B25606 page 1 of 15

Venus’s shield terrain

Vicki L. Hansen† Department of Geological Sciences, University of Minnesota, Duluth, Minnesota 55812, USA

ABSTRACT strong throughout shield-terrain formation. resurfacing. The fl ood-lava hypothesis has been Shield terrain may extend across much of accepted because of a lack of obvious volcanic Plains, planitiae, or lowlands—expanses of Venus’s surface. fl ows or edifi ces, or because alternative viable gentle, long-wavelength (~1000 km) basins— models exist. Thus, it is important to determine cover ~80% of Venus’s surface. These regions Keywords: Venus, shields, resurfacing, fl ood the range of sources and the types of processes are widely accepted as covered by volcanic lava, mud volcano, partial melt. that contributed to lowland resurfacing. fl ows, although the mechanism(s) responsible Locally, coronae, circular to quasi-circular for resurfacing remains elusive; in addition, a INTRODUCTION tectonomagmatic features that range in size from volcanic origin for the lowland surface may ~60 to 1000 km in diameter (200-km mean; Sto- be open to question. Lowland resurfacing is Understanding processes that affect Venus’s fan et al., 1992), expelled lava fl ows that extend typically attributed to catastrophic emplace- lowlands is critical to Venus evolution models. over 500 km and locally contribute lava to adja- ment (10–100 m.y.) of globally extensive, Lowlands—expanses of gentle, long-wave- cent lowlands (e.g., Chapman, 1999; Rosenberg thick (1–3 km) fl ood-type lava. This model of length topography at or below 1.5 km mean and McGill, 2001; Campbell and Rogers, 2002; resurfacing has been postulated on the basis planetary radius—cover ~80% of Venus (Masur- Hansen and DeShon, 2002; Young and Hansen, of impact crater distribution, taken together sky et al., 1980). Although lowland materials 2003). However, many lowlands, including those with a lack of obvious volcanic fl ows or edi- are widely considered volcanic (Banerdt et al., in the Niobe-Greenaway (0–25°N/90–150°E) fi ces, and a lack of viable alternative models. 1997), the mechanism(s) responsible for low- area, lack adjacent coronae or coronae-source Ongoing geologic mapping of ~15,000,000 km2 land volcanism remain mostly elusive. Lowland lava fl ows. This contribution examines the exten- (0–25N/90–150E) using 225 m/pixel and 75 m/ resurfacing is typically attributed to emplace- sive tract of Venus’s lowland in the Niobe-Green- pixel NASA Magellan SAR (synthetic aperture ment of extensive fl ood lava (e.g., Banerdt et away area (Figs. 1 and 2) in order to expressly radar) data indicates that small edifi ces, called al., 1997). This supposition forms the basis for evaluate lowland surface processes. shields (1–15-km-diameter edifi ces, <<1 km two related hypotheses: catastrophic resurfac- The results reveal no evidence for widespread high), play a major role in lowland resurfac- ing (Strom et al., 1994) and global stratigraphy fl ood-lava fl ows; rather, tens to hundreds of ing. Individual shields are radar-smooth or - (Basilevsky and Head, 1996, 1998, 2002; Head thousands of small eruptive centers dominate the rough, quasi-circular to circular features with and Basilevsky, 1998). The related hypotheses lowland across over 10,000,000 km2. Individual or without a central pit. Shield shapes, which imply that Venus’s lowland was covered very eruptive centers (shields) and associated deposits have been previously documented, range from quickly (<10–100 m.y.) by thick (1–3 km) that coalesce into an extensive, thin, mechani- shield, dome, or cone, to fl at-topped or fl at. fl ood-type lava ca. 750 +350/–400 Ma (global cally strong layer (shield paint) together form Shield deposits typically coalesce, forming average model surface age [McKinnon et al., shield terrain. Shield terrain formed in a time- a thin, regionally extensive but discontinu- 1997]). Such thick layers of lava are postulated transgressive manner and is cut by distributed ous, mechanically strong layer, herein called in order to account for complete burial of preex- low-strain deformation marked by extension shield paint. Shield paint conforms to delicate isting impact craters that are presumed to have fractures, wrinkle ridges, and inversion struc- local topography, providing evidence of its formed on tessera terrain and fracture terrain tures. Shield-terrain evolution seems inconsistent thin character and indicating generally low that, within the context of the hypothesis, form with the catastrophic fl ood-lava resurfacing viscosity during emplacement. Shield ter- globally extensive basement units. Impact crater hypothesis. Possible models for shield-terrain rain (shields and shield paint) covers more rim-to-trough heights range from 0.2 to 1.5 km formation include widespread sedimentation than 10,000,000 km2 within the study area. (Herrick and Sharpton, 2000), thus requiring a and mud volcano formation, and shallow in situ Detailed mapping of fi ve 2° × 2° regions using fl ood-lava thickness greater than 1.5 km to cover point-source partial-melt formation resulting in coregistered normal and inverted right- and early-formed craters. The global stratigraphy tertiary melt that subsequently rises to the surface left-illumination SAR imagery indicates shield hypothesis implies that “wrinkle-ridge plains” along preexisting fractures. Both of these hypoth- densities of 3500–33,500 shields/106 km2; thus, or “regional plains” represent the catastrophi- eses present quite different pictures of ancient the map area hosts more than 35,000–335,000 cally emplaced, globally extensive fl ood lava Venus compared with contemporary Venus. shields. Shield terrain generally postdates, that buried all preexisting impact craters across but is also locally deformed by, fractures and Venus’s lowland. But currently no robust tem- BACKGROUND wrinkle ridges, indicating time-transgressive poral constraints are available with regard to the formation relative to local deformation and/ emplacement rate of Venus surfaces, whether Venus’s Geology or reactivation. The regional scale crust was punctuated, catastrophic, or continuous (Camp- bell, 1999). In addition, no studies explicitly Venus exhibits three global topographic prov- †E-mail: [email protected]. evaluate a fl ood-lava mechanism for lowland inces—lowlands, mesolands, and highlands—

GSA Bulletin; May/June 2005; v. 117; no. 5/6; p. 000–000; doi: 10.1130/B256060.1; 9 fi gures; 1 table.

For permission to copy, contact [email protected] © 2005 Geological Society of America 1 B25606 page 2 of 15

V.L. HANSEN and several types of geomorphic features (Phil- Fortuna Ishtar Terra lips and Hansen, 1994). The lowlands (~80% of 60° the surface at or below mean planetary radius, V3 V4 ~6052 km) are relatively smooth, with widely V11 V12 V13 Tellus distributed low-strain deformation and belts of 30° Bell V10 concentrated deformation (Banerdt et al., 1997). Beta W. Eistla V22 V23 V24 V25 Highlands (<10% of the surface, ~2–11 km E. Eistla above mean planetary radius) include: (1) vol- C. Eistla 0° Atla E. Ovda canic rises—huge (~1100–1800 km diameter) Phoebe W. Ovda Thetis domical rises dominated by volcanic features and Alpha analogous to terrestrial hot spot rises (Smrekar et 30° al., 1997); (2) crustal plateaus—huge (~1400– Dione Artemis Themis 2300 km diameter) quasi-circular plateaus V52 Imdr characterized by deformed crust and supported by thicker than average crust; and (3) Ishtar 60° Terra, a globally unique feature in the northern 300° 0° 60° 120° 180° hemisphere (Hansen et al., 1997, and references Figure 1. Distribution of Venusian features. Fine dots, volcanic rises; dark areas, large therein). About 500 coronae (~60–1000-km- ribbon terrain; light gray areas, crustal plateaus (modifi ed from Hansen et al., 1999). The diameter quasi-circular tectonomagmatic fea- map area (Fig. 2) includes V23 and V24; the V labels show the locations of other map quad- tures) and spatially associated chasmata (troughs) rangles discussed in the text. are concentrated in the mesoland, although coro- nae clusters associate with some volcanic rises, and isolated coronae occur in the lowlands (Sto- fan et al., 1992, 1997, 2001). About 970 essentially pristine impact craters 1997; Donahue, 1999; Hunten, 2002). In addi- Venus preserves a range of volcanic features, (2–270 km diameter) display a near spatially tion, a comparison of carbon, nitrogen, and water many dwarfi ng similar terrestrial features. Large random distribution (Phillips et al., 1992; Scha- abundances at the surface of Earth and Venus volcanic edifi ces range up to hundreds of kilo- ber at al., 1992; Herrick et al., 1997; Hauck et indicates that both planets likely had similar meters in diameter, and lava fl ows can extend al., 1998), refl ecting a global average model primitive atmospheres that reacted differently for hundreds of kilometers (Head et al., 1992; surface age of ca. 750 +350/–400 Ma (McKin- with their surfaces. For Venus, the rate of water Crumpler et al., 1997). Venus also preserves non et al., 1997). Interpretation of global average loss would affect deuterium/hydrogen ratios very small features (<1–15 km diameter) called model surface age is nonunique. Many plausible (Donahue and Russell, 1997). In addition, a shields, interpreted as volcanic in origin (Aubele surface histories are possible, including: (1) cata- combination of crustal hydration and hydrogen- and Slyuta, 1990; Guest et al., 1992; Head et al., strophic resurfacing at t = average model surface escape processes could explain the present-day 1992; Crumpler et al., 1997). Shields are divided age; (2) 50% of surface formed at 0.5t and 50% low amount and high deuterium/hydrogen ratio into two morphological terrains on the basis of at 1.5t; or (3) 20% of surface formed at 2t and of water in the Venusian atmosphere (Lecuyer regional extent: shield clusters and shield plains 80% at 0.75t). Average model surface age also et al., 2000). Lecuyer et al. (2000) further argue (Crumpler et al., 1997). Shield clusters (or refers to pristine impact craters, so if other that if Venus’s high deuterium/hydrogen ratio shield fi elds) comprise groups of shields distrib- impact crater forms exist that have not yet been resulted from hydrogen escape alone, then the uted over quasi-circular regions ~50–350 km in recognized, then the model age value will change reservoir of remaining oxygen would require diameter (100–150-km-diameter mode); shield (Hansen and Young, 2004). Although the average crustal oxidation to a depth of ~50 km. Hydrated plains (Aubele, 1996) consist of ~4500 shields/ model surface age can accommodate a range of basalt is considered further below. 106 km2 over millions of square kilometers. surface histories, Venus apparently lacks large Venus climate models also indicate that Fluid-cut channels, extending tens to hundreds (>20,000,00 km2) coherent tracts of young or old ancient surface temperatures could have reached of kilometers up to the ~6900-km-long Baltis surface crust, as evidenced by impact crater dis- or exceeded 1000 K as a result of a high level of Vallis, trace across the surface (Baker et al., tribution (Phillips et al., 1992; Phillips, 1993). greenhouse gases (Bullock and Grinspoon, 1996, 1997). The channels are typically narrow (sev- 2001; Phillips and Hansen, 1998; Phillips et al., eral kilometers), shallow (tens of meters), and Venus’s Environment 2001). These ancient environmental conditions curved to sinuous, with little change in width could have lead to the loss of large water res- and depth along their length. Venus’s surface conditions are intimately ervoirs with time (e.g., Bullock and Grinspoon, The entire surface of Venus is broadly accepted related to its atmospheric properties. Currently, 1996, 2001). Therefore, Venus could have been as basaltic composition, a fi nding based in part on its caustic dense atmosphere (92 bars; 0.96 CO2, both signifi cantly wetter and hotter in the past.

