology. In this In the history of Islam, there are many stories which article, my goal is to examine the hadith, what is prohibit the misuse of trust or of lying. One example meant by the hadith, and the meaning of the hadith in comes from the time of Umar, the second caliph. the overall theological teachings of Islam. Umar said that “I have heard that some men among you look for [the enemies’] champions and while the To begin with, it is important to look at the grammar enemies run to hide in the mountains, they [the men] of the hadith itself. The word that is used in this say to the enemy, ‘Don’t be afraid.’” By this, hadith is ambiguous. In Arabic, there are two words Umar was saying that the men of his army that have the same consonants, but two different were saying to the enemy that they would not v o w e l l i n g s w h i c h l e a d s t o t w o d i s t i n c t pronunciations. One is khud’a and the other khad’a. be harmed and because of this the enemy These have similar meanings, but the later has a troops gave themselves up only to be killed by connotation of a only being a onetime situation. the men of Umar’s army.

Politurco | www.politurco.com Umar considers this a treachery and he says: “By the One in whose hands is my soul, if I hear that The Prophet spoke the truth, always. anyone has done this, I will chop off his head.” In As al-Tirmidhi narrates under the another narration, found under the subtitle of fulfilling agreements, Umar says: “By the One in subtitle, “On Joking,” the Prophet whose hands is my soul, if one of you points with himself said, “I do not speak except his finger to the sky [a gesture of trust] for a nonbeliever, then the non-believer comes to him the truth.” It is further believed that based on this gesture, then the man kills the non- the Prophet never even betrayed any believer, I will kill him for that,” i.e. the penalty in agreement unless it had been broken this case for misusing someone’s trust is death. by the other party first. As a leader Instead, what is to be understood from the hadith, though, there were circumstances “war is deception,” is that during times of war, a Muslim army or the community more broadly, even when it behooved him to choose his if they are weak, they can pretend that they are words carefully. In such instances, he strong. This should be done so that they do not encourage the enemy to attack them. By describing would use something called war as deception or trickery, the Prophet referred tawriyya. Tawriyya means to say to such a strategy. This is part of the wisdom of the something in a way that could have Prophet because the wise person should know how to deal with the enemy to reduce casualties as much multiple meanings. as possible and therefore in fact prevent war, which is considered a noble deed in Islam. Though a The story of Abraham is given as an example of certain level of trickery is allowed as a means of this. When Abraham went to Egypt with his wife self-defense, out-and-out treachery is prohibited in Sarah, the pharaoh asked who was with him. Islam. For example, in application of this hadith, in Abraham said it was his sister meaning was his order to discourage an attack from an enemy, a sister in religion, i.e. all believers are brothers and country could pretend to be more powerful or sisters in religion, rather than giving him the direct technologically advanced than they are in reality. answer. Such ways of speaking are tawriyya. The Prohibition of Treachery Is a Very Important Principle of Islam There are several hadith narrations that show the Prophet himself using tawriyya. For instance, The prohibition of treachery is a very important during his preparations for the Battle of Badr, some principle of Islam. There is a famous hadith found pagans saw him and his companions. The pagans in al-Bukhari which clearly states that treachery, asked the Prophet from where they came and the breaking promises, lying, and deviating from justice Prophet responded, “we are from water.” The for the purpose of arguing are considered among people who asked them looked at each other and the behaviors of hypocrites. In it, the Prophet says: said: “There are so many tribes in Yemen, perhaps “Anyone who has these four characteristics, this this is one of them.” These pagans had understood person is a pure hypocrite. Anyone who has one of that the Prophet and his companions were from a these characteristics has a characteristic of tribe called water, but the Prophet, meant that they hypocrisy until he abandons that characteristic. were created from water as it says in the Qur’an: When he is entrusted, he betrays; when he speaks, “let human beings look at what they are created he lies; when he promises an agreement, he f r o m , t h e y a r e c r e a t e d f r o m g u s h i n g breaches [it]; when he argues, he deviates from the water” (86:5-6). The Prophet used this language truth.” It should be noted here that theologically because if the people who asked them knew they speaking, hypocrisy is worse than disbelief because were of the Quraysh tribe, they might have been disbelief is apparent whereas hypocrisy is not. killed.

77 Similarly, Abu Bakr, the closest friend of the The permissible one is when it is used in the way of Prophet and the ﬁrst caliph, used tawriyya. When tawriyya.” a group of caravans saw the Prophet and Abu Bakr There have been a few Muslim theologians and during their migration to Medina, they recognized jurists, such as al-Nawawi, who have said that the Abu Bakr, but they did not recognize the Prophet. apparent meaning of the hadith shows that direct They asked Abu Bakr who he was with and he lying in these three situations is allowed. However, responded: “He is my guide.” Abu Bakr meant that even al-Nawawi says that tawriyya is still better the Prophet was guiding him to the truth and to the and preferable. Thus, while lying in these three path or righteousness, but he used language in such occasions is religiously allowed, because of the a way that the caravans thought that he meant a weakness of human beings lying even in these guide to guide him through the desert. He did this permitted circumstance could lead to a greater as, if the caravan drivers reported their location to casualness regarding lying, the majority of Islamic the Meccans, they could be harmed. All these scholars have favored using tawriyya even in these examples show that even in a time of great situation because lying is strictly prohibited. vulnerability, neither the Prophet nor his companions attempted to distort the truth.

Circumstances Where Lying Is Allowed The Qur’an says: “Cursed are those who lie” There is a hadith that suggests that in three (51:10). Similarly a hadith strongly situations, a form of lying is allowed. This is called “lying for maslaha.” Maslaha is a technical word prohibits lying. The Prophet says: that can be used to indicate that something is done “Truthfulness leads to goodness and for the welfare of something else. The ﬁrst situation goodness leads to Paradise. A person in which lying for maslaha is allowed is to reconcile two individuals by, for instance, saying to one that continues to be true until he is written in the other is speaking kindly of the other even if this the sight of God, as al-siddiq [the truthful]. is not the case. This is done to make the two people And lying leads to evil and evil leads to closer to reconciliation. The second situation is to please one’s spouse with words that might not be hell. A person continues to lie until he is true. It is permissible for a husband to tell his wife written in the sight of God as a real liar.” that she is the most beautiful person to him, even if it is not objectively true. Forms of ﬂattery like this are allowed. The third instance is during war. For Tawriyya can also be action oriented. A hadith example, if the enemy asks, “Where is the location narrated by Abu Huraira demonstrates this. There of the armory?” and an individual says that he or was a man who was being treated very badly by his she does not know even if he or she does know, it is neighbor and this man went to the Prophet and permissible. While the hadith gives permission for complained about his neighbor. The Prophet said: this type of lying, the majority of Islamic scholars “Go [home] and be patient.” He came again and have said that even in such situations, individuals again and on the third time the Prophet said: “Go should use tawriyya and not direct lying. In lying and take out your property and put them on the there is always disgrace and shame and these road.” He did as the Prophet recommended and should not be the behaviors of believers. In his people started asking him why he was doing this. commentary on this hadith under the subtitle He informed them that his neighbor was treating “Protection of the Tongue,” al-Bayhaqi after him badly. The people started to criticize the narrating several opinions, he references al- neighbor. Eventually the man’s neighbor came to Hulaymi, who is known as the head of the him and said to him: “Go and put your property theologians, who says: “even this permission is not back, you will never see any bad treatment from me for a direct lying because direct lying is not after this.” In doing this, the man was practicing permissible under any conditions. tawriyya.

