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Appendix: Astronomical Distance and Energy Units Appendix: Astronomical Distance and Energy Units Astronomical Distances Te fundamental distance unit in astronomy is the light year, the distance light travels in one year at its speed in vacuum of 299,792.458 km/sec (nor- mally written in physics as km s−1). For the purpose of this book we can use the value of 300,000 km s−1 as a good approximation. Te year which is used to defne a light year is the “Julian year” which is 365.25 days, each of 86,400 seconds. Tis makes a total of 31,557,600 seconds. With these defni- tions one light year is 9,460,730,472,580.8 km (which is 9.461 Petametres). Because of the history of making measurements to stars, the unit of dis- tance most commonly used by astronomers until recently is the parsec, which has a value of 3.26156 light years. Te method on which all astronomical distances are based is that of triangulation, looking at an object from two positions, at a known separation, and measuring the diference in the angle at which the object is observed. In astronomy the separation of the two positions is the mean Sun-Earth distance, and an object which appears to move on the sky by one arc second when observed from points with this separation is defned to be at a distance of 1 parsec. A parsec is, as we see, bigger than a light year, so it was used for the enormous distances to astronomical objects, although as physics plays an ever more important role in astronomy, there has been a recent tendency to quote in light years. Abbreviation for parsec is pc, with corresponding kiloparsec kpc, Megaparsec Mpc, Gigaparsec, Gpc etc. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 371 J. E. Beckman, Multimessenger Astronomy, Astronomers’ Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68372-6 372 Appendix: Astronomical Distance and Energy Units To give some relevant examples: Distance to the nearest star, Proxima Centauri 4.243 light years = 1.3 pc. Distance to the centre of the Galaxy: just over 26 thousand light years, i.e. close to 8 kpc. Distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud 158 thousand light years, 48.4 kpc. Distance to the Andromeda galaxy (within our local group) 2540 million light years 780 kpc. Distance to the centre of the nearest big galaxy cluster (Virgo cluster) about 65 million light years 20 Mpc. Distance to the furthest currently known galaxy 13.3 thousand million light years 4 Gpc. Energies of Particles and Radiation at X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Wavelengths Te unit of energy is the electron-volt, written eV. Its value is: 1.602 × 10−19 joules. It is the energy gained by an electron when its potential increases by 1 volt. An energy of 1 electron-volt (eV) corresponds to a near infrared photon of wavelength 1240 nanometres (nm) and a photon of visible light in the red, at 620 nm has an energy of 2 eV. Multiples of electron volts: kiloelectron- Megaelectron- Gigaelectron- Teraelectron- Name volt volt volt volt Abbreviation keV MeV GeV TeV Multiple of 1000 (103) 1,000,000 (106) 1000 million 1012 eV (109) Name Petaelectron-volt Exaelectron-volt Abbreviation PeV EeV Multiple of eV 1015 1018 X-rays have energies in the kiloelectron-volt (keV) range. Gamma-rays have energies in the Megaelectron-volt (MeV) range