Venera data, as well as on theoretical arguments 0.035 N, and 0.005 H2O, H2SO4, HCl, and HF), The current lack of water renders contempo- (e.g., Banerdt et al. 1997; Grimm and Hess, includes three cloud layers from ~48 to 70 km rary Venusian crustal rock orders of magnitude 1997). Each of the volcanic forms is consistent above the surface that refl ect visible light, stronger than terrestrial counterparts, even given with basaltic composition (Bridges, 1995, 1997; blocking optical observation (Donahue et al., Venus’s elevated surface temperature (Mack- Stofan et al., 2000), although the many unknowns 1997). Although Venus is presently ultradry, it well et al., 1998); again, the crust may not have inherent in planetary geology leave the door open is quite possible that water existed on the planet been this strong in the past if ancient Venus was for other possibilities, including the prospect that in the past. Isotopic data are consistent with an wetter or hotter, or both. some features are fl uvial rather than volcanic extensive water reservoir ≥1 billion years ago Globally, Venus appears to be composed of (e.g., Jones and Pickering, 2003). (Donahue et al., 1982; Donahue and Russell, basaltic crust, an interpretation supported in part

2 Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 B25606 page 3 of 15

VENUS’S SHIELD TERRAIN

ow by Magellan hypsometry (elevation referred to

150 10N 20N 00N mean planetary radius) that indicates unimodal versus terrestrial bimodal (oceans and conti-

rrows, fl rrows, nents) distribution of surface elevation (Petten- gill et al., 1980; Ford and Pettengill, 1992; Grimm and Hess, 1997). However, although hypsometry seems to indicate that Venus lacks Llorona Planitia large tracts of felsic and mafi c crust like the 3B Earth’s oceans and continents, the data do not require a complete lack of crustal differentia-

140 tion. The hypsometric data can limit the spatial scale of differentiation. But the hypsometric basal fracture terrain; white, shield basal fracture data alone cannot resolve small-scale crustal y, density differences or differences in density that

dicates the areal extent of the entire Snake Snake extent of the entire dicates the areal might occur in crustal layers. For example, if Venus’s crust were layered with felsic and mafi c

ght gray lines, folds; thick dark gray lines, broad thick dark gray lines, broad ght gray lines, folds; components, it could have unimodal rather than bimodal hyposometry. Thus, the data, which show unimodal hyposometry, can be met by a multitude of crustal models.

130 Given the current nascent stage of our under- standing of Earth’s sister planet, it is perhaps best to consider the broadest range of pos-

sible environmental conditions and gross planet architecture in working hypotheses. Corona Rosmerta NIOBE-GREENAWAY MAP AREA

The map area (0–25N/90–150E), which Gegute Tessera Gegute includes ~10,000,000 km2 of lowlands, is 120 8 bounded to the south by crustal plateaus Ovda 7

Haasttse-baad Tessera and Thetis regions, and to the west, north, and east by planitiae (Fig. 1). The map area includes Niobe, Sogolon, and Llorona planitiae, eastern Ovda Regio, and Haasttse-baad and Gegutte tes-

? serae (Fig. 2). The division between Niobe and

5 Sogolon planitiae is generally topographic, with Sogolon comprising a relatively small, circular ?

d o mod ? m basin; Gegutte Tessera separates Niobe and Llo- ?

t r crtc ?

6 rona planitiae. Niobe and Llorona planitiae are 110 ?

d o centered northwest and northeast of the study mod ? m area, respectively. Llorona Planitia is divided by Sogolon Planitia a N-trending broad topographic rise marked by a chain of coronae (Fig. 2). The area includes sev- ? ? ?? eral other coronae, but only Rosmerta Corona, Niobe Planitia which cuts Haasttse-baad Tessera, shows well- 4 developed radial fractures and extensive fl ows. Aphrodite Terra The other coronae are similar to “old” coronae ws associated with medium-size volcanoes or coronae; dark gray, impact crater deposits. Primary structures: gray lines with a impact crater deposits. Primary structures: dark gray, or coronae; ws associated with medium-size volcanoes o of Chapman and Zimbelman (1998), defi ned by 3A low circular basins with raised rims and con- 100 centric fractures, and generally lacking obvious radial fractures or extensive volcanic fl ows.

Volcanic fl ows from Ituana Corona, east of the study area (which, like Rosmerta, is similar to “young” coronae of Chapman and Zimbelman Maya Corona [1998]), fl ood part of Llorona Planitia in the

Eastern Ovda Regio northeast; to the east, northeast, and southeast of the study area, “young” corona-sourced fl ows contribute to resurfacing of Rusalka and Llo- Figure 2. Generalized geologic map of V23 and V24 quadrangles, Venus. Units: medium gray, basal ribbon terrain; medium dark gra basal ribbon Units: medium gray, Venus. V24 quadrangles, V23 and 2. Generalized geologic map of Figure terrain; lightest gray, volcanic fl volcanic terrain; lightest gray, medium-wei E-W), wrinkle ridges; thin black lines, fractures; lineaments: thin gray lines (generally trend Tectonic directions. in dashed line 4–8. Box shown locations of Figures boxes show indicated; numbered 3A and 3B are ridges. Locations of Figures River Plain and Columbia River Plateau basalt provinces of the northwestern United States. See text for discussion. United States. See text for of the northwestern Plateau basalt provinces Plain and Columbia River River 90 rona planitiae (DeShon et al., 2000; Hansen and