Politurco | www.politurco.com Actions that are considered tawriyya also can take place in war such as deceiving the enemy into thinking one’s army is traveling in one direction when in reality it is going in another direction. Lying is evil in its nature. It cannot be the behavior of a Muslim there are many hadith that demonstrate this. For instance, ‘Aisha, the wife of the Prophet narrates: “There was no behavior more disgusting to the companions of the Prophet than lying.” ‘Aisha also narrates that the most disgusting behavior to the Prophet was lying. Further in another narration the Prophet says: “I guarantee a palace in the middle of Paradise for the one who abandons lying even in jest. And I guarantee a palace in the highest of Paradise for those who have beautiful ethics.” Because of the importance of truth in the Islamic community and the Qur’an’s constant insistence on truthfulness, modern scholars, such as Bediüzzaman Said Nursi, when asked what a person needs more than anything else, have responded truthfulness. In fact, Nursi said when asked what was next he said, “not to lie” and then he said: “The essence of faith [iman] is truthfulness.” He argues that the reasons for the stagnation of the Islamic community vis-à-vis the West are several diseases, one of the most significant of which is the death of truthfulness in the social and political lives of Muslims, alongside a love for animosity. He goes even further saying: ‘Throughout my life experience and the ups and downs of the social life, the essence and the summation of social life has taught me that truthfulness is the essential foundation of Islam. It is the bond of all high moral qualities and it is the disposition of high level feelings. Therefore, we must revive truthfulness and honesty which are the essential foundations of our social life among us to cure our spiritual diseases. Yes, truthfulness and honesty are the knot of life in the social life of Islam. Pretentiousness is a kind of lying through actions. Adulation and pretension are a shameful level of lying. Hypocrisy and deceit are harmful lying and lying itself is slandering the power of the Most-Majestic Creator.’ Because of this, Nursi says that even if historically there were some permissions for lying for maslaha, time has nullified that permission and what Muslims need most today is truthfulness because this is the essence of Islam. 79 In sum, it is clear that the hadith, “War is deception,” is not the blanket justification for treachery, deceit, lying, theft, and other un-Islamic acts in times of war or conflict. Deception in this case is a very specific set of words or actions that are done which do not violate the spirit of the prohibition of lying in Islam. It is a strategy and tactic that may be used in war when there are no other good options. The ways that many political Islamist use this idea are in violation of the meaning of the hadith and as such go against the basic Prof. Zeki Saritoprak teachings of the faith and run counter to is Professor in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies and Director of the the spirit of honesty and trustworthiness Bediuzzaman Said Nursi Chair in Islamic that are core principles of Islam. Studies, at John Carroll University.

Politurco | www.politurco.com Instrumentalization of Islam: Hayrettin Karaman’s Role in Erdogan’s Despotism Dr. Bulent Kenes

The world no longer has just a Recep Tayyip other actors who share responsibility for this process of Erdogan problem. It also has a problem with Turkey, authoritarianism? because what the Islamofascist Erdogan regime The actors and motives behind this transformation of stands for is now standing before us in the guise of Turkey from a country exporting stability into a source Turkey. Mr. Erdogan’s despotic approach, which of chaos that destroys global peace and stability, can be omits democracy, human rights, individual freedoms, illuminated in many ways. Through various the rule of law, humanitarian values, moral principles explanations of the situation, other names and groups and human dignity has ﬁnally permeated Turkey can share the responsibility for the current regression of with all of its institutions and norms. democracy and humanity alongside Mr. Erdogan. But How did Turkey come to this terrible point? in this article, I will try to address the role played by Is it correct to put all the responsibility for the political instrumentalization of Islam, as the this catastrophe on the shoulders of Erdogan most important hallmark of political Islamism, in alone? Could we accuse only Mr. Erdogan of the establishment of Mr. Erdoğan’s despotism. ruining Turkey’s image as a model country that In this, I will explore how theologian and author is trying to harmonize Islam and democracy Hayrettin Karaman is playing a determining role in this and reconcile fundamental rights and freedoms process. Undoubtedly, the choice to use Mr. Karaman with religion, and turning it instead into the as an example will not come as a surprise. He is seen as worst dictatorship in the Middle East? If all the a role model by the conservative circles of Turkey and guilt is not shouldered by Mr. Erdogan, who are the enjoys inﬂuence over Mr. Erdogan.

81 Mr. Karaman’s penetration of the political Islamists’ circles and the misuse of his religious authority as well as the “fatwas” that he issues on a personal basis, along with his instrumentalization of the principles of Islam for power purposes, sometimes converting them to the contrary, play a considerable role in this selection. Neither the politicization of Islam nor its political instrumentalization is new. Starting from the Omayyads and the political needs of the Caliphate, the principles of Islam were instrumentalized in line with the demands of rulers during the Abbasid, Seljuk and Ottoman periods. Among the most typical and tragic examples of this instrumentalization were the massive killings of Alawites in the period of Yavuz Sultan Selim and the religious fatwas allowing the murder of the royal siblings in the period of Fatih Sultan Mehmet. The point is that, ontologically, the emergence and current state of political Islam is actually nothing more than an instrumentalization shaped in flesh and bone. The political instrumentalization of Islam is a tremendous threat, as seen in the legitimization of the suicide attacks by radical Islamist terrorist organizations such as HAMAS, al-Qaeda, and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), despite the fact that Islam sees “the killing of an innocent as the killing of the whole mankind” according to the Between 2001 and 2004, he served as a guest Quran. From this point of view, it is easier to lecturer at the European International Islamic understand the menace posed by Mr. Karaman’s role University in the Netherlands. Mr. Karaman, who which abets the inhuman actions taken by the had written quite a few books regarding Islamic Islamofascist Erdogan regime, including the ever- law and Islam in general, was also on the advisory increasing persecutions, the results of which are committee of a number of Islamic organizations. impossible to predict. He wrote periodical articles for Yeni Safak Daily, a political Islamist newspaper, starting from its So who is Hayrettin Karaman? What first issue in the late 1990s. The religion-related rhetoric and actions prompt a comparison articles in this newspaper, the contents of with HAMAS, al-Qaeda and ISIL? which suited the needs of the political conjuncture, were always considered as According to the information on his personal website, Mr. Karaman was born in Turkey’s Çorum province in political fatwas, aiming to instrumentalize 1934 and graduated from Imam Hatip School in Konya Islam in favor of Erdogan’s political power. in 1959, at the age of 25 and from the High Islamic What makes Mr. Karaman’s instrumentalization Institute of Istanbul in 1963. After 1975, the year of of Islam more significant and more meaningful transformation of High Islamic Institutes into Faculties than the others, is the religious work he of Theology, he rose to the rank of professor. In 2001, performed in the period when religious people when the pressure on the universities increased during were under pressure, as well as his proximity to the February 28, 1997, post-modern coup process, he the victims at the time and the related left his position at the Marmara University’s Faculty of impersonization by them. Theology.