and higher. Index of Objects A Centaurus A, 169, 170 Abell 370 (galaxy cluster), 37, 38 Cepheid variables, 25–39, 251, 302 Abell 383, 171 Chromosphere, 90, 91, 124, 133, 155, AGB stars, 314, 316–318, 338 349, 350 ALH 84001 meteorite, 341 Columbia Hills (Mars), 343 Allende meteorite, 320–322 Coma (galaxy) cluster, 173, 323, Andromeda galaxy (M31), 7, 10, 48, 325, 359 50, 51, 103, 135, 366–369, 372 Comet Asteroid Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P), Anne Frank, 322 112, 113, 124, 327, 328 Bennu, 332, 333 Grigg-Skjellerup, 327 Itokawa, 313, 329–331 Halley, 120, 325–327, 335 Ryugu, 331–332 Shoemaker-Levy 9, 112 Vesta, 312 Tempel, 97, 322 Wild-2, 318 Copernicus (crater), 119, 134, 336 B Corona (solar), 90, 91, 123–125, 128, B stars, 129, 162, 164 155, 157, 159, 349, 352 Bullet cluster, 172 Coronal hole, 124, 126, 159, 349, 352 Crab Nebula C pulsar, 68, 166, 278 Cassiopeia A (supernova remnant), xv, Cygnus A (radiogalaxy), 45, 57, 22, 57, 59, 62, 94, 95, 102, 103, 58, 62–70 161, 165–168, 173, Cygnus Loop, see Veil Nebula 186–190, 360–365 Cygnus X, 110, 111 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 373 J. E. Beckman, Multimessenger Astronomy, Astronomers’ Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68372-6 374 Index of Objects Cygnus X-1, 147, 164 L 3C273, x, 63, 64, 139 Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), 26, 86, 93, 99, 136, 137, 211, 213, 215, 250, 293, 359, 372 E LMXB V404 Cyg, 163 Europa, 127, 346 Lyman-a forest, 140, 142 Lynds 1544, 111 F Fornax (galaxy) cluster, 173 M Fra Mauro Highlands, 334, 335 M1, see Crab Nebula M51, 5, 102, 104, 105 M87 (black hole), 60, 75, 76 G Mare Galactic centre, 45, 87, 94, 168, 185, Imbrium, 335 193, 197, 355, 357, 358, 360 Tranquilitatis, 335 Galactic plane, x, 45, 47, 87, 97, 110, Mars, xiv, 111, 312, 327, 338–344 193, 298, 360 Mercury, 67, 93, 224 Galaxy, the, see Milky Way Milky Way, x, xv, ix, 25, 34, 40, 45, 48, Gale crater (Mars), 343 78, 84–86, 88, 94, 95, 97–99, Ganymede, 127, 346 102, 103, 110, 135, 159, 175, “Great Attractor,” 298 228, 244, 255, 298, 306, 309, GW150914, 241–246 353–360, 364, 366 GW170814, 245–247 Moon, the, x, xiv, 1, 22, 63, 81, 82, 84, GW170817, 195, 245–252 95, 113, 126, 145, 219, 223, 312, 316, 320, 332–338, 344, 358, 363 H Murchison meteorite, 318–320, 337 Hadley Rill, 334 Herbig As/Be stars, 128 Hercules X-1, 147 N HL Tauri, 73 NGC 1952, see Crab Nebula HS 0105+1619, 140 NGC 3433, 42, 43 NGC 4565, 32, 34 NGC 4993, 249, 252 I NGC 5194, 104 Io, 126, 127, 346 O J Oort cloud, 113 John Klein rock (Mars), 343 Orion-Eridanus Superbubble, 160 Jupiter, 1, 89, 102, 111–113, 126, 127, Orion Nebula, 41, 70, 87, 97, 98, 163, 134, 312, 327, 345–348 173, 359 Index of Objects 375 P Supernova remnant (SNR) RX Pluto, 92, 94 J1713.7-3946, 189 Pulsar PSR B1913+16, 69 Syrtis Major, 340 Q T Quasar 3C273 Taurus A, see Crab Nebula 3C 05.34, 136 Taurus-Littrow Valley, 334 HS 0105+1619, 140 Trappist-1, 106–108 T Tauri stars, 128 TW Hydrae, 111 R TXS 0506 + 056, 222, 280 Radiosource 3C273, x, 63, 64, 139 Tycho (crater), 336 Ring Nebula, 130 U S Uranus, 5, 91, 93, 126 Sagittarius A*, 197, 357 Sanduleak-69202a, 215 Saturn, 89, 111, 126 V Scorpius X-1, 145 V404 Cygni, 163 Shapley (galaxy) supercluster, 175, Veil Nebula, 22, 23, 161, 362–364 359 Vela, 147, 179, 194, 298, 359 Small Magellanic Cloud, 86 Vela X-1, 