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V.L. HANSEN

DeShon, 2002; Young and Hansen, 2003). The shield clusters), the term “shield terrain” is used (e.g., Niobe and Sogolon planitiae). The term map area hosts ~50 pristine impact craters. herein because the descriptor “plains” carries “plains” is used to describe geologic units only Regions shaped by deformation include ribbon several nonunique connotations. It is useful to in reference to published work. Every attempt tessera terrain (or ribbon terrain) and fracture ter- clarify the terms used herein because in many is made to clearly separate secondary structures rain. Ribbon terrain, marked by a unique parallel cases, terminology carries stated and unstated from material units. Locations, orientations, ridge and trough deformation fabric, is inferred assumptions with regard to genetic implications. and relative densities of primary (e.g., shield to record the signatures of deep mantle plumes Some workers lump Venus’s lowland units edifi ces, fl ow indicators) and secondary struc- on ancient thin Venusian lithosphere (e.g., Han- together as “regional plains” or “wrinkle-ridge tures (e.g., fractures, wrinkle ridges) are shown sen and Willis, 1998; Phillips and Hansen, 1998; plains” (e.g., Johnson et al., 1999; McGill, independent of material units. Hansen et al., 1999; Ghent and Tibuleac, 2002). 2000; Rosenberg and McGill, 2001; Campbell The term “terrain” describes a texturally (For a discussion of ribbon-terrain controver- and Rogers, 2002; Ivanov and Head, 2001a). defi ned region. Characteristic texture could sies, see Gilmore et al. [1998] and Hansen et Some workers also describe a wide range of imply a shared history, similar to terrestrial al. [2000].) Fracture-terrain hosts penetratively plains units, including smooth, lineated, densely “gneissic terrain” used to describe a particular developed (i.e., spaced to image resolution) lineated, fractured, densely fractured, mottled, shared history, such as a tectonothermal history parallel fractures. The relative age of ribbon- and lobate, homogeneous, inhomogeneous, wrinkle- or event, responsible for melding possibly previ- fracture-terrain deformations is unconstrained. ridged, and shield plains (e.g., Basilevsky and ously unrelated rock units (any combination of Structural trends within small isolated kipukas Head, 1996, 1998, 2002; Head and Basilevsky, igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks) of ribbon terrain and fracture terrain describe 1998; Johnson et al., 1999; McGill, 2000; into a new package. As with gneissic terrain, regionally coherent patterns with larger tracts Rosenberg and McGill, 2001; Ivanov and Head, there is no implication of a unique history prior of these terrains. This observation is consistent 2001b; Campbell and Rogers, 2002). These to the event(s) that melded potentially separate with the interpretation that these terrains extend terms are commonly confusing for three reasons: units into the textural terrain. Events prior to ter- as local “basement” between isolated kipukas, as (1) “Plains” refers to geomorphology rather than rain formation would be unconstrained unless initially proposed by Ivanov and Head (1996), a geological material; “regional plains” presum- specifi cally noted. Examples of terrain in this although the basal terrain need not be globally ably cover large fl at areas; but large, fl at areas study include ribbon tessera terrain (or ribbon distributed, as originally suggested. could host several map units. (2) The terms terrain), fracture terrain, and shield terrain. Materials that locally postdate ribbon and “lineated,” “fractured,” “wrinkled,” “ridged,” Shield terrain differs from ribbon and frac- penetrative fracture formation variably cover etc., suggest that secondary structures (linea- ture terrain in that it comprises rocks with the map area. Cover materials are cut by E- to tions, fractures, wrinkle ridges) defi ne individual shared emplacement mechanism (represented ENE-trending contractional wrinkle ridges, and plains units; this violates fundamental geologic by primary structures), as opposed to shared variably preserved N- to NNW-striking (exten- mapping practice, and it confuses delineation deformation history (represented by secondary sion) fractures that display regionally coherent of geologic history because it disallows tempo- structures). Shield terrain would be compa- patterns across the map area (Fig. 2). Locally ral distinction between unit emplacement and rable, for example, to a terrestrial sedimentary preserved concentric ridges may mark “old” unit deformation (Tanaka et al., 1994; Hansen, formation composed of turbidite deposits from coronae structures. 2000; McGill, 2004). (3) Many workers assume multiple source regions. In the case of shield Reconnaissance regional mapping and local that regional and wrinkle-ridge plains represent terrain, we have little knowledge of the absolute detailed mapping do not reveal obvious evidence extensive fl ood-type lava that emerged cata- time involved in terrain formation, whereas a of emplacement of thick massive fl ood-type lava strophically across the planet (e.g., Basilevsky et terrestrial turbidite terrain might have many fl ows; instead, shield plains (e.g., Aubele, 1996) al., 1997; Head and Coffi n, 1997; Basilevsky and accessible clues with regard to temporal evo- appear to cover much of the lowland. Local Head, 1998, 2002; Head and Basilevsky, 1998); lution. Thus, Venusian shields are classifi ed as lobate fl ow boundaries and primary fl ow struc- yet there is no robust evidence that material was belonging to either localized shield clusters (dis- tures record paleofl ow direction from centralized emplaced as fl ood lava, that volcanic products tributed across areas ~50–350 km in diameter; locations, but much of the region lacks any indi- share an origin resulting from widespread melt- 100–150-km mode-sized regions) or regionally cation of fl ow directions, even in full-resolution ing of the mantle, as presumed for terrestrial extensive shield terrain (millions of square kilo- SAR (synthetic aperture radar) data. Full-resolu- fl ood lava, or that lava was emplaced quickly. meters); shield terrain is the focus of the current tion SAR imagery shows thousands of shields Thus, these terms confuse geomorphic and geo- contribution. Shield terrain includes edifi ces that decorate the lowland. The occurrence of logic unit terminology; intertwine unit emplace- (shields) and associated deposits (shield paint), numerous small, isolated ribbon-terrain kipu- ment and unit deformation; may imply genetic as described further below. kas across much of the study area indicate that source(s); and may lead to unstated or unsup- surface deposits are thin and that basal material ported inferences with regard to emplacement Data and Methodology lies at shallow depths across much of the region rates. Each of these problems, individually and (Hansen, 2002; Lang and Hansen, 2003). Aubele collectively, confuses the goal of geologic map- The work here emerged from regional recon- (1996) briefl y described shield plains, but no ping, which is to determine the geologic history naissance and locally detailed geologic mapping study has investigated shield-plains formation. of a region with the express goal of understand- that used NASA Magellan S-band SAR and This study focuses on understanding shield- ing formational processes (e.g., Gilbert, 1886; altimetry data. Data included: (1) compressed plains formation. Tanaka et al., 1994; Hansen, 2000). “C1” (~225 m/pixel) SAR data, (2) synthetic For clarity, the term “lowland” is used in a stereo imagery constructed following the method Terminology topographic sense in reference to broad regional of Kirk et al. (1992) using NIH-Image macros long-wavelength basins. Planitia (singular) or developed by D.A. Young, (3) Magellan altim- Although this work concerns the evolution planitiae (plural), used in a geomorphic sense, etry (~8 km along-track by 20 km across-track and formation of “shield plains” (as opposed to refers to individual basins or lowland regions footprint with ~30-m average vertical accuracy

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VENUS’S SHIELD TERRAIN

A B 100 km ping follows guidelines and cautions of Wilhelms (1990), Tanaka et al. (1994), and Hansen (2000). D E Shield Terrain

Shields across the study area, like those pre- viously described in detail (e.g., Guest et al., F 1992), are small (<1–15 km diameter), quasi- C circular to circular, radar-dark or radar-bright features with or without topographic expres- sion (with shapes ranging from shield, dome, cone, fl at-topped, or fl at), and with or without 100 km a central pit (Fig. 3). The smallest size of pre- served shield edifi ces is diffi cult to determine E F given that many pixels are needed to image C 10 km D a single shield; thus, although Magellan SAR 10 km data has ~100 m/pixel resolution, the effective resolution for shield size is likely ~0.5–1 km in diameter (e.g., Masursky et al., 1970; Guest et al., 1992; Zimbelman, 2001). Minimum

10 km discernible shield diameter depends on size, 10 km morphology (e.g., steep-sided shields imaged better), radar incidence angle, radar contrast Figure 3. Inverted right-illumination SAR images; (A) and (B) cropped from C1 SAR images with surroundings, texture of surroundings, and (locations in Fig. 2); detail images (C–E) are cropped from full-resolution SAR (locations in character and number of adjacent shields. Given [A] and [B]). (A) Image detail of tectonic structures and shields. Concentric structures in the that ~0.5–1-km-diameter shields, essentially upper left are part of Maya Corona that dominantly predates shield-terrain formation; NNW- effective image-shield resolution, can be identi- striking fractures and ENE-trending wrinkle ridges parallel regionally extensive suites. E- fi ed locally, it is likely that even smaller shields striking fractures in the bottom of the image occur within a more localized region (see Fig. 2). occur within the study area. Guest et al. (1992) Shields pepper the surface. Enlargements (C) and (D) show a range of shield morphologies reached a similar conclusion. Given the range of and temporal relations with secondary structures. Black arrows point to a few shields from shield size and morphology relative to data reso- well to poorly defi ned. N-striking regional fractures generally predate shield formation and lution, the experience of an individual mapper reactivation along N-striking fractures locally postdates shield emplacement (white arrows); also comes into play in shield identifi cation. In dashed lines indicate examples of well-defi ned limits of shield deposits (upper D) and more addition to the factors noted above, shield size poorly defi ned limits (C and lower D); local regions of basal fracture terrain are exposed as is diffi cult to constrain because shield bases are kipukas among shield deposits (D). (B) Shield deposits coalesce to form a discontinuous layer commonly poorly defi ned; individual edifi ces that variably covers basal fracture terrain marked by extremely closely spaced WNW-striking typically appear to blend smoothly into a base fractures. Enlargements (E) and (F) show detailed relations: locally isolated shield deposits layer composed of coalesced shield deposits are completely surrounded by older fracture terrain (local contacts marked by dashed line) (Fig. 3C). In some cases, a slight difference and shield deposits preferentially fi ll subtle lows ([F] in particular); arrows mark locally well- in radar backscatter or truncation of preexist- defi ned shields; eruptive centers can be diffi cult to identify. Minor reactivation of fractures ing underlying structural fabric can defi ne the may cut the thinner distal part of individual shield deposits (E); individual shield deposits apparent limit of individual shield deposits, or locally coalesce forming an extremely thin layer that blankets earlier tectonic fabrics (F). it might mark a change in thickness of shield Detail of the boundary between basal fracture terrain and shield paint, including the occur- deposit material (Fig. 3D). Figure 3 illustrates rence of shield deposits as islands (E), indicates the shield-paint layer is extremely thin. a range of shield morphologies: (1) aprons that blend outward into surrounding terrain, (2) edifi ces in marked distinction from sur- roundings (Fig. 3A), (3) edifi ce morphologies which improves to ~10 m in smooth areas [Ford rough areas appear dark. In addition, apparent from steep to broad, cone-shaped to fl at-topped, and Pettengill, 1992; Ford et al., 1993]), and illumination is reversed; hence, right-illuminated and (4) extremely fl at regions in which material (4) full-resolution “F” (75–100 m/pixel) SAR inverted images appear left-illuminated. Five 2° fl owed as low-viscosity material into the lows of imagery of both right- and left-illumination × 2° areas were mapped by four full-resolution delicate topography (Fig. 3E), forming smooth data. All images (F, C1, and synthetic stereo) SAR images of the same region: right and left local surfaces (Fig. 3F). were viewed in both normal and inverted (nega- illumination, and normal and inverted. Images Embayment relations indicate that shield tive) modes to highlight details of primary and were coregistered on the basis of fractures and deposits seem to have fl owed across the surface secondary structures; lineaments are typically wrinkle ridges—features that should be relatively and into local topographic lows and around local more apparent in inverted images. All images unaffected by radar artifacts in near equatorial topographic obstacles; in addition, material presented herein are inverted and right-illumi- locations. Magellan SAR imagery is available from adjacent edifi ces seems to coalesce into nated unless noted. In inverted SAR images, at http://pdsmaps.wr.usgs.gov/maps.html. SAR a thin layer (Figs. 3E, F). The layer apparently radar-smooth areas appear bright and radar- interpretation follows Ford et al. (1993); map- acquired strength after emplacement (Figs. 3A,