Politurco | www.politurco.com He played a dominant role in paving the way for all of the inhuman, uncivilized and unlawful actions taken by the current despotic regime in Turkey, by means of instrumentalizing Islam. Mr. Karaman himself actually admitted his influence on the Erdogan regime in an article: “The government does not take fetwas or anything from me. Turkey is not an Islamic republic that is ruled by fetwas, but a country ruled by the civil democratic constitution and laws… Since the Islamic jurisprudence is my field of expertise, when my articles, written in view of the Islamic jurisprudence, are seen by some of the Muslims, that trust me, as fetwas, and nobody can object that.” (Yeni Safak, November 29, 2013). The problem is that the president, prime minister, ministers and high profile bureaucrats are all among “some of the Muslims” that see his articles as fetwas. Moreover, Mr. Karaman’s influence on this subject is not only due to his own efforts. On the contrary, he managed to increase his political role exponentially with the help of Turkey’s Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet), which controlls more than 90,000 mosques and more than 120,000 imams across the country, as well as the theological community—mostly consisting of people who see him as a role model—Islamic His work was pursued with interest communities and orders. He secured the instrumentalization of Islam and its influence on the by large conservative circles, conservative circles of Turkey by placing the “Islamic thanks to its relatively libertarian shield” over Mr. Erdogan’s discretionary and despotic stance, which earned him respect even politics, which are contrary to the principles of democracy and universal jurisprudence, as well as to the among different social groups at the universal message of Islam. Mr. Karaman did this at the time. The “legitimizer role” he played expense of betraying Islam and his own scientific in the process of increasing despotism, authority. which was closely followed by the It should come as no surprise that in this process there is a significant role played by the Muslim masses who political Islamist cadres, mostly are not able to differentiate between Islam and Islamism, consisting of his former students, Islam and Muslim, or Islamic principles and conjectural was vital. Mr. Karaman mobilized his political thoughts allegedly based on Islam. However, as expressed in one of the writings of theologian and social and scientific credits in service author Ahmet Kurucan, “It is not enough for a of Mr. Erdogan’s Islamofascist regime, thought being allegedly divine-based, to be through the fetwas he gave by writing actually divine. Therefore, it is wrong to say that articles on controversial issues on the the principles of Islamic jurisprudence, which consists [sic] of the thoughts/juridical principles/ political agenda. solutions/laws created by people is divine.”

83 This analysis is even more meaningful where Playing a role of a “faqih,” he produced the theologians like Mr. Karaman betray their scientific necessary solutions (!) by interpreting Islam to the authority and use religion to cover the use of benefit of the political power whenever required. amoral and inhuman methods if required by the The restriction of fundamental rights and political powers. freedoms, violation of privacy, intervention in The political adventure of the ruling Justice private life, crushing or destroying minority groups and Development Party (AKP) is closely on questionable grounds, such as in the “interest of connected with the process of Mr. Karaman’s the majority”, as well as crimes such as bribery, transformation from a respectable siphoning and plundering of funds and corruption, personality to an apparatus of the Erdogan are all legitimized by a sort of “religious parallel law” by some theologians or clerics, including Mr. regime, by bending Islamic principles into Karaman. any shape needed by the political power. Indeed, it is almost impossible to reconcile the In democratic and liberal constitutional states, positions taken by Mr. Karaman in the period when citizens are free in their private lives as long as they socio-political reforms targeting a more civilized, do not harm others. Privacy must not be teased out pluralist and democratic future were applied in the or invaded unlawfully. In the same way as this scope of the European Union membership process contemporary law, Islamic law also respects with those he has taken since 2011. privacy and private life. However, if you look at what was said and done by the political powers This radical change must be directly connected regarding the discussion in 2013 of “student homes with the new objectives verbalized by Aziz for girls and boys,” it will become clear that the Babuşcu, the Istanbul Provincial Chairman of the current situation is somewhat different. Then- AKP that time, on April 1, 2013: Prime Minister Erdogan literally declared a war on “The ones, who were our partners of any kind in this type of accommodation, preferred by a small the 10-year period of power, will not be our minority of the adult university students, launching partners in the next 10 years. The reason is, in the a discussion in Turkey that lasted for weeks. Like past 10 years some of the partnerships made in the similar theologians, Mr. Karaman immediately tried identification and liquidation process related to the to legitimize Mr. Erdogan’s archaic and freedom, law and justice rhetoric. No matter how interventionist style. much they despaired us, let us say that the liberal Mr. Erdogan, focused on raising a so-called segments were our partners in this process. “religious generation”, significantly increased However, the future is the period of construction, pressure, especially on the university youth, in the and this period will not be what they desire it to be. year 2013. A private life-related article written by That is why those partners will not be with us. The Mr. Karaman which opened the way for Mr. ones, who in this or that way walked next to us Erdogan to behave in an anti-democratic way, in yesterday, tomorrow will walk next to the forces opposition to basic rights and freedoms, was a that are opposite to us. Because the Turkey to be warning sign: built and the future to be established will not be the future and the period they will be able to accept.” “The government could not protect the behaviours, practices and relations that are not Long before Mr. Babuşcu’s statement, however, preferable for the majority and seen by them as Mr. Karaman was one of the main actors in dangerous, ugly, illegal…. If a situation is seen legitimizing all kinds of unlawful, arbitrary and by the majority as immorality, disgrace, discretionary prosecution as a part of establishing dishonor, shame, sin (adultery), lowness, what is this “political Islamist future.” Mr. Karaman, who going to happen? I will tell you: The society had not previously expressed any problems with (apartment, neighborhood, environment …) will the country’s legitimate Constitution, now turned react on it, will somehow interfere in the ugly himself into a source of “parallel law” in favor of situation, will restrain the neighborhood. the political power.