147 SNa (supernova) 1987a Virgo (galaxy) cluster, 173, 233, 241, Tycho Brahe’s supernova 244, 245, 247, 249, 250, (3C-10), 168 253–257, 359, 372 SS433, 165 Sun, the, xv, xiv, xii, xiii, 1, 24, 30, 31, 36, 42, 45, 57, 64, 67, 83, 84, W 89–91, 102, 119, 120, 123, 124, W5 star forming region, 100 126, 128–133, 145, 156–160, Whirlpool Galaxy, see M51 203–208, 210–212, 215, 216, 218, 225, 230, 243, 256, 264, 271, 311, 312, 316, 320, 325, Y 327–329, 338, 349–353, 371 Yellowknife Bay (Mars), 343 Name Index 1 A Brillet, Allain, 233 Aldrin, Buzz, 334 Brogan, Cristal, 73 Alpher, Ralph, 286 Burbidge, Geofrey, 60, 266 Altwegg, Kathrin, 113 Burbidge, Margaret, 286 Anderson, Carl, 267–268, 295 Burgay, Marta, 69 Audouze, Jean, 266 Burrows, David, 160 Butler, Cliford, 269 B Baade, Walter, 60 C Bahcall, John, 139, 204–206, 212, 213 Casares, Jorge, 163 Barish, Barry, 234, 244, 245 Cavalié, Tibault, 112, 348 Beckman, John, 15, 34, 43 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 2 Beebe, Reta, 112, 348 Charles(Phi), 163 Bell-(Burnell), Dame Jocelyn, 64, 65 Cherenkov, Pavel Bethe, Hans, 286 Efect, 209, 274, 276 Billing, Heinz, 232 Telescope Array, 191, 281, 309 Biswas, Sukumar, 269 Chiu, Hong-Yee, 64 Blanchet, Luc, 242 Cocke, John, 67 Bogard, Donald, 339 Cockroft, Sir John, 268, 269 Bolton, John, 63 Conrad, Pete, 334 Bondi, Hermann, 224, 226 Copernicus, Nicolas, 119 Borlaf, Alejandro S., 34–37 Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 259 Boyle, Willard, 20 Cowan, Clyde, 200, 201 Brahe, Tycho, 165 Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 259 1 Names in bold face are of Nobel Laureates © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 377 J. E. Beckman, Multimessenger Astronomy, Astronomers’ Universe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68372-6 378 Name Index D Giazotto, Adalberto, 233 Das Gupta, Mrinal, 62 Gleason, James, 339 Davis, Ray Jr., 204–207, 213 Gold, Tomas, 65 Delrez, Laetitia, 107 Goto, Tomonaga, 141 Dirac, Paul, 267 Gregory, James, 9 Disney, Mike, 67 Gunn, Jim, 141, 142 Drever, Ron, 233, 234 Guo, Zhiyu, 160 Duhalde, Oscar, 211, 250 Gursky, Herbert, 145 Duke, Charlie, 334 Dunham, Edward, 91 H Herschel, Sir William, 5, 14, E 43, 81, 195 Eddy, John, 89 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 25, 29 Einstein, Albert, 3, 18, 36, 147, Hess, Victor, 260–262, 277 151–153, 162, 223–224, 230, Hewish, Anthony, 64–66 255, 293, 304 Higgs, Peter, 309 Elliott, James, 91 Hopper, Victor, 269 Erwin, Peter, 34 Hoyle, Sir Fred., 39, 266, 285, Ewen, Harold, 64 286, 296 Hubble, Edwin, 2, 285 Hulbert, Edward, 145 F Hulse, Russell, 67, 225 Fabry, Charles, 231 Faraday, Michael, 259 Fellgett,Peter, 82 I Feynman, Richard, 226 Irwin, James, 334 Field, George, 228 Izotov, Yuri, 291 Font, Joan, 15 Forward, Robert, 229 Fowler, Willy, 39, 134, 286 J Franz Ferdinand, Grand Duke, 261 Jansky, Karl, 45, 46, 56, 59, 61, 251, Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 6, 9 347, 361, 365 Freedman, Wendy, 26 Jeferts, Keith, 70 Friedman, Herbert, 145 Jennison, Roger, 62 Johnson, Harold, 82 Johnson, Jennifer, 40 G Jones, Albert, 212 Galilei, Galileo, 1 Gamow, George, 285, 286 Genzel, Reinhard, 87, 88, 359 K Ghez, Andrea, 88, 356 Kafka, Peter, 228 Giacconi, Riccardo, 145, 146 Kaiser, Tom, 312 Name Index 379 Kajita, Takaaki,
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