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V.L. HANSEN

C, D, and below). I refer to the nonedifi ce 24N 103 104 103 104 deposits as “shield paint” because of inferred 50 km low viscosity during emplacement (like liquid C paint), apparent coalescing of adjacent deposits, and acquisition of postemplacement mechanical strength (like dry paint). Shield paint forms a thin deposit that could be formed from any com- bination of lava fl ows, air-fall deposits, or pyro- clastic fl ows. Guest et al. (1992) reached a simi- 23N 23N lar conclusion. Shield paint forms a thin, locally discontinuous layer that is lace-like in appear- ance; shield paint locally hides, and thinly veils, stratigraphically lower, fracture terrain (Fig. 3). The scale of lacy holes in the shield-paint veil D ranges from hundreds to tens of kilometers, to the resolution of the SAR imagery. To clarify, “shield” refers to individual edifi ces; “shield A 22N B 22N paint” refers to material interpreted to have C D emerged from the edifi ces and that locally sur- 10 km 10 km rounds edifi ces forming a coherent (mechanical) layer; and “shield terrain” refers collectively to shields and shield paint. Shields are primary structures, shield paint is a composite deposit, and shield terrain the composite map unit that displays a characteristic texture. Shield terrain displays a range of temporal relations with local materials and/or structures. For example, shield-terrain formation postdates Figure 4. Area 23N/103E; right-illuminated inverted SAR (A) and geologic map (B) highlight- the major formation of Maya Corona preserved ing defi nite shields (black crosses), potential shields (gray crosses), wrinkle ridges (gray lines), in the NW image area (Figs. 2 and 3A). Although and fractures (black lines); white indicates regions of shield terrain. Locations of enlarge- local reactivation of concentric fractures associ- ments (C) and (D) are indicated. The geologic map (B) was constructed by using coregistered ated with Maya occurred after some shield-paint right- and left-illumination SAR in both normal and inverted modes (as a result, the map does formation, as indicated by crosscutting relations. not show the data gap in shields that shows up in [A], the right illumination image). Relative Evidence of structural reactivation following spacing of wrinkle ridges and shields results in inconclusive temporal relations (A and C); shield-paint emplacement is common across the although some shields postdate secondary structures (white arrows), in most cases shields are study area. Wrinkle ridges also deform shield older than wrinkle ridges or fractures (black arrows), indicating wrinkle ridges dominantly paint (Fig. 3A). postdate shields. Fine-scale polygonal fabric occurs between wrinkle ridges and is best devel- The pattern of shields and preexisting tectonic oped away from shield centers where the unit is likely thin (C). (D) Primary shield structures fabric in southern Llorona Planitia illustrates the locally cover, and therefore formed after, locally preserved basal layer marked by closely detailed spatial nature of the contact between spaced E-trending anastomosing lineaments (black arrows). older basal fracture terrain and younger overly- ing shield terrain (Figs. 2 and 3B). In the region dominated by fracture terrain, shields locally mask the delicate structural fabric (Fig. 3E). that fracture terrain is considered “basement” to shield patterns, shield density, and temporal In the region dominated by shield terrain, the catastrophically emplaced fl ood lava in the relations with adjacent units or structures. Geo- shield paint forms a smooth, continuous layer; global stratigraphic hypothesis.) The extremely logic mapping with C1 SAR data did not reveal individual shields can be diffi cult to delineate, complex contact between underlying fracture any shield patterns. Shields do not appear to although interactive image stretching reveals terrain and shield terrain across such an exten- cluster, but rather they occur across the lowland; a few local edifi ces. In this region, the contact sive low-relief area indicates that shield paint is as such, shields fi t the description of shield ter- between fracture terrain and shield terrain is very thin. This interpretation is consistent with rain (shield plains of Aubele [1996]). Southern extremely digitate at a local scale because shield the estimate of Guest et al. (1992) that shield- Llorona Planitia shield terrain shows little to no paint follows local fracture-related topography associated deposits are likely tens of meters or evidence of reactivation of underlying structures (Fig. 3F). Regionally, the contact is gradational less in thickness. Robust quantifi cation of layer following shield-terrain emplacement. across ~150 km; few obvious shields occur thickness is diffi cult with available SAR data, at location (E) in Figure 3B, and the surface but tens of meters or less is consistent with the Detailed Mapping becomes shield dominated, with only local lace-like character of shield paint. preservation of basal fracture terrain, at the east- Any model of resurfacing for Niobe, Sogo- Detailed geologic maps of fi ve 2° × 2° areas ern edge of Figure 3B. This region generally lon, or Llorona planitiae must consider forma- were constructed to examine local shield pat- resides below a 6051.5-km radius, with very tion of shield terrain. Critical constraints for any terns, densities, and relations with ribbon ter- low topographic relief across the region. (Note hypothesis include the extent of shield terrain, rain and secondary structures (Figs. 4–8). Each

6 Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 B25606 page 7 of 15

VENUS’S SHIELD TERRAIN

22N 113 114 112 113 114 most defi nite shields; 13N/111E has the fewest 50 km defi nite shields and the most combined shields. The average number of defi nite shields and combined shields across all fi ve areas is 247 and 938, respectively, representing average total densities of ~6255 and ~23,445 shields/106 km2, or ~62,500–281,330 shields across 10,000,000– 2 21N 21N 12,000,000 km . This shield density is slightly greater than Aubele’s (1996) shield plains (4500 shields/106 km2), but quite comparable consid- ering the factors related to shield identifi cation C c noted above. Each map region hosts regional E- to ENE- trending wrinkle ridges and N- to NNW-strik- ing fractures (Figs. 2 and 4–8). Each map area yields clues for shield-terrain formation, as A B A 20N 20N discussed below.

20 km C 23N/103E (Fig. 4) hosts at least 402 defi nite shields and 754 combined shields, and NE-trend- ing wrinkle ridges. Defi nite shields and potential shields have similar distributions, with slightly lower densities of defi nite shields in the northeast. An ~20-km-wide data gap obscures the central northern part of 23N/103E. Temporal relations between shields and wrinkle ridges are diffi cult to determine robustly, given the relatively small size and spacing of these primary and secondary structures, and given the fact that shields or varia- tions in shield-paint thickness could contribute to strain partitioning during wrinkle-ridge forma- tion. In some cases, it may appear as though a C shield truncates a wrinkle ridge along trend and therefore would postdate wrinkle-ridge forma- Figure 5. Area 21N/113E; right-illuminated inverted SAR (A) and geologic map (B); symbols tion. However, it is also possible that the shield as in Figure 4; location of enlargement (C) shown in (A) and (B). Wrinkle ridges trend ENE; was emplaced prior to wrinkle-ridge formation, fractures strike NNW. Well-developed fi ne-scale polygonal fabric occurs in patches (light and ridge formation ended as it approached the gray). The boundary between regions displaying fi ne-scale polygonal fabric and regions shield. In addition, given the number of indi- lacking fi ne-scale fabric is sharp to gradational (C), and may refl ect the relative thickness vidual shields and individual wrinkle ridges, it of shield paint with fi ne-scale polygonal fabric marking thinner shield paint. NNW-striking is possible that wrinkle-ridge and shield forma- open fractures that locally cut shields and shield paint (C, arrows) likely represent reactiva- tion overlapped in time. In the region between tion of regional NNW-striking fractures. An ~15-km-diameter circular depression marks wrinkle ridges, a polygonal structure is best the NE corner of the area; extremely fi ne, typically covered, fractures concentric to this developed away from shield centers, indicating structure extend ~60–70 km from its center (dotted lines). that the polygonal structures most likely formed after individual shields (also see Fig. 3C). The pattern likely refl ects strain partitioning resulting area, chosen on the basis of data and geologic as such to the experience of the mapper, as dis- from a thicker material layer near shield centers. criteria, has both right- and left-illumination cussed above. Shields likely exist below SAR But early polygonal fabric formation is also SAR images that lack large data gaps and that resolution, as noted above, thus making maxi- possible. The polygonal fabric shows either a lack large impact craters or large tracts of rib- mum estimates diffi cult to determine. Estimates preferred longitudinal shape parallel to the trend bon terrain or fracture terrain, all of which could of defi nite-shield densities across the fi ve regions of the wrinkle ridges, or no preferred shape. In hamper shield identifi cation and interrupt shield range from 3550 to 10,500 shields/106 km2; these the southeast, shields are superposed on a locally patterns. Map construction used four registered values represent minimum shield densities. Com- preserved basal layer cut by closely spaced E- views: right- and left-illumination full-resolu- bined shield densities (both defi nite and potential trending anastomosing lineaments (Fig. 4D). tion SAR, each in normal and inverted mode. shields) range from 15,650 to 33,675 shields/ Locally NNW-striking fractures cut the shield I ranked shields by confi dence levels: “defi - 106 km2; these values are neither minimum nor paint, but the discontinuous nature of many nite shields” (obvious shields that most workers maximum values, but simply estimates. fracture traces suggests that these fractures were would be quite comfortable calling shields), and There is no direct correlation between the locally reactivated; thus, original fractures likely “potential shields” (possibly controversial fea- number of defi nite shields and combined shields predated most shield paint. tures) (Table 1). The major distinction between for individual regions. For example, 23N/103E 21N/113E (Fig. 5), which hosts at least 167 these divisions relates to data resolution, and hosts the fewest combined shields yet has the defi nite shields and 1080 combined shields,

Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 7 B25606 page 8 of 15

V.L. HANSEN

shows similar relations with respect to wrinkle 14N 111 113 110 111 113 ridges and fractures. This region also preserves 50 km patches of extremely fi ne-scale polygonal fab- ric with diffuse to relatively sharp boundaries D C (Fig. 5C). Both defi nite and potential shields occur within the region of the fi ne polygonal fabric, the boundaries of which are not defi ned by obvious fl ow boundaries. Potential shields 13N 13N are more prominent in the region deformed by polygonal fabric; this might be a matter of contrast with a delicately textured substrate. E Mottled areas free of small-scale polygonal fabric could be aggregates of subresolution shields. Wrinkle ridges cut the polygonal fabric boundary with no obvious spatial pattern rela- tive to the fi ne polygonal fabric, indicating that AB12N 12N there is likely a relative mechanical coherence C D E in the layer across this boundary, although layer 10 km 10 km 10 km thickness may differ across the boundary. The region between wrinkle ridges preserves a fi ne- scale polygonal fabric; in fact, there appears i to be a gradation in the scale of the polygonal i structural fabric across the map area. NNW- striking fractures parallel to the regional trend i are covered by shield paint, and yet locally, they cut individual shield edifi ces (Fig. 5C). An ~15- km-diameter circular depression marks the NE o o corner of 21N/113E; extremely fi ne, commonly covered fractures concentric to this structure Figure 6. Area 13N/111E; right-illuminated inverted SAR (A) and geologic map (B); sym- extend 60–70 km from its center. bols as in Figures 4 and 5; location of enlargements (C–E) shown in (A). Although many 13N/111E (Fig. 6) displays 140 defi nite shields are cut by reactivated N-striking fractures, other shields clearly postdate fracture shields, 1340 combined shields, E-trending reactivation (C, arrows). Locally, shield-paint-fi lled fractures are inverted by later contrac- wrinkle ridges, and N-striking fractures. Locally, tion, resulting in N-trending inversion structures. Folds or wrinkle ridges are marked by shields postdate formation of N-trending linea- light gray lines in (B) and “i” in (D) and (E); open fractures are denoted with “o” (D and ments that both cut and invert shield-paint E); open fractures are locally modifi ed along strike, either covered by shield deposits and/or material (Fig. 6C). The lineaments are appar- forming inversion structures (E). ently extension fractures in places fi lled with shield-paint material, which were subsequently shortened and inverted, forming inversion struc- tures (e.g., DeShon et al., 2000) (Figs. 6D, E). as a result of topographic expression. Isolated fractures, and over 270 defi nite shields and Fracture fi ll (shield paint), layer extension, and patches of fi ne-scale polygonal structures occur 630 combined shields. Although not shown on contraction were apparently extremely local- locally (Fig. 7D) and gradually increase in spac- the Niobe-Greenaway map (Fig. 2), regionally ized, as indicated by open fractures transition- ing away from the shields, consistent with an coherent ribbon trends exist across the region as ing into inversion structures along strike and interpretation that shield paint is thicker near the preserved in isolated kipukas. In strong contrast by close spatial location of open fractures and edifi ces. Locally, a secondary structural fabric, to the fracture terrain illustrated in Figure 3B, the inversion structures. Detailed structural rela- marked by delicate, closely spaced (~500 m or ribbon terrain in this region shows relatively high tions are perhaps most easily interpreted as evi- less), short (~5–20 km) NE-trending lineaments relief, rising from a ~6052-km radius to 6053 km dence that both local extension and contraction (fractures?), transects the surface discontinu- along the northern edge. Shields and shield paint postdate formation of many individual shields, ously (Fig. 7E). The fabric occurs in patches with occur across the topographic range of ribbon ter- but other individual shields postdate extension a parallel lineament trend and similar lineament rain, forming high, isolated deposits (Fig. 8C). and contraction. spacing from patch to patch. Fabric continuity Even at high elevation, shield paint that fl owed 23N/117E (Fig. 7) hosts over 250 defi nite across spatially separate regions supports the into localized lows gently masked ribbon fabrics shields, 1000 combined shields, and inversion interpretation that this fabric is secondary. The (Fig. 8C), indicating that: (1) shield-terrain for- structures. In the northeast corner, patches of rib- tight lineament spacing likely refl ects deforma- mation postdates ribbon-terrain formation here, bon-terrain kipukas peek through a veil of shield tion of a thin layer, here interpreted as deforma- (2) shield terrain forms discontinuously across terrain. Shield paint embays the detailed rib- tion of shield paint. Similar delicate lineament local high relief (i.e., it cannot be connected bon-terrain topography, comprising alternating fabrics (with various orientations) occur across by a continuous datum indicative of low-eleva- parallel (N-trending) ridges and troughs (Hansen much of the Niobe-Greenaway map area. tion embayment), and (3) shield paint is locally and Willis, 1998) (Fig. 7C). Shield paint blends 13N/119E (Fig. 8) includes ribbon-terrain very thin. Regional continuity of ribbon trends into a coherent layer, with shields locally visible kipukas, E-trending wrinkle ridges, N-striking between kipukas is consistent with the interpre-

8 Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 B25606 page 9 of 15

VENUS’S SHIELD TERRAIN

116 117 24N C D ably refractured, repainted (new shields), and 50 km 10 km 10 km C o i experienced subsequent contraction resulting in structural inversion. (7) The regional scale shield-terrain substrate must have remained strong throughout shield-terrain formation and E deformation. It is also likely that shield ter- rain is more globally extensive than currently 23N recognized. Shield terrain occurs across V11 (Shimti Tessera; 25–50N/90–120E) and V12 E o 10 km (Vellamo Planitia; 25–50N/120–150E) (Aubele, 1996); V23 and V24 (0–25N/90–150E; see also D Lang and Hansen, 2003), as discussed here; V4 i (Atalanta Planitia; 50–75N/120–180E; Han- sen, 2003); and southern V52 (Helen Planitia; A 22N o 25–50S/240–270; López and Hansen, 2003). 116 117 118 i Three models of shield-terrain formation are l considered below. i o Flood-Lava Model