Politurco | www.politurco.com In another article, written at a time when Mr. Erdogan had not yet managed to totally consolidate The ones oppressed will ask for help, using his despotism, Mr. Karaman expressed his views on the media and state institutions, the media majoritarian democracy as follows: “…The only will be shaken, and the state institutions means of coming to power in the multi-party democracies are ballot boxes, the votes. If a trying act tolerant… So what is the government is doing something that the majority solution? In my opinion the solution does not want, there is almost an absolute risk of losing the following election. That is why the number one is to establish a democratic governments (state) do not want to take measures order basing on Islam in a society which like, for example, freedom of abortion, legitimization consists of people who are “Muslim” of gay marriages. …Oh, there may be the ones saying ‘it should not be like this, let the individual almost 100 percent. The political power rights be granted and protected, let the majority not should not attempt to apply politics against morally impose the minority and individuals…’ No this regime, even if people insisted on the one prevents them from saying that, everybody says what they want to say, I also say what I want to liberal democracies; the individuals should, say” (Yeni Safak, November 15, 2013). for the sake of the majority they always The problem is that there is a radical need, willingly restrain from some of their difference in impact between what the others freedoms. If they still do not restrain, the say and what Mr. Karaman says. Things that measures such as at least a neighbourhood Mr. Karaman says are somehow turned into the oppressive actions of the Erdogan regime. pressure becomes the right of the majority” Or the opposite, Mr. Karaman prepares a basis (Yeni Safak, November 8, 2013). to retroactively legitimize the oppressive actions of the Erdogan regime as if they were based on Islam. At that time, I wrote an article on this subject, Another expression of how Mr. Karaman published in the Today’s Zaman daily (a newspaper understands individual rights is as follows: “The closed by the Erdogan regime in 2016). In my article, individuals who are deceiving the religious and moral for which both the printed and digital archives have values based on freedom, not respecting and openly been destroyed, I asked the question: “Can this violating them have to face the consequences of this, advice given by Mr. Karaman in order to defend the too…. So, in order for this not to happen, whether behaviour of the current political power by claiming there are limitations in legislation or not, the social that it based on the Islamic principles, be used in the life brings limits to the freedoms, the free individuals European countries, in Myanmar or similar places must not use their freedoms to the utmost” (Yeni where Muslims are minority?” Safak, December 20, 2013). Mr. Karaman’s writings related to where and how The words used by Mr. Karaman on the enmity of young adults aged 18 and older should live appeared the Gülen movement after the corruption and bribery at the same time as Mr. Erdogan’s focus on university scandal of December 17-25, 2013, in order to open youths. “If an unmarried pair live in the same house, the way for mass dismissals and witch hunts and or if girl and boy students are staying together, or if legitimize future persecutions, are telling: “The clause there are activities considered dangerous for the 26 of our “Mecelle” (Ottoman Code of Civil Law), if state, those houses can be supervised, restrained and you translate it to the modern language to be illegal acts banned, perpetrators punished by the understood by youth, says that ‘Damage to a region state according to Islam” (Yeni Safak, November 10, or group is acceptable when it is to prevent damage 2013). Does this invasive approach have any to the public and community” (Yeni Safak, definition other than fascism? December 19, 2013). 85 Mr. Karaman’s reference to the Mecelle, which was My answer is: if the people that you encourage and used during the Ottoman period, but not to the dispatch are Muslims, and they would not help if Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, says a lot. you do not encourage them or then help with the As it was expected, this fetwa given by Mr. expectation of the charity will open the way of new Karaman was understood by the Erdogan regime tenders, it will not be accepted as a good deed. But as “you can destroy all of the organizations and in case of the charity organizations are recorded persons connected with the Gülen movement in and transparent, they can benefit from this your. There is no problem with that in regard of donations; because there is no such issue of forcing Islam.” This was not only understood in this way, and oppressing them, and they have no information but corresponding actions were taken immediately. about the donor who gives money under pressure. Thousands of organizations and personal assets If a public tender is given to one that is going to were confiscated, more than 160,000 people were help but “not being worthy, competent, best, most dismissed from their posts, hundreds of thousands affordable, most useful to the public,” it will be a of others were taken into custody and imprisoned betrayal” (Yeni Safak, December 27, 2013). in a discretionary manner and thousands of people As it is seen, instead of drawing a thick line were tortured, while thousands of others were between the charitable (!) businessmen forced to leave Turkey to escape oppression and seeking unlawful public tenders and their persecution. charity deeds (!), through his deliberately In order to whitewash Süleyman Arslan, the complicated expressions, Mr. Karaman has former General Director of Halk Bank, chosen the way of religiously legitimizing the whose investigation regarding the violation theft, corruption and bribe-taking by the of international sanctions against Iran was power holders using the public facilities. moved to the US after $4.5 million in bribe Regarding the dissidents criticizing the corruption money were found in his house, Mr. Karaman and bribery scandal of 2013, Mr. Karaman wrote, said that “corruption is not theft.” In addition, “The people that organized the Gezi events and he wrote that, “It is worrisome to see the seizures of things like that are all enemies of the nation and the money collected by those for charity by considering state. For the state and nation lovers, it’s them as problem at a time when the Muslims are unthinkable to support these. Now we have Mr. more free and relaxed and they are helping charity Erdogan against whom they turned their weapons; organizations and religious services. Accusing the I pray for him and his honorable friends to be ones who contributed and their mediators for protected by Allah, and I advise all the lovers of the falsifications and theft is engrossing. Irregularities nation and the sacred deeds to be an instrument may be in collecting, recording and storing of and helpful for this protection” (Yeni Safak, money for charity, nobody wants that to happen, December 22, 2013). however irregularity is one thing, and making charity and service givers to regret is another Mr. Karaman continues to instrumentalize thing” (Yeni Safak, December 29, 2013). Using the Islam to legitimize illegal, despotic practices religious arguments in this article, Mr. Karaman from plunder of private properties to managed to justify bribers and bribe-takers, both destruction of people’s lives, from bribes to cursed by Islam, and to recompense them with the taking commissions from public tenders, and title ‘benevolent.’ from mass persecution to the killing of

In another article on the procedures for providing Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu, an alternative politician direct and indirect bribes, Mr. Karaman said the preferred by the nationalist conservative segments following: “Not directly to me, but many people of society where Mr. Erdogan also has his political asked, if there is a problem when directing the roots. people who are reasonably and legitimately In an article published on March 18, 2018, Mr. winning the public tenders to use their proﬁts help Karaman wrote that, “In order to make the Islamic the charity organizations.

Politurco | www.politurco.com life to survive (because of absolute necessity), it was But not even that was enough for Mr. Karaman; in an allowed for those Islamic scholars to give fetwas and article dated May 4, 2018, he equated the words to become jurists and the head of state despite of the “necessity” and “need,” as if he does not know that fact that they are not eligible to interpret Islam.” “need” is a relative thing changing from society to With these words, he alleged that power holders, society, from person to person, from period to period. including presidents, are authorized to make Taking a step forward, he also equated “public religious interpretations and adjust religious interest” and “necessity,” thereby allowing the principles according to the political needs of the state to confiscate private properties using time. In this way, he has tried to give the impression “public interest” as a pretext. that all of Mr. Erdogan’s decisions and actions have a religious basis. In the same article, Mr. Karaman asked: “If the necessity forces someone to disseise the people’s By distorting Islamic principles, Mr. property, that is permissible for him/her; moreover, if Karaman has tried to legitimize all the acts of one thinks he may die because of hunger, cold or heat, oppression and persecution carried out by the it becomes a necessity (more than permissible) to Islamofascist Erdogan regime targeting both disseise the property of others in order to meet his/her the Gülen and the Kurdish political needs. If that is necessary to protect the life of one movements. Thus, as if the Erdoğan regime’s person, will it not be required to save thousands of seizure of the properties of people, firms and media lives?” In this way, he opened the way for reckless entities have not been enough, Mr Karaman gives d i s r e g a r d f o r i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s a n d new fetwas to pave the way for new confiscations. dispossession of private properties in the name Using the term “necessity,” a relative term that can of meeting society’s ordinary needs, which open any door, Mr. Karaman went as far as saying, would be evaluated as a “necessity.” Of course, “If someone is forced to disseise the private property Mr. Karaman does not express these thoughts so because of necessity, that is permissible (in Islam).” openly. 87 He does it in a more indirect language, saying: In an article jointly written by İhsan Yılmaz and “That is more important and more preferable to Galib Bashirov, it is said that if you remove the keep the society, which consists also of God’s legitimizing effect given by Mr. Karaman and (Allah) favorable servants than to resolve the others like him from Erdoganism, which is based necessities of a person.” Mr. Karaman also noted on the principles of authoritarianism through that, “Numerous faqihs have expressed that the election, populism, political Islamism and neo- public need is considered both a necessity and at patrimonialism (favoritism), corresponding with a the same time more important and stronger than despotic approach, there will be nothing left other personal needs,” and thus he paves the way to any than bare banditry. The legitimacy of the despotic plundering to be performed in the name of the Erdogan regime in the eyes of the conservative public interest. Mr Karaman presents this deviant circles which give it power is based on the efforts of understanding in the guise of Islam by using the Mr. Karaman and similar theologians to term “necessity” and the more relative terms of instrumentalize Islam. Mr. Karaman carried these “ n e e d ” a n d “ p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , ” t h e r e b y efforts to a new peak by calling for a new definition instrumentalizing Islam for the sake of abuse and of the nation by saying that, “Our heroic nation confiscations. consist of those who love President Erdogan and do not lose the traditional values.” Mr. Karaman is turning Islam, which requires its followers to keep a distance from what it declares to be forbidden, into a banditry handbook. He almost equates the deeds forbidden by religion with Today, despite the fact that Islam takes the religious duty (farz). Mr. Karaman, with reference to another author who lived hundreds of years ago, individual, not the state, as an interlocutor, goes as far as saying that it is only possible for a by making the state a new taboo for the Muslim to be strong through the means of the conservative segments of society, Mr. forbidden (haram) and plundering. According to Mr. Karaman, “The deeds forbidden by religion are Karaman and like-minded theologians so much spread on the Earth that, even though it have opened the door by abusing Islam cannot be legitimate, that is permissible to commit it and benefit from it when needed. In this position, for the state to commit a volume of crimes benefitting from the deeds forbidden by religion is against humanity. not connected to the state of need. Because if acting as forbidden by religion will be declared connected to the necessity, the Muslims will gradually become Of course, after he said, “Corruption is one thing, weaker; the enemies will invade the Islamic lands; and theft is another thing. From the religious point the people will not be able to perform the crafts and of view, calling corruption a theft is a slander,” in jobs that sustain the public interest.” the wake of the disclosure of the December 2013 corruption scandal, nobody expected Mr. Karaman Obviously, Mr. Karaman can easily eliminate to stop his legitimization efforts, even as tens of the basic restrictions of Islam and make all thousands of innocent people, including 706 harams halal by using a simple formula like infants, were arbitrarily detained and jailed. “Need equals necessity; necessity equals the commission of deeds forbidden by religion.” A statement made by Mr. Karaman, who claims Similar to the scholars of the past, who let that his interpretations are based on Islam, the sultans kill their innocent brothers in regarding the terrible persecutions by the Erdogan their cradles for the sake of the unity of regime leaves nothing else to be said about his power, Mr. Karaman is fabricating a new horrible role in this cruel period: “Saying ‘only religion, aiming to meet power-hungry Mr. those whose crimes were proved must be punished,’ Erdogan’s needs. Unfortunately, he is using Islam means making the state open for the penetration of as a cover for this deviant religion. the traitors.”

