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Bandits and Biopolitics: Power, Control, and Exploitation in Cidade dos Homens (2007)

I am Favela Yes, but the favela was never the refuge of the marginal, I said There are only humble people, marginalized And this truth does not appear in the newspaper The favela is a social problem. —Bezerra da Silva1

Stephen A. Cruikshank* metropolitan sprawls of São Paulo and Rio” (xiii). Such sensationalism is evident The urban slums of Brazil, known in the 2002 hit flm Cidade de Deus (City as “favelas,” are sanctuaries for bandits, of God), co-directed by Fernando Meire- villains of state power, that have drawn lles and Kátia Lund. Originally adapted public attention through the narratives of from Paulo Lins’ 1997 novel of the same twenty-frst century Brazilian flm. Else R. name, the flm’s plot is loosely based on P. Vieira notes that “Brazilian flms have real events that depict the criminal under- been sweeping over the favelas, catch- takings and drug wars in the Rio de Janeiro ing Brazil’s and the world’s eyes, making favela Cidade de Deus occurring between ever more visible the burgeoning of these the late 1960’s and early 1980’s. Cidade de quintessential sites of exclusion, as if Deus was met with both domestic and inter- they were self-contained cities within the national success, receiving four Academy

*Stephen Cruikshank is a 2015 SSHRC doctoral prize recipient and a Ph.D. student in the department of Modern Languages and Cultural Studies at the University of Alberta, Canada. His research focuses on Latin American Studies and culture, with particular at- tention to the Caribbean and Brazil.

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Award nominations in 2004. Two years fol- in Brazil between the metropolis and the lowing the flm’s initial release, Meirelles slums, between the citizen (o cidadão) and and Lund, with the support of 20th Century the favelado. I contend that what allows Fox and TV Globo, went on to direct the the flm to cultivate the successful nation- four-season television program Cidade dos al image of favelados is the presentation Homens (City of Men) between the years of the “biopolitical event” of urban re- 2002 and 2005. The series met with sim- sistance,2 an event that has its roots in the ilar success and was watched by millions hegemonic power system of the favelas. of viewers across Brazil who witnessed the Here I employ the Foucauldian notion of unfolding story of two young friends grow- biopolitics, drawing on this term’s use by ing up in a favela in Rio de Janeiro among the Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben a community of drug traffckers, hust- and the post-Marxist philosophers Michael lers, and fellow teenagers. The popularity Hardt and Antonio Negri. In this respect, of the series led to its cinematic release I see the existence of the favelas as repre- under the same title in 2007, directed by senting a history of hegemonic control over Paulo Morelli. marginalized territory in Rio de Janeiro Morelli’s adaptation of Meire- and the consequential urbanized exploit- lles and Lund’s cinematic depictions of ation of human bodies. Films like Cidade criminal youth in Rio de Janeiro’s favelas dos Homens provide an effective medium is backed by a local and international ac- to advertise the biopolitical event of the claim that speaks to a broad public inter- favelados, aesthetically drawing the viewer est in favela narratives. Why, however, into the inherited struggle against poverty, is the favelado (the resident of a favela) racism, economic seclusion, and urban so popular? The answer to this, I argue, violence experienced by the “multitude” is found in the depiction of “banditry” in of favelados.2 Cidade dos Homens, in this the favela and its contingent identifcation manner, documents a narrative of banditry with subaltern struggle that is depicted in that exposes the viewership to the hegem- the outlaw narrative of the protagonists. As onic oppression of favelas and, in doing so, bandits, the youth in flms such as Cidade obliges the audience to confront the mod- dos Homens are positioned outside of the ern constructions of new subjectivities in law and segregated economically as poor, Rio de Janeiro’s urban culture. racially as Afro-Brazilian, and territorially Hegemony is at work in the fave- in the favela. Their marginalized position las. This is evidenced not only through the in the favela consequentially critiques the urban war against drug traffcking, but also two sides of a long-standing urban confict through the coordinating power of urban