As noted above, lowland resurfacing is typically attributed to extensive catastrophi- 23N cally emplaced fl ood-type lava fl ows (e.g., Basilevsky and Head, 1996; Banerdt et al., 1997; Head and Coffi n, 1997; Ivanov and Head, 2001b). This supposition forms the basis for two related hypotheses: catastrophic resurfac- ing (Strom et al., 1994) and global stratigraphy (e.g., Basilevsky and Head, 1996, 1998, 2002; B 22N Head and Basilevsky, 1998). These related hypotheses make specifi c predictions required Figure 7. Area 23N/117E; right-illuminated inverted SAR (A) and geologic map (B); sym- by the crater density data within the context bols as in Figures 4–6; location of enlargements (C–E) shown in (A). Ribbon terrain (dark of catastrophic resurfacing: fl ood lava must be gray) shows ribbon trends (black lines); ribbon fabric is highlighted in (C); note that shield thick (1–3 km) and globally extensive (covering paint fi lls topographic lows of detailed ribbon terrain. Fine-scale polygonal fabric and open the lowlands), and it must have been emplaced (reactivated?) fractures and inversion structures are apparent in (D) and (E). This region very quickly, meaning <100 m.y., with ~10 m.y. also shows a delicate, closely spaced, NE-trending lineament fabric (“l” in E). most likely. The hypotheses further imply that “wrinkle-ridge plains” or “regional plains,” the surface layer of Venus’s vast lowlands (80% of the planet surface), including Niobe, Llorona, tation that ribbon terrain extends beneath shield higher-resolution data might reveal differ- and Sogolon planitiae, represents this globally paint across much of the map area, and that ent relations), nor do they appear to cluster. extensive 1–3-km-thick fl ood-lava unit. Thus, shield terrain is thin at both a local and a regional (3) Shield terrain forms a thin, regionally geologic relations from Niobe-Greenaway scale. Delicate ENE-trending wrinkle ridges that extensive, but locally discontinuous, layer that should provide a test of the catastrophic fl ood- cut shield paint east of the ribbon-terrain kipukas variably veils early tectonic structures pre- lava hypothesis. parallel regional trends (SE Fig. 8E). N-striking served in the preexisting crustal surface, and is Collectively, the observations outlined above fractures both cut and are covered by shield variably cut as a result of local reactivation of are diffi cult to accommodate within the cata- paint, indicating that at least a part of the activ- these same structures. (4) Wrinkle ridges and strophic fl ood-lava hypothesis. The hypothesis ity on these structures overlapped in time with polygonal fabrics generally deform shield paint. calls for 1–3-km-thick fl ows, whereas shield shield-terrain formation. The delicate nature of wrinkle ridges, fractures, terrain, which extends across 10,000,000 km2, is and inversion structures, as well as the region- tens of meters thick. The isolated kipukas of rib- POSSIBLE MODELS FOR SHIELD- ally extensive distribution of these structures bon terrain and fracture terrain (basal, pre–fl ood- TERRAIN FORMATION with little change in orientation, indicates that lava units in the catastrophic fl ood-lava hypoth- shield paint forms an extremely thin (locally esis) are distributed across much of the map area, Any model of shield-terrain formation must absent) deposit that coalesces into a mechani- indicating very shallow depths to “basement.” It address the following observations. (1) Shields cal layer. (5) Shield terrain resides at a range of is diffi cult to envision how a 1–3-km-thick layer distributed across Niobe, Sogolon, and Llorona elevations, including as isolated occurrences in could form lace-like shield terrain that variably planitiae do not, qualitatively, defi ne discernible ribbon terrain (Fig. 9). (6) Shield terrain records and delicately veils and reveals its substrate. It patterns at any scale; (2) shields are not obvi- local reactivation: shield paint covers early- is also diffi cult to envision how 1–3-km-thick ously aligned along major fractures (although formed fractures, which were apparently vari- lava fl ows could extend across topographically

Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 9 B25606 page 10 of 15

V.L. HANSEN

complex terrain and occur in isolation at various 14N 119 120 118 119 120 elevations (e.g., Figs. 8 and 9). Comparison of shield terrain with terrestrial fl ood lava provinces illustrates important dif- ferences in regional extent, lava thickness, and C tectonic setting. Terrestrial fl ood lavas cover regions several orders of magnitude smaller than the area covered by shield terrain within 13N 13N the study area (Fig. 2) (Ernst and Buchan, 2001). Terrestrial fl ood lava typically erupts from relatively few sources and fl ows across the ground surface for extensive distances, but shield-terrain material emerged from individual eruptive centers across millions of square kilo- meters. Brief comparisons of shield terrain AB50 km with the Snake River Plain and the Columbia 12N River Basalt Province, both of the northwestern C United States, are presented below. The Snake River Plain, which covers ~36,000 km2, displays shieldlike volcanic features that are similar to Venus shields in character (morphology), size (Greeley, 1982), and density (~5000 shields/106 km2 [e.g., Kortz and Head, 2001]). Although the precise mode of formation of the Snake River Plain is debated, general geological facts are well known. The Snake River Plain forms a volcanotectonic province localized in a generally E-trending riftlike valley bounded by normal faults to the north and south. Geophysical data indicate that strike-slip faults dissect the interior, yet there is no evidence that “host” rocks from the north or south extend beneath lava fl ows within the 10 km Snake River Plain. That is, there is no evidence for pre-Cenozoic rocks, or basement material, within the Snake River Plain. The depth of vol- Figure 8. Area 13N/119E; right-illuminated inverted SAR (A) and geologic map (B); symbols canic material ranges up to 7–8 km with average as in Figures 4–7; location of enlargement (C) shown in (A). This region displays a large rib- thickness on the order of 1.5–2 km, although the bon terrain inlier with several small inliers (medium gray). N-striking fractures are rare and actual value can be diffi cult to constrain. relatively isolated. Shield paint fi lls local lows and gently masks older ribbon fabrics (C). Therefore, other than the surface expression of the volcanic plain, the Snake River Plain and shield terrain are vastly different. Shield terrain is not limited to a localized rift valley. Kipukas extensively developed shield terrain than that of with a volume of ~170,000 km3, ranges in thick- of isolated ribbon terrain and/or fracture terrain the spatially localized Snake River Plain. ness up to 5 km locally, with an average thick- provide strong evidence of basement units across The Columbia River Basalt Province, also in ness of 1 km. The province includes ~300 indi- the study area. Eruptive centers in shield terrain the northwestern United States and the young- vidual fl ows with an average volume of 560 km3 are scattered across a region three orders of est and perhaps best-studied classic terrestrial per fl ow. Linear vents occur in the eastern part magnitude larger than the entire regional limit of fl ood-lava province (e.g., Reidel and Hooper, of the province with individual vents as long as Snake River Plains fl ows. The area illustrated in 1989; Ernst and Buchan, 2001), might be bet- 150 km; such lengths would extend almost the Figure 3B alone covers ~160,000 km2, an order ter to compare with Venus’s shield terrain. The of magnitude larger area than the entire Snake Columbia River Basalt Province covers an area River Plain; yet isolated eruptive centers are almost fi ve times larger than the Snake River 2 TABLE 1. NUMBERS AND DENSITIES OF DEFINITE- clearly delineated on the backdrop of the frac- Plain (~164,000 km ), although it is more than SHIELDS (DS) AND COMBINED SHIELDS (CS) ture-terrain basement. Each detailed map area of 50 times smaller than the extent of shield terrain Center DS CS DS/106 km2 CS/106 km2 shield terrain (Figs. 4–8) covers ~40,000 km2— within the study area (Fig. 2). The Columbia areas individually larger than the entire Snake River Basalt Province lacks the distinctive mor- 23N/103E 402 626 10,500 15,650 River Plain. Yet none of these areas shows any phological character of the Snake River Plain 21N/113E 167 1080 4175 27,000 evidence to suggest the existence of tectonic volcanic shields, and as such, morphological 13N/111E 142 1347 3550 33,675 boundaries. Clearly, the mode of volcanic comparison with shield terrain is much less com- 23N/117E 251 1005 6275 25,125 emplacement is vastly different for Venus’s pelling. The Columbia River Basalt Province, 13N/119E 271 631 7078 15,775