Politurco | www.politurco.com As I stated at the beginning of this article, in order to understand how Turkey moved rapidly away from being a model Muslim democracy and turned into an authoritarian state, one should look at the role played by theologians like Hayrettin Karaman, religious functionaries and institutions in the instrumentalization of Islam by distorting its basic principles for the Dr. Bulent Kenes sake of the political needs of the is the former Editor-In-Chief of Today’s Zaman. Islamofascist Erdogan regime.

89 Politurco | www.politurco.com

So Much Fuss for So Little Debt… The Entanglement of Economic and Political Crises in Turkey Has a New Dancing Partner: Foreign Policy Shift

Dr. Elvan Aktas

Developing countries in emerging markets exhibit different strengths and vulnerabilities in their ways to adopt and react to global ﬁnancial trends. Some have natural resources, others have cheap labor via a young and vibrant population, while only a few –such as Turkey- can add geopolitical potential into the equation. I intentionally use the term “potential” as it can be a vast resource or a curse for a country such as Turkey. 91

Turkey’s total national debt (approximately progressive” and they declared anyone challenging 470 billion US dollars, and 35 percent of the their ways either “backward” or plain “traitors”. country’s GDP, currently) has been When the country tried to switch to a true multi- fluctuating between 27.6 and 44 percent of party democracy, once in the early 1930’s and one the country’s GDP in the last ten years. When more time in the mid 1940’s, the same elite reacted considered in the context of some developed with not-so-much democratic reflexes which lead to economies, such as Japan (240 percent debt to the execution of many conservatives in the country. GDP ratio) and the US (108 percent), or Regardless of the arguments for and against the underdeveloped countries, such as Eritrea (128 “success” of the early socialist-leaning economic percent), one would think that Turkish economy model employed by the one-party rule until the late would be comfortable in refinancing and expanding 1940’s, it was The World War II and the Soviet/ its debt with such low levels. It is not, in fact, the communist threat that forced the hands of the same entanglement of political and economic crises in the leftist and militaristic elite to approach the Turkish Republic’s history has always been tied to a democratic Western World. To secure Western debt and liquidity crisis, as I chose to make it the help to restore public’s trust in the young state and title of this article. The reasons for this gain the protection of NATO against a possible vulnerability can be found in the structural Soviet invasion, Turkey had to implement a true problems with the Turkish political and economic multi-party democracy and a real free-market systems, as well as in the history of the relatively economic system. Economic hardships, famine, young republic. poverty, etc. during the 1940’s made the population less sympathetic towards the one-party regime’s First, a little economic history policies anyway. And like a coiled spring, the from Turkey: country chose the opposition (a center-right party) at the first true democratic election in 1950. This Although the more relevant links for the current shift in the foreign policy came with Marshall Plan, economic climate exists after the 1950 “true” multi- and the ability to borrow from the developed party democratic regime “trials”, I will start briefly world. It also brought a speedy economic with the early struggles of a young republic, which expansion, new public projects, a new middle-class, is trying to build an independent economy from the and integration with the developed world… but ashes and the ruins of an imploded Ottoman only initially. Empire. Prior to 1923, which is the declaration of the modern Republic of Turkey as an independent state, the area what we call Turkey today witnessed centuries of wars and the shrinkage of a vast None of these early successes, however, offered empire into a tiny nation-state. What remained any solutions to the inherent structural from the ruins of a war-torn region was a problems of the Turkish economy, almost all of devastated population with no middle-class or which still exist today or have some continued wealthy entrepreneurs to jump-start an economic model. Hence, the first 27 years of the young implications. At this point, I have to reiterate my republic, which also coincides with a one-party earlier argument about Turkey’s remarkable rule, was dominated by state-owned enterprises status as a prime example for the link between trying to start a mixed economic model, in which the state tried to promote a balanced and fair political and economic problems/challenges. It growth of the necessary agricultural and industrial is a classical “chicken-or-egg-first” story sectors. Naturally, these state-owned economic surrounding the never-ending cycle of political structures lead to the creation of a state-linked elite instability and economic crises, which makes class which ruled the country with little opposition, mainly consisting of bureaucrats and military one wonder which causes the other. generals. These new elite called themselves “secular Politurco | www.politurco.com

What I would like to underline here is, In the end, Political Islamism and its populist unfortunately, that the above-mentioned link has rhetoric teamed up –unexpectedly- with the root causes in the inherent weaknesses and the political fractions which favor pushing the country structural problems of the Turkish economy. They away from NATO and closer to Russia-China-Iran are mostly invisible to the opposition (mainly left- pact. I will not attempt to do a political analysis of wing political parties; invisible to them due to their the last five years for Turkey. Rather, I would like philosophical commitment to socialist-leaning to turn your attention to the economic climate and economic rhetoric) and they are unsolvable to the how it reflects onto the country’s growing debt ruling parties (mostly right-wing in the last 65 crisis. years; unsolvable due to the fact that the very reasons they gain power only contribute to those Second, Post-2011 Decline and Challenges problems, i.e. fiscal irresponsibility, debt and The traditional link I mentioned before about the corruption). For a country such as Turkey, Turkish experience, i.e. political and economic which lacks the production and export deterioration of a successful era develop capacity to meet the financing demands for simultaneously, has been the subject of many such expansions, rapid economic growth due previous studies in the academic literature. In the solely to major construction projects, which AKP (current ruling Islamist party since 2003) are financed by the public sector, leads to one case, not only the political climate and the rhetoric thing and one thing only: debt; growing and were different after the 2011 elections victory, so uncontrollable debt. Hence, all of these was the set of macroeconomic realities of the “trials” to be a democratic and free nation country, both domestically and abroad. AKP was no longer trying to appeal to the diverse group of have ended with political/economic crises due voters; contrarily it was going back to its Islamist to debt insolvency and political unrest, all of roots. Sectarian and derogatory language was which resulted in military coups (1960, 71, 80, becoming common and expected by party and 97, 2004, and finally 2016). government officials, only adding to ever-increasing I would like to end this section by stating that social tensions in the country. Turkey is currently facing a new challenge with its traditional political/economic crises loop for the second time in its short history. Its choice and direction in foreign policy is very much part of the equation for where it will find the resources for refinancing its enormous short-term debt (around 260 billion US dollars), half of which it has to refinance every year. It is exactly this unsustainable debt structure and its volatile relationship with the developed world, which makes the country to stand at the crossroads again. The first time Turkey had to make a choice similar to today’s environment, it choose NATO and the West. Unfortunately, the country has been spiraling down uncontrollably since the corruption and graft scandals in late 2013, leading to total reversal of reforms in the process of becoming a member of the EU, and eventually another military coup in 2016. 93