Issue 5, 2016 Cruikshank 9 design that, beginning in the late nine- implies two important features of biopoliti- teenth century, designated the favelas as the cs: frstly, it implies that bodies are created urban “leftovers” to be herded into shanty- agents, contingent in the struggles of urban towns—an example of what Foucault calls hegemony. Secondly, it implies that the a society’s “threshold of [mercantilist] body’s agency is therefore always-already rationality” (102) and what Agamben later an ambiguous construction. Bodies make attributes to Foucault as the “threshold of up the defnitive building blocks of the biological modernity” (3). Otherwise said, hegemonic binary: the formative and the favelas are a threshold of biopower, a place resistant, the legal and the outlaw, the pol- designed by the rationalized exercises of itical and anti-political, the citizen and the state power to distribute and distinguish bandit. When these bodies become active in wealth amongst urban elite and legitim- a “multitude”—what Hardt and Negri de- ate this through “bio-logical” segregation scribe as “an open and expansive network tactics in urban environments. Favelas are in which all differences can be expressed ruled by biopower because what is truly freely and equally” (Multitude xiv)—their at stake is not so much the city itself but constructed representation realizes biopol- rather the safety, security, and basic bio- itics. Hardt and Negri assert that biopolitics logical rights of its human inhabitants—the “is a partisan relationship between subjec- favelados—who, as Janice Perlman elabor- tivity and history that is crafted by a multi- ates in Favela: Four Decades of Living on tudinous strategy, formed by events and re- the Edge in Rio de Janeiro (2010), are sub- sistances, and articulated by a discourse that jected to the “lack of a well educated labor links political decision making to the con- pool, safe drinking water, [or] reliable elec- struction of bodies in struggle” (Common- tric power” and the “fear of getting killed wealth 61). Therefore, if we are to consider on the way to work or having one’s child the favela to represent such a political con- mugged on the way home from school” (9). struction of bodies, what then is the struggle The lack of physical security in the favelas of these bodies, the favelados? This is an represents an urban strategy of marginaliz- important question that Morelli targets in ation, representing what Foucault describes the flm Cidade dos Homens. In particular, as “the set of mechanisms through which the title of the flm blatantly attributes this the basic biological features of the human struggle as an event both within a cidade species become the object of a political (the city) and occurring between os homens strategy” (16)—an urbanized stronghold (men)—a point that the directors Lund and of biopower. Meirelles highlight in their television series To connect the body with the favela by playing with the name of their previous

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flm Cidade de Deus. The titular change the state and the powers of os homens (re- to Cidade dos Homens speaks not only ferring here specifcally to the favelados). to the continuation of their initial work, On one side, the law, arriving from outside Cidade de Deus, but also to what appears as of the favela, condemns the violent resist- a thematic overture of the man-made, rath- ance to the law; on the other, os homens er than God-granted, agency of the favelas. within the favela experience this violence The very change of the titles speaks to the as a daily reality. This violent reality is formation of a biopolitical narrative. De- what tests the bond between the key pro- picting the favela as a “city of men” high- tagonists of the flm, the two best friends lights the human condition of favelas. The Luís Cláudio (known as “Ace”) and Uólice temporal being, o homen, rather than the (known as “Laranjinha”). Meirelles and eternal God, o Deus, becomes the propri- Lund’s television series originally depicts etor of urban space. Here, St. Augustine’s both characters as young boys. However, in theological establishment of the De Civitate Morelli’s flm version both Ace and Laran- Dei (The City of God), the analogical root jinha are seen as adolescent men entering of the favela of the same name, gives way the heavy responsibilities of adulthood to the humanized establishment of the “city and the temptations of the violent gang- of men.” The human bandit, not God, be- life in their favela community of Morro da comes the faculty of violence in the urban Sinuca. The young men are seen through- world, changing the course of urban design out two revolving plots of the flm that from an omnipotent designation of power often jump from one to the other. In one to a temporal struggle for power; the power plot the flm narrates Ace and Laranjinha’s shifts from uncontested sovereignty to the new developments as eighteen-year-old enigmatic resistance against hegemony. men. For Ace, this involves the recent chal- Cidade de Deus in many ways uses the title lenge of fatherhood. Abandoned by his of the favela to satirically compare the god- girlfriend Cris, who leaves for São Paulo less violence and depravity that inhabits it. to fnd work, Ace is left to raise his young The title Cidade dos Homens, in this sense, son Clayton by himself. Laranjinha’s de- removes the satire and presents the favela velopment involves the challenge of being as what it truly is: not a satire of God’s cre- fatherless. Turning eighteen obliges Laran- ation but an honest critique of man’s inaug- jinha to adopt a last name on his identif- uration of poverty and violence. cation papers, motivating him to search for Man-made urban violence, a pivot- his father, who has recently been released al theme of Cidade dos Homens, defnes from prison after serving ffteen years the hegemonic interplay between powers of for murder. With Ace’s help, he fnds his