10 Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 B25606 page 11 of 15

VENUS’S SHIELD TERRAIN

or presence of a large subsurface magma body. A Even if one considered two (or more) separate magma bodies (one each under Niobe, Sogolon, and Llorona planitiae), each subsurface magma body would have a minimum sill-like diameter of ~1500 km (likely larger, as Niobe and Llo- rona each extend >1000 km north of the map area). It seems diffi cult to “hide” such large subsurface magma bodies. In addition, the crust or surface upon which shield terrain is emplaced displays apparent strength throughout shield terrain development, contrary to what would be expected above a regionally extensive subsur- face magma body. We might expect large radial B fracture patterns refl ecting dikes and subsurface magma transport, as observed in large terrestrial igneous provinces (e.g., Ernst and Buchan, 2001), but there is no evidence of these regional tectonic patterns within the study area (Fig. 2). It is also diffi cult to justify how large subsur- face magma chambers could preserve shallow, yet extensive, crustal patterns of preexisting surfaces such as ribbon or fracture terrain. Addi- tionally, a large subsurface magma body would more likely result in large focused eruptions to Figure 9. Cartoon block diagrams. (A) Highly schematic shields and shield paint and fracture the surface rather than numerous, closely spaced relations; shield material emanates from local point sources at relatively shallow crustal levels (on the order of kilometers), small eruptions. If (gray ellipses); material leaks upward along fractures, presumably driven by buoyancy forces the magma source was deep and emerged to the and fl ows outward from individual centers. Local reactivation of fractures cut some shield surface, then the thousands of individual erup- deposits, but younger deposits cover fractures locally. (B) Shield terrain occurs as isolated tive centers are diffi cult to justify. exposures in topographically complex elevated ribbon terrain; source material apparently Perhaps thousands of individual eruptive cen- emerges from localized subsurface locations (gray shaded areas within the subsurface). ters could exist above a huge subsurface magma body if the crust were porous to magma, and magma could leak to the surface like thousands of groundwater-like seeps. However, such a length of the detailed geologic maps (Figs. 4–8). evenly over the ~10,000,000 km2 of study area scenario is inconsistent with the preservations of Individual fl ows might reach 750 km. covered by shield terrain would be ~17 m thick. numerous isolated kipukas of basal ribbon terrain Although the timing and mode of lava This value is two orders of magnitude thinner and fracture terrain, among other considerations. emplacement are debated, the relatively focused than the 1–3 km called for in the catastrophic A model of numerous small subsurface location of fl ow sources, the long vents, and fl ood-lava hypothesis. magma chambers (so as not to disturb the the great length of individual fl ows are indi- Another signifi cant problem with the cata- surface and leave evidence of their subsurface cations that the mode of emplacement of the strophic fl ood-lava hypothesis involves magma existence) through time to accommodate the Columbia River Basalt Province differs from storage. In addition to requiring a huge volume close shield spacing would not address the very that of Venus’s shield terrain. Shield-terrain of magma (10,000,000–30,000,000 km3) just to fast emplacement of fl ood lava as required by eruptive centers are distributed across over cover the lowlands in the study area, the magma the fl ood-lava catastrophic resurfacing model, 10,000,000 km2, a region that dwarfs the extent required for catastrophic fl ooding of this region and the problems alluded to here with regard of the Snake River Plain and the Columbia would have had to be stored at depth. Given that to lava fl ow thickness would remain. Thus, River Basalt Province combined (Fig. 2). Erup- eruptive centers pepper the ~10,000,000 km2 the regional extent of shield terrain and the tive centers responsible for all of the volcanic region of shield terrain, the magma should be incredible number and extensive distribution of rocks of the Snake River Plain and the Colum- stored locally across the entire region. However, eruptive centers seem paradoxical and hard to bia River Basalt Province must be confi ned to a it would seem that the existence of such a large accommodate within the global and catastrophic relatively small area indicated by the dashed line subsurface magma body would impose differ- fl ood-lava hypothesis. box in Figure 2. Additionally, individual shield- ential stresses across the overlying surface; and terrain fl ows are extremely small in comparison such differential stresses, if they had existed, Mud Volcano Model to individual fl ows within the Columbia River should be refl ected in surface strain features Basalt Province. Clearly the mode of volcanic such as wrinkle ridges or fractures. Yet across The catastrophic fl ood-lava hypothesis for emplacement, and presumably lava formation, the study area, wrinkle ridges and fractures lowland resurfacing does not address, among must be different for the Venus province as parallel broad regional trends that are consistent other things, the occurrence of thousands of compared to these terrestrial provinces. The with loading by Aphrodite Terra (Sandwell et al., small individual eruptive centers across a vast volume of Columbia River Plateau basalt spread 1997), and do not seem to refl ect the size, shape, low-relief region with little evidence of focused

Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 11 B25606 page 12 of 15

V.L. HANSEN tectonic activity. In order to address this par- nel-shaped. Mud volcanoes occur in a range of rain outcrops entirely surrounded by older basal ticular concern, it could be useful to turn to tectonic environments, from convergent margin ribbon terrain or fracture terrain (e.g., Fig. 3B) terrestrial ocean basins, which might provide setting (including on accretionary complexes), and with the regionally thin character of shield the closest analog for a similar regional setting to deltaic regimes, to passive margin settings, terrain. Perhaps ocean currents infl uenced depo- on Earth. We must be mindful, however, that and they are commonly spatially (and likely sition and thus somehow contributed to uneven the mere presence of Earth’s kilometer deep temporally) associated with both extensional sediment draping, but this explanation could oceans inhibit extensive analysis of the ocean- and contractional tectonic structures. not account for thin isolated shield terrain (mud basin surface at a scale and resolution required Submarine mud volcanoes in particular, such volcanoes and host sediment). Presumably, mud to make comparisons with Venus’s lowland. as those described from deepwater Nigeria volcanoes would be diffi cult to form in isola- Despite this limitation, recent studies of parts of (Graue, 2000), might provide analogs for Venus’s tion on ribbon terrain or fracture terrain (e.g., Earth’s ocean fl oor reveals data useful to con- shield paint. The 1–2-km-diameter Nigerian Fig. 3B), given that there would not be an obvi- sider here—the occurrence of submarine mud mud volcanoes show spatial association with ous source of sediment on basal terrain to form volcanoes whose morphology, size, and spacing numerous pockmarks (which may be similar the mud volcanoes. Additionally, isolated shield (e.g., Graue, 2000; Dimitrov, 2002) are similar to Venusian features mapped as small shields terrain is clearly not several kilometers thick, to shields of Venus’s shield terrain. herein) and cuspate faults. Mud volcanoes can as seems to be required for the mud volcano Shield morphology aside, why would terres- erupt fi ne-grained mud matrix or mud breccia hypothesis. Although sediment could have been trial mud volcanoes, which require vast quan- with millimeter- to meter-sized clasts. Thus, in removed after mud volcano eruption to exposed tities of liquid water, merit comparison with SAR images, fl ow material could be either radar- ribbon or fracture terrain substrate, there is no Venus’s shield terrain? Clearly, Venus’s ultradry dark or -bright. Although much is unknown about obvious evidence of widespread erosion (or sub- surface currently harbors no liquid water (e.g., terrestrial mud volcanoes, they are generally sequent deposition) or shield truncation to sup- Donahue and Russell, 1997; Donahue et al., associated with rapid deposition of thick young port this scenario. Thus, although a mud volcano 1997). However, the present is not always the (Tertiary or younger) sediments, with sediment model might address extensive development of key to the past. Earth’s current environmental piles several kilometers thick, up to perhaps numerous closely spaced point-source eruptions, conditions are vastly different from ancient 10–12 km. Rapid sedimentation of dominantly such a model does not appear consistent with terrestrial conditions, and Venus’s past environ- clay-to-silt sediments apparently causes under- documented detailed geologic relations. mental conditions were likely different as well. compaction and overpressuring of buried depos- As noted in the section on Venus’s surface its, setting the stage for subsequent focused mud In Situ Partial Melt Model environment, Venus could have hosted an ancient eruptions. Mud volcanoes might require fi ne- global ocean. The high deuterium/hydrogen ratio grained overburden gas-charged deposits over A third class of model to consider is shield- of Venus’s atmosphere is consistent with the inter- 1.5–2 km deep in a sedimentary section, continu- terrain formation resulting from in situ point- pretation that Venus once held the equivalent of a ous hydrocarbon (or other gas) generation, and source partial melting of the crust (tertiary melt global ocean with a depth of 4–530 m (Donahue active tectonism (Dimitrov, 2002). formation) with subsequent rise of melt to the et al., 1982; Donahue and Russell, 1997; Hunten, By analogy, shield paint might represent surface along, presumably preexisting, fracture 2002). The presence of a Venusian global ocean coalesced eruptions of numerous mud volca- conduits. It would seem most likely that shield has also been proposed on the basis of geologi- noes. At fi rst glance, it might seem that the forming melt was of relatively low viscosity in cal interpretation of Venus channels; Jones and apparent strength of the shield paint with its order to migrate to the surface, although the Pickering (2003) argued that channels across ability to host fracture and fold suites, and that range of individual shield morphologies may Venus formed as subaqueous channels similar to the time-transgressive character of shield-terrain imply a range of melt viscosity, or melt crys- terrestrial submarine channels. Whether Venus’s formation and deformation are inconsistent with tallinity. Melt could rise because of buoyancy, channels formed in this manner, or whether a mud volcano hypothesis. However, broad, driven by density contrast between the melt and they represent other processes entirely (e.g., synchronous development of mud volcanoes and the surrounding material. Such a contrast could Baker et al., 1997), is outside the scope of this local deformation occur on Earth (e.g., Graue, result from differences in composition, tempera- contribution. However, given the morphological 2000). Mud volcanoes, together with wrinkle ture, or a combination. similarity of submarine terrestrial mud volcanoes ridges, polygonal fabrics, reactivated extension But what could cause shallow, point-source to Venus’s shield-terrain shields, a mud volcano fractures, and inversion structures, could have partial melt in the crust over extensive regions? hypothesis for shield-terrain formation is pursued formed in an ancient Venus ocean fl oor environ- Incipient point source partial melting of the crust further herein. ment or as a result of ancient ocean desiccation. might result from a regional elevated thermal The widespread development of numerous More signifi cant problems with a mud profi le. Hansen and Bleamaster (2002) proposed shallow eruptive sources could result from water volcano origin of shield terrain might be the that incipient point source partial melting could (or fl uid)-saturated sediments with eruptions of apparent discontinuous or lacelike nature of be induced or enhanced if the temperature of a mud, forming volcanoes. Mud volcanoes have shield paint, and the thin layer thickness of rock mass, together with local radioactive ele- been recognized in increasingly larger numbers shield material above the ribbon terrain or frac- ment concentration, pushes the host rock into a and across broader regional areas with ocean- ture terrain basement. If the Venusian lowlands partial melt condition. Partial melting of basalt fl oor exploration at an effective resolution once held ancient oceans one might expect can also occur because of the addition of water consistent with mud volcano identifi cation (e.g., sedimentary cover to be pervasive, draping (and at depth (e.g., Green, 1982; Thompson, 2001). Graue, 2000; Dimitrov, 2002). Mud volcanoes presumably completely burying) ribbon-terrain Water can be carried to depth through subduc- range in size from tens of meters to 3–4 km in topography more equitably than observed. In tion processes, as on Earth; or water could exist diameter with heights to ~500 m; they display a addition, a requirement of several kilometers of in hydrated minerals and be released at depth as wide range of morphologies, including plateau sediment for mud volcano formation is at odds a result of dehydration reactions (e.g., Beard and shapes that are peaked, fl at, mounded, or fun- with the occurrence of small isolated shield ter- Lofgren, 1991).