All of this social and political exclusion lead to descent, completely ignoring the danger of putting street demonstrations sparked by peaceful protests the already-weak banking sector into further against a shopping mall planned to be built on the turmoil. Eventually, BankAsya has been land of one of the city parks in Istanbul. confiscated as many other private enterprises, with Government officials ordered state police to “so-called ties to the 2016 coup attempt. respond with the highest level of “legal” brutality, Moreover, in the aftermath of the first publicly- i.e. tear gas, riot police, armored vehicles, etc. 9 held presidential elections (used to be elected by demonstrators died, hundreds wounded, but more the members of the parliament) and June 2015 importantly, the images from previous era parliamentary elections, where AKP lost its ability government brutality resurrected. Moreover, the to form a government alone, the country has been Prime Minister didn’t shy away from calling the sucked into a more destabilizing debate over US ambassador to Turkey “a collaborator with the whether Turkey should have a US-like presidency. street thugs” and a “conspirator against his PKK (separatist Marxist Kurdish terror government”. End of 2013 also marked the organization) regained strength and the beginning of a corruption investigation of many southeastern part of the country fell into a war-like ministers, their children, including -then Prime situation with hundreds of thousands fleeing the Minister, now president- Erdogan and his son, region and becoming refuges in their own country some of the businessmen with close ties to AKP. It in addition to the 3 million Syrian refugees settling only lead to replacement and removal of tens of in Turkey. Turkey has also experienced one of the thousands of police personnel and hundreds of weirdest “orchestrated” military coup attempts in judges and prosecutors, and ultimately to an overall change of the entire judicial system of the modern history. Two years after the event, the country. Turkey has been since and still is one of government still does not have an the champions in the world for jailed journalists investigation or a successful conviction of and censored internet and media. Government anyone or any particular group, except that officials publicly undermined the health of two President Erdogan and the AKP government banks (BankAsya and Is Bankasi) tied to political were quick to blame the Gulen Movement with lists of tens of thousands of public employees (a little over 170 thousand to this date) fired, 70 thousand jailed and more than 200 thousand banned form public sector, more than half of the high ranking generals in the armed forces fired, regardless of their affiliation, tens of newspapers and TV stations shutdown, hundreds of journalists and writers jailed… and the list goes on and on… as if this failed coup attempt (July 15, 2016) was “God-sent” by Erdogan’s own words to get rid of descent in every level of the society. Economically, hundreds of businessmen are jailed and their companies as well as their personal property confiscated by the government, an estimated market value of $67 billion, only a drip to temporarily satisfy the country’s need for foreign capital. Politurco | www.politurco.com

The near future presents many unknowns about Trade with neighbors has been diminishing for the the –already damaged- checks and balances, as well same reasons, as the country has no real friends or as a struggle for Turkey to stay loyal to its historic partners in the region. Ungrounded foreign policy alignment with NATO and EU as AKP is adventures, such as the one in Syria, has left the approaching the Russian-Chinese-Iranian political entire region in enormous risk of war. Reversal of block militarily and economically. Turkey’s 60 year- the reforms in the process of the country’s EU long bid to become a member of EU is not even membership bid, not only paralyzed the investment pronounced by the AKP officials anymore. What is environment, but also scared off the existing capital left form that bid is the negotiation for money in from the country. Many corporations cannot exchange for accepting Syrian refugees back into declare bankruptcy protection, just because there Turkey from Europe. Moreover, the EU has is “emergency rule” and it is illegal to do so. Lack decided to freeze the accession period with Turkey of legal protection for personal and property due to human rights violations in the aftermath of rights have been worse than many dark pages in the failed coup attempt. Unfortunately, the status the young country’s less than a century old quo only presents a social –as well as economical- history… so much for a free market economy reality only comparable to other unstable Middle trying to integrate with the developed world… Eastern countries, or even worse, dictatorships Capital markets, of course, are not as adventurist with “one strong man rule”. as they used to be in the face of rising interest rates The reason I mentioned these political and social and tightening monetary policies. In addition, the changes is only to tie them to the changing fear of a global slowdown makes the lenders very economic and business environment, as well as to nervous about countries such as Turkey, even when revisit the point I made earlier about the historical they pay enormous levels of high interest rates. roots of such tension and social trauma. Moreover, political leaders’ stubborn and populist rhetoric only wins support domestically, but scares Third, the “evil” West and “outside powers”: away potential lenders globally. As a result, the Populist politics is universally skillful in blaming country’s government debt has been downgraded to every failure to some evil outside power, and seek “junk” bond status, which eliminates the potential public support to protect the population from these for borrowing from institutional investors in the wrong-doers. Turkey’s Islamists are no exception, developed markets. In addition, credit rating in fact, they are quite good at it. Rising anti- agencies have been downgrading Turkish banks as Americanism, anti-EU sentiment, and anti-Israel well as large Turkish corporations lately. There is rhetoric are very common tools used by the Turkish also rumors of economic sanctions against Turkish government to blame every failure in the county banks, as well as the Turkish government related to onto outsiders, especially in the economic policies. several terror-financing, UN embargo violations and corruption cases. Not surprisingly, all of this is Traditional demographics which made Turkey a blamed onto the “evil” Western powers who are vibrant and young population are changing: the trying to “sink” the country… and the crowd cheers country is getting older, and there is no more room in Turkish, drifting further from the developed to create real estate wealth through construction world. projects due to the mass migration from rural areas into the cities. Once a shining star, agriculture, is This is the third dimension I intended to add to sounding alarms: to the point that the country is the classical political/economic crises importing both live cattle and feed for the same loophole Turkey has been suffering from: a cattle. Political turmoil, terror attacks and nearby dangerous shift in foreign policy, because the wars have made tourism only an anemic source of existing structure can no longer finance its much needed foreign currency supply for the unsustainable operations from the developed country. world. 95