Issue 5, 2016 Cruikshank 11 father, Heraldo, after tracking him down The cinematic portrayal of violence using a photo of a football team he was in the lives of Laranjinha and Ace in many known to be a part of. The second plot ways represents a historical objective of revolves around the violent outbreak of a Brazilian flm, which since the early Cin- gang war in Morro da Sinuca. After a gang ema Novo movement has used the art of member named Fasto betrays the gang cinema to publicize the aggressive poverty leader Madrugadão (Midnight), Morro da and violence of Brazilian culture. In the Sinuca turns into a war zone. Outgunned, essay “An Esthetic of Hunger” (1965), the Madrugadão’s gang fees to another favela, Cinema Novo writer and director Glau- Morro do Careca, to recruit new members ber Rocha claims that Brazil’s incessant and Fasto takes over Morro da Sinuca. poverty gives form to a “culture of hun- The two plots are connected through the ger” in Brazil. He is adamant that Brazil’s shared experience of Ace and Laranjinha, cinema is defned by the objective of re- who are forced to fee Morro da Sinuca to laying the struggle of hunger and poverty escape the violence. The war is particular- through violence: “There resides the tragic ly threatening to Ace since Fasto thinks originality of Cinema Novo in relation to he is working for Madrugadão and or- world cinema. Our originality is our hun- ders his henchmen to kill him. Ace is left ger and our greatest misery is that this hun- on the streets and fees to another favela ger is felt but not intellectually understood named Morro do Careca, where Madru- […]. Therefore, only a culture of hunger, gadão and his gang attempt to recruit him weakening its own structures, can surpass into the gang violence. Upon hearing of itself qualitatively; the most noble cultural Ace’s dilemma, Laranjinha leaves to search manifestation of hunger is violence” (60). for him. Laranjinha discovers the truth of According to Rocha an aesthetics of vio- his father’s crime when he confronts Ace, lence in cinema “before being primitive, who is beginning an assault on Morro da is revolutionary” (60). For Rocha, then, Sinuca with Madrugadão’s gang. There, violence is revolutionary because it de- Ace confrms that his father was shot in the fnes the moment in which the colonizer back by Laranjinha’s father. The air of be- becomes aware of the colonized subjects trayal is thick in their encounter, and Ace and of their strength and values what they holds a gun on Laranjinha. The tension, bring to culture. Cidade dos Homens con- however, is overcome by a heartfelt bond tinues Cinema Novo’s trend of violence, of friendship, and the two later fee the only now it represents the urban-colonial violent favela together with Ace’s resistance of the favelados. Acts of resist- son, Clayton. ance are presented to Laranjinha and Ace