12 Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 B25606 page 13 of 15

VENUS’S SHIELD TERRAIN

Is it possible that Venus’s crust could have Strong infrared absorption by the high-density esis calls for the emplacement of 1–3-km-thick experienced in situ partial melting as a result CO2 atmosphere would insulate melt, enhance fl ood-lava across Venus’s lowland regions. But of dehydration reactions? Such a hypothesis low viscosity, and lead to extremely slow cool- the lowland within the study area is covered by a requires a hydrated Venus crust, which in turn ing as a result of the inability of the melt to thin, locally discontinuous layer of shield terrain requires water. As noted above, current data are release heat due to low convective heat loss at marked by thousands of small eruptive centers consistent with the notion that Venus could have high atmospheric pressure (e.g., Snyder, 2002). distributed across the entire region. The shield- had an ancient global ocean, and as such, Venus’s A low melt-surface temperature differential terrain layer lies directly above basal ribbon ter- basaltic crust could have become hydrated—pre- would further slow crystallization (Stofan et al., rain or fracture terrain and cannot accommodate sumably altered to amphibole mineralogy (e.g., 2000). Thus, elevated concentrations of radio- the 1–3-km thickness of fl ood lava required Johnson and Fegley, 2000, 2003). active elements, global high temperature, or a by the catastrophic fl ood-lava hypothesis. The Even if Venus’s surface did not host wide- combination could trigger shallow in situ par- occurrence of shield terrain therefore requires spread oceans, water could have existed in a tial melting and allow melt that emerged from renewed consideration of Venus resurfacing more localized way in time or space through numerous individual centers to coalesce into processes that operated across the lowland. delivery by icy comets. Icy comets could deliver a extensive, discontinuous, yet coherent, thin The mud volcano and in situ partial melt water to Venus at a rate equal to or greater shield paint at the surface. Crystallized shield models for shield-terrain formation have vastly than exospheric escape over the last billion paint could form a thin mechanically coherent different implications for Venus’s evolution, and years (Bullock and Grinspoon, 2001). Because layer that could be deformed by fractures, folds, yet both models might suggest a wet ancient comet size and fl ux were greater in the past, the warps, wrinkle ridges, and inversion structures, Venus. The mud volcano hypothesis would seem amount of water that could have been delivered whereas regional crust (substrate) would remain to require the occurrence of a moderately deep, to Venus by icy comets could have been even strong. The in situ partial melt process might be globally extensive ocean. The water required by greater prior to 1 billion years ago. For example, compared to partial melting in terrestrial mig- the in situ partial melt hypothesis would not have a billion-year-ago comet could deliver as much matite terrain, with partial melt escaping to local had to exist as a thick globally extensive layer but as 40 times the current atmospheric abundance low-pressure regions, resulting in local differen- would require basalt hydration. Both hypotheses of H2O in an instant (Bullock and Grinspoon, tiation. Similarly, the in situ partial melt hypoth- can be accommodated within, but do not require, 2001). Icy comet water could have contributed esis proposed here could result in local crustal a global evolutionary framework that includes to basalt hydration in localized regions or across differentiation, with shield terrain forming a an ancient thin lithosphere and a contemporary the planet. Thus, Venus’s basaltic crust could thin layer of more felsic material (e.g., Fig. 9). thick lithosphere, a view supported by many have been hydrated in an ancient ocean setting, This process could occur independent of surface data sets, numerical models, and theoretical as icy comets delivered water to an ancient elevation, with individual packets of partial melt arguments (e.g., Grimm, 1994; Solomatov and Venus, or both. The idea of widespread hydra- leaked to the surface from thousands of sub- Moresi, 1996; Schubert et al., 1997; Hansen and tion of Venus’s crust is not new. Lecuyer et al. surface locations where in situ partial melting Willis, 1998; Phillips and Hansen, 1998). If the (2000) argued that Venus once had a volume of occurred. The thousands of individual eruptive spirit of either model is correct, the presence of water similar to that of Earth, and that a combi- centers could leak material to the surface where global water would likely change crustal rheol- nation of crustal hydration and hydrogen escape it could coalesce, forming shield paint. ogy, which could, in turn, affect the formation processes could explain the present-day low Detailed discussion of partial melt formation and evolution of crustal plateaus and ancient amount and high deuterium/hydrogen ratio of by concentration of radioactive elements or impact craters. In addition, impact craters formed water in the Venusian atmosphere. Thus, wide- dehydration reactions is nontrivial and beyond on thin global lithosphere or in the presence of a spread hydration of an ancient basaltic crust on the scope of the current contribution. Either global ocean might have quite a different signa- Venus seems feasible given the available data. mechanism could favor specifi c terrain that was ture than Venus’s ~970 “pristine” impact craters. Assuming a hydrated basaltic Venusian crust, predisposed to such reactions. Research that Thus, Venus’s surface could record a signifi - Venus’s current environmental conditions (e.g., delves into in situ partial melting should con- cantly longer history than ca. 750 Ma, an aver-

~750 K, dry, 92 bars CO2) would not result in for- sider that carbon dioxide or water could have age model surface age based solely on currently mation of shallow partial melt. However, Venus existed as supercritical fl uids. recognized (pristine) impact craters. High global was not only likely wetter in the past, but also hot- High global temperatures predicted by climate temperatures predicted by climate models (e.g., ter because of higher levels of greenhouse gases models (e.g., Bullock and Grinspoon, 1996, Bullock and Grinspoon, 1996, 2001; Phillips et (Bullock and Grinspoon, 1996, 2001). Climate 2001; Phillips et al., 2001) could spur shield-ter- al., 2001) could spur shield-terrain formation via models indicate that ancient surface temperature rain formation via in situ partial melting of previ- in situ partial melting; or high global tempera- could have reached or exceeded 1000 K (Phillips ously hydrated basaltic crust. Local heating and ture could result in boiling and evaporation of a et al., 2001), resulting in a relatively steep thermal cooling could provide thermal stresses leading global ocean, leaving behind mud volcanoes and gradient. An elevated thermal gradient could trig- to contraction and extension of the shield-ter- desiccation structures including wrinkle ridges, ger dehydration of previously hydrated basaltic rain layer, resulting in wrinkle-ridge formation polygonal fabrics, and inversion structures. The crustal material at shallow crustal levels; dehy- (e.g., Anderson and Smrekar, 1999; Solomon et presence of global water would also affect cli- dration could in turn cause shallow in situ partial al., 1999) and fracture-fi ll inversion of the thin, mate itself and thus have implications for current melting of hydrous basalt (Green, 1982) or, per- regionally extensive, shield-paint layer. climate models, as pointed out by Bullock and haps more likely, continued amphibole dehydra- Grinspoon (2001). tion and resulting partial melting (e.g., Beard and SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS The catastrophic fl ood-lava hypothesis falls Lofgren, 1991; Zolotov et al., 1997; Johnson and short in accommodating the location, density, Fegley, 2000, 2003; Thompson, 2001). The data presented here do not support the and character of extensive shield terrain. The Partial melt (presumably tertiary), once catastrophic fl ood-lava hypothesis for Venus’s mud volcano hypothesis also has problems as formed, could rise to the surface along fractures. resurfacing. The catastrophic fl ood-lava hypoth- discussed; however, given that this hypothesis

Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2005 13 B25606 page 14 of 15

V.L. HANSEN

batical at the Australia National University, granted by Hunten, D.M., and Phillips, R.J., eds., Venus II—Geol- predicts such different evolutionary conditions Southern Methodist University and hosted by ANU. ogy, geophysics, atmosphere, and solar wind environ- and history for Venus, it perhaps should be I thank the staff at both institutions for making my ment: Tucson, University of Arizona Press, p. 697–756. explored further. Although existing data favor visit possible. This work continued with a move to the DeShon, H.R., Young, D.A., and Hansen, V.L., 2000, Geo- logic evolution of southern Rusalka Planitia, Venus: the in situ partial melt model because it seems University of Minnesota–Duluth, where it has been Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 105, p. 6983– to best explain geological relations, given supported in part by the McKnight Foundation. 6995, doi: 10.1029/1999JE001155. the large number of unknowns with regard to Dimitrov, L.I., 2002, Mud volcanoes—The most important REFERENCES CITED pathway for degassing deeply buried sediments: Earth- Venus’s evolution, it would seem scientifi cally Science Reviews, v. 59, p. 49–76, doi: 10.1016/S0012- 8252(02)00069-7. capricious to discount either the mud volcano Anderson, F.S., and Smrekar, S.E., 1999, Tectonic effects of cli- Donahue, T.M., 1999, New analysis of hydrogen and deu- mate change on Venus: Journal of Geophysical Research, or partial melt model at this point (e.g., Gilbert, terium escape from Venus: Icarus, v. 141, p. 226–245, v. 104, p. 30,743–30,756, doi: 10.1029/1999JE001082. doi: 10.1006/icar.1999.6186. 1886; Chamberlin, 1897). 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