In addition to the traditional Turkish financing • Almost every policy tool of the Central bank problems, such as Current account deficit, has been ridiculed and nullified by the enormous short-term debt etc., this time the government officials, to the point that they country is showing signs of political cannot control the value of the currency blackmailing and concessions to questionable anymore. alliances due to its financial problems. Hence, one can no longer see the approaching liquidity • Wrong choices in foreign policy lead to and economic crises merely as a result of yet isolation of the country, and the neighboring another political crisis, or of another economic countries all have problems and trade down cycle. It is rather a structural shift, or disputes with Turkey. even a potential fracture in the heart of the Approximately 3 million Syrian refugees add society. • to the 17% unemployment. Conclusion: • 15 million people (20% of the country’s What all of this meant for the investment world population) rely on direct financial aid from and the business environment in Turkey the government. however is a very dark picture: • 34 % of the population lives below the • The Central Bank had to almost triple the government-announced poverty line. policy interest rates in recent years to more Even after the huge drop in value of the than 14 percent (compounded) to avoid an all- • out liquidity crisis and stop any potential currency, exports are decreasing. inflationary pressure. Yet, it cannot stop the • Hundreds of businessmen are jailed and devaluation of the Turkish Lira (TRY) against their private companies as well as their the US Dollar and the Euro. personal property confiscated by the • Turkish Government had to declare government. g o v e r n m e n t g u a r a n t e e s f o r p u b l i c • Current deficit has been between 5.6 and (construction) projects to subsidize the crony 7.9% of GDP, much worse than the 2001 era businessmen to get the rentier capitalism crisis figures. going, because they could not secure financing from international outlets without government • None of the drop in global oil prices guarantees. reflected in gas prices in Turkey because: first, 73% of the gas prices is taxes and the • Domestic spending and credit card debt hit a government cannot give up tax revenue in record high. an election year; second, no matter how • Total debt of the country is out of control; much oils prices drop it gets offset by the moreover, more than half of the debt stock drop in the value of Turkish Lira. (260 billion US dollars) is short-term and half of it requires refinancing every year. • As of September 2016 Turkish government as well as major Turkish banks’ bonds have • Government is pressuring Central Bank to been down-graded to junk, and the drop has lower interest rates to get consumption going been continuing with no end in sight. and construction projects subsidized. Finally, I will close with the argument in my title, but this time as a series of questions: • Who is going to be the highest bidder for the future of this geopolitically important piece of land? • Is it going to be the people or the populist Islamists who will determine the direction of the country? • Can Turkey afford to be autocratic and anti-democratic, yet be part of NATO and the West, culturally and economically? Or, is it going to go Dr. Elvan Aktas down the unfortunate path of other a Professor of Finance and Director of Middle-eastern dictatorships? Graduate Programs for Langdale College of Bus. Administration at Valdosta State University Only questions, for now…

Politurco | www.politurco.com Political Islamism and the Teachings of the Qur’an Prof. Zeki Saritoprak

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the idea of are used interchangeably. As a scholar of Islamic what came to be called Political Islam has been a theology, I approach this topic from a theological feature of many political movements in the Islamic perspective and not from that of a political scientist or world. In our own century the ideology of Political a policy expert. In the manuals of Islamic theology, Islam has become increasingly important in the politics, especially in the form of leadership in the Islamic world and in the West. As I have said structure of a state, takes place in the final chapter elsewhere, I am not comfortable with the term under the title of imama, (lit. leadership). This is Political Islam for various reasons. To me to speak of because in the Shiite tradition, it is a requirement that Political Islam bifurcates Islam, the singular religion the head of a state be a religious person form the of the Prophet. I have no problem with people family of the Prophet or someone who represents the talking about Islamic politics, that is the politics that family of the Prophet. While this is a settled matter are compatible with Islamic values as this is more for Shiites, Sunni theologians argue whether or not it about politics than about Islam. That said, given its is necessary for the head of the state to be from the salience and for the sake of sharing a common tribe of Quraysh, the Prophet’s tribe, or not. The language of discourse, I use Political Islam out of main reason for these debates is the famous hadith of convenience. Occasionally, due perhaps to the the Prophet which says, “The leaders are from inability to easily define such terms, Political Islam, Quraysh.” A longer version of the hadith says “The Islamism, and less commonly Islamic fundamentalism leaders are from Quraysh. 97 When they judge they judge justly, when they The early successors to the Prophet including the promise they keep their promise. When they are Four Rightly Guided Caliphs and the Prophet’s asked for mercy, they show mercy. Any of them grandson Hasan, who is known as the “Fifth who do not fulfill these let the curse of God and Caliph” are considered examples of this piety and angels, and all people be on them.”One can see the justice. After these five, there have been a few pious importance of qualities of the leader, such as justice individuals who were also able to combine piety and honesty, and the desire to work towards these and politics. One such leader was the Umayyad ideals for society. It seems that among Sunni caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz or Umar II, who is theologians, it is universally accepted that while a considered by many theologians as the first leader from Quraysh is ideal, a leader who is not of renewer (mujaddid) of Islam. Quraysh who exhibits the qualities of a leader is acceptable. It can be argued that he qualities mentioned in the hadith: justice, trustworthy, and Politics and piety can rarely be found mercy are the most important qualities of a leader. together. The Prophet of Islam showing Therefore, anyone who has these qualities is a able to be a leader based on the Prophetic hadith. such a concern for justice and leadership Today, those who adhere to the idea of Political says that “The caliphate in my community Islam use Islamic principles as an ideological basis is thirty years. After that, it will be a for their own political gains. The problem is not political engagement, but it is in making Islam a kingdom.”The narrator of this hadith says political ideology. The values of Islam are not used that Umayyad leaders claimed that they for the betterment of society, but as rhetoric and were caliphs. In fact they lied. They were support for their agenda. This is not nourished by the main sources of Islam, rather it takes its kings and the worst of kings. Because of political basis from other modern political and this hadith of the Prophet, many Muslim social movements which have a variety of “isms.” theologians considered the first thirty There is no doubt that power is necessary for the years after the death of the Prophet as the establishment of justice and seeking justice or the power to bring justice in a legitimate way, through era of justice, but after these thirty year peaceful means, without causing any injustice has justice and injustice have mixed. been an ideal principle in the Islamic discourse and tradition. Therefore politics is not inherently At times, even great injustices have occurred at prohibited in Islam. Politics is acceptable as long as the hands of Muslim leaders. The oppression of al- it serves the community and organizes venues for Hajjaj bin Yusuf al-Thaqafi (d. 714) who historians the betterment of society. To have such an describe as leader, genius, blood-shedder, orator achievement requires strong, knowledgeable, and known in Islamic history as Hajjaj Zalim or the truthful, righteous, merciful, pious, and skillfull Wrongdoer Hajjaj, against the members of the personalities. Mere religiosity is not enough for family of the Prophet is beyond imagination. leadership in a society. For Islam, a leader Perhaps because of this situation and because of should be someone who will sacrifice their the dangers of political leadership especially when own personal interests for the interests of injustice is involved, Sunni Muslims have always their community. Such political involvement looked with suspicion at those in power because of is even praiseworthy. However, politics that the fear that they might not be as just as it is is based on self-interest can polarize society necessary to be. Muslim jurists like Abu Hanifa, and is so dangerous to the well-being of the when they were offered a high position in the court, society as a whole that some scholars of would reject it out of fear that they would be Islam have compared this to a savage animal. manipulated by the leadership of the state and

Politurco | www.politurco.com forced to do injustice. Similarly, when one of the leader and uses its power to spread the word of the relatives of Umar, the second Caliph, came to Umar leader. On top of this, there is typically asking for some money from the state budget, hopelessness and dissatisfaction with corruption Umar responded “Do you want me to meet my and people become easily influenced by ideas that Lord as a traitor?”[4] seem to confirm their fundamentally held beliefs. Such mixing of Islamic messianic hope with politics Therefore, if politics is based on the benefit of a leads to utopian thought and intern leads to group, a party, or individuals, or the elimination of destruction of individuals and communities. the other, that political involvement becomes a problem in Islamic teaching. For those in the One of the first instances in recent memory of Islamic world, who with ill-intent use Islam as a such expectations is perhaps most starkly seen in vehicle for their own political goals and agenda, the the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 pursuit of power becomes dangerous not just for by members of a paramilitary organization led by their own spiritual lives, but for society as a whole. Juhayman al-Otaybi a former Saudi military figure In Islamic countries such as Egypt, Turkey, and turned ultra-fundamentalist who believed that his Pakistan there are Islamic movements that seek brother-in-law was the Mahdi. He interpreted a power through politics. Many of these movements hadith on the Madhi to influence people that the in these countries established so-called religious Mahdi was among them and used this as the basis parties, using the name of Islam whether explicitly for his claims. He used the Islamic calendar to his or implicitly and contested elections. The problem advantage saying that with the new century, a new with these Islamist political actors is that renewer had arrived. That is why the group seized first a political agenda is set up and then the the grand mosque on the first of Muharram, various sources of religion including Holy 1400AH. After his group seized the mosque, a siege texts are used to legitimize and even mystify ensued and hundreds were killed and injured. those parties and personalities in them. The Though the ideology of al-Otaybi was outside of mainstream political Islamists, it illustrates just how political leader of an Islamic party is easily such ideas can become destructive. In more propagated as the rescuer of humanity. recent times, we have seen groups such as ISIS Messianic roles are also often attributed to using similar messianic ideas to further their own these figures. They have been called the political goals. Additionally even today, there are Mahdi or Khalifa or Amir of the Believers. followers of Islamic heads of state who believe that Leaders generally enjoy these titles as long as their leader is the Mahdi. they bring them more votes or on occasion Despite the initial hope that a moderate Islamic have been known to actively accept the title. government, could lead to the betterment of society, If the leader is ignorant and not aware of the generally the ideas espoused by Political Islam have religious principles, it can be dangerous to lead tended to become totalitarian in nature and those people with such messianic views. who are involved with Political Islam are generally In fact, one of the most important venues of obsessed with power that the use of force to compel mystification is the idea of messianic expectation. people to follow specific Islamic principles such as The ambiguity of sources in this regard, especially the prohibition of alcohol, even for non-Muslims. secondary sources, is used to mobilize people In many cases these extreme obsessions ignore the behind a political leader that can be otherwise seen foundational principles of Islam that basically a charlatan. As the African-American novelist consist of public welfare, compassion, justice, and James Baldwin said “It is certain, in any case, that wisdom. There is no public welfare in killing of ignorance, allied with power, is the most ferocious individuals. Any violence will go against the enemy justice can have.” The expected Islamic principle of mercy. Similarly, the Islamic principle messianic figure, the Mahdi, can become identified of wisdom requires things to be done wisely with with a political leader. Often in such cases, the mercy, harmlessness, and through justice. These country’s intelligentsia comes under the sway of the four principles actually complete each other.

99 Nevertheless, these seem to be absent in the agenda millions of people, “humanity will seek for eternal of Political Islam. life and the signs of this search, to him, started in the West, in America, and in the North. Since this A prominent Islamic scholar of the last century, is a great need of humanity, “the Qur’an gives good Said Nursi, when speaking of his own experience news about eternal life and eternal bliss and cures presents a good example of many people who get all spiritual sicknesses by mentioning in thousands involved in politics. People who are initially of its verses and proving, with certain evidence, the attracted to get involved in politics for the right existence of the eternal life. Humanity will find the reasons, but find it impossible to live up to the cure for its sickness in the Qur’an, and the Qur’an Islamic ideals of the political life. This man was provides this cure, that is if humans do not bring Said Nursi. In the beginning of his career as an destruction upon themselves before the end of Islamic scholar and theologian, he thought that time.” Political Islam prevents people from meeting through politics, he could serve the religion of with this Qur’anic message as if the Qur’an is their Islam. He met with various leaders and political own property. Instead of promoting the idea of the figures but what he saw of the extreme level of Qur’an, the shad of politics covers the Qur’an. This polarization frightened him.He says that such is why it becomes very difficult to serve Islam polarization would cost him his spiritual life and go through politics. Therefore, Nursi wanted to against his understanding of Islam. He specifically establish a civil society and cure the ills of society said there was a Satan-like person in one party and rather than developing an Islamic political agenda. the leader of that party praised that person as if he This is in direct contrast to practitioners of Political is an angel, just because he is a member of his Islam who often try to devolve the institutions of party. The same leader spoke of another person in society to meet their own needs. the opposition party who is angelic in quality as a Satan-like person. After seeing this nature of As understood from the Qur’an, one third of politics that makes a Satan an angel and vice versa, which is about the afterlife, the goal of every he coined his famous statement “I take refuge in human being should be the attainment of the God from Satan and politics.” After this he left eternal bliss of the afterlife, whether the person be politics, he voted, but he did not pursue an active a Muslim or not. This requires compassion and political agenda or take a political stance. When he wisdom. No politics could replace such an essential voted, he said he voted for the better of the two goal of humanity and no gain be it political or parties. monetary can be equivalent as such as gain which the Qur’an describes as “the mighty triumph” in at In contrast to proponents of Political Islam least thirteen verses. who believe that they protect Islam, Nursi believed that Islam did not need to be protected by the power of politics. Islam, in his view, was like the Sun; no threat could One of the problems with Political Islam, and extinguish its light. Islam was in the hearts other Islamic political movements, is in using and minds of millions and, to Nursi, was alive selective Qur’anic verses to support their views in the rhythm of the universe. He was and to demonize their opposition. They ask how confident that Islam could bring bliss to the the opposition can go against the will of God stressed hearts of human beings in our and violate the ideas they point to in the Qur’an. modern age. In his letter to his students on the Such absolutism leads not space for debate even occasion of laylat al-qadr (the Night of Power or Honor), he mentions that, under the title, “An when the opposition is better-versed in the Important Matter Came to the Heart on the Night Qur’an and in Islamic theology and of Honor,” since humanity had witnessed the jurisprudence than they are. This brings us to the inhumanity of the two World Wars and the ugly danger of generalization. face of politics, which costs the lives of tens of

Politurco | www.politurco.com The Qur’anic verse which says: “No soul shall bear another’s burden” (6:164), clearly teaches that none should be blamed for the mistakes of others, whether they be relatives, political allies, simply fellow nationals, etc. Unfortunately, modern Islamic nations whether they are Islamic or secular, ignore A key idea in my book Islamic Spirituality: this Qur’anic injunction. As a result, human Faith and Practice for the Modern World is that rights are violated, wars are fought and piety is in the heart, as the Prophet said human lives are loosed. This can also lead to pounding his heart three times “Piety is the belief that the power of the state is here, piety is here, piety is here.” This piety sacred and the elimination of any opposition and religiosity is what leads to peace, to that is justified. Therefore, in this view, serenity, and harmony. A statement from the human beings can be sacrificed for the sake famous Mauritanian Islamic scholar, of the state. Their property can be Abdullah bin Bayyah, puts it succinctly: confiscated and given to the state. This goes “Religiosity is like energy. Through energy against the Qur’anic principle which sees one can have prosperity, greenness, water, human beings as a universe and every fertility, and life. On the other side, it can be individual human being is responsible for his used to make destructive bombs which lead or her own actions. It is unfortunate to see to destruction and demolition. That is how today in Turkey, the torture, purging, and religiosity is. We attempt to make of the violation of all human rights of anyone religiosity prosperity and life instead of remotely associated with the Hizmet destruction and demolition. We want to movement by a ruling party that is supposed cooperate with all those who believe in these to be a model for moderate political Islam. thoughts so that we can take humanity to This has shown the ugly and disgusting face peace. We may not be able to achieve it, but of politics in the name of Islam. it incumbent upon us to try.”

Political Islam need not lead to such negative outcomes, the example of Tunisia bears this out. In fact, in moderate principles Prof. Zeki Saritoprak is Professor in the Department of Theology that some groups began with can be a model and Religious Studies and Director of the for a positive engagement with the modern Bediuzzaman Said Nursi Chair in Islamic state. What Political Islam needs is the Studies, at John Carroll University. religiosity that is found in the heart and not rhetoric and the ideology of power.

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