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as two-fold: there is either the resistance to Laranjinha’s struggle to identify him- the law, occurring through gang violence in self without a father. In both cases, the the favelados, or the resistance to the vio- flm emphasizes the consequential so- lence within the favela, via escape. Opting cial breakdowns of a fatherless society. for the latter, their decision is motivated by Stephen Holden connects this with the rise their friendship which, in order to remain, of the bandit, or “outlaw”: “That the sins must overcome both the past violence of of the fathers are passed on to the sons is their fathers and the current gang violence the somewhat thudding message of a movie of their present. Their friendship, therefore, that hammers home its point by having Ace depends on both a separation from their and [Laranjinha] reach an impasse in their past and a revaluation of their position in friendship that parallels the relationship of the present. Thinking in line with Glauber their fathers two decades earlier. In a soci- Rocha’s work, one could understand that ety of fatherless boys craving role models, the two friends are fghting not only against glamorous outlaws fll the void” (“Movie the institutions of violence engrained in Review”; my emphasis). In a “city of men,” the life of favelados but also against their it is men who both cause the violence and very own culture (the culture of hunger). create the fatherless society that galvaniz- What Morelli cinematically portrays as an es this violence. The bandit is therefore the aesthetics of violence, then, is in fact the- victim not only of political marginalization matically subverted in the flm, as Laran- but also of paternal marginalization—both jinha and Ace opt instead to leave the vio- being causes of systemic violence and pater- lent favela to save their friendship. nal abandonment. The bandit’s biopolitical Ace and Laranjinha’s subversion of resistance, in this manner, is two-pronged: violence takes place as the two fatherless the resistance against state legality and young men come to terms with their new- the resistance against patriarchal derelic- found adulthood and discern the violence tion. In this way both Ace and Laranjinha within the favelas that, particularly in their must learn to survive the war of the favela case, has been the direct cause for father- as well as to battle their warring identi- less children—something both Ace and ties as fatherless men. Their full victory is Laranjinha want to prevent happening to only found by feeing their violent-trodden Clayton. The fgure of the father is, with- home and in doing so differentiating their out doubt, the key subject in the flm. The lives from that of their fathers. flm’s narrative balances between, on one It can be said that fatherless end, Ace’s struggle to identify himself as favelados, such as Ace and Laranjinha, a father to Clayton and, on the other end, epitomize a form of banditry or resistance

Issue 5, 2016 Cruikshank 13 against both biological life and political are connected through one common trait: life—between the father and the state, the “although they all involve human life, they former absent and the latter exploitative. are excluded from the protection of the law. The combination of both biological and They remain either turned over to humani- political resistance transforms Ace and tarian assistance and unable to assert a legal Laranjinha into what Giorgio Agamben’s claim or are reduced to the status of ‘bio- philosophy denotes as a homo sacer, a man mass’ through the authority of scientifc in- (according to old Roman law) designated terpretations and defnitions” (55). To this as both “sacred” and “accursed,” the two extent, while Agamben’s use of the term denotations of the Latin word “sacer.” On “camp” cannot be conceptually divorced one hand, their identities as a favelados from the concentration camps of WWII, differentiates them as “sacred” because it can be used in the context of favelas, they are placed outside of the urban elite’s for example, to provide a schema through legislation; on the other hand, it is this very which to think about marginalized social position that “curses” them, leaving them spaces regulated by biopower and subject fatherless. As “sacred,” the bandit is found to politicized violence. within the marginalized favela and thus For Agamben, homo sacer repre- secured against the political violence that sents the limited boundaries of rational threatens it. However, as “accursed,” the sovereignty that oversees people’s “bare bandit is found amongst the marginalized life,” which can be understood as the basic violence occurring within the favela itself. existence of people, their bodies, their This is to say that the bandit is both ven- health, and their well-being. Although not erated from the outside and condemned to related to their political existence, “bare the violence on the inside. Consequently, life” proves to be what makes up the pol- violence (the culture of hunger) margin- itical body, a body that denotes the life and alizes the bandit from all sides. Further- death of human beings as the decisive ob- more, Agamben notes that homo sacer is jective of sovereign power. This is what the man “who may be killed and yet not Agamben considers as “the new biopolitical sacrifced, and whose essential function body of humanity” (9). The “bare life” of in modern politics we intend to assert” (8; the homo sacer is labelled as the “sovereign emphasis in original). He traces this fgure exception” (6); one’s exception as “sacred” from Roman exiles to the “accursed” run- becomes defned by the sovereign power aways of the Middle Ages and as far as the as “accursed.” In this way the “bare life” inmates of Nazi concentration camps. As of homo sacer is brought from the margins Thomas Lemke notes, each of these cases of political order, outside of the law, and

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placed within the very political objectives threat of death. He is pure zoē, but of sovereign power itself. In our case, for his zoē is as such caught in the example, the very existence of life for the sovereign ban and must reckon with favelados becomes part of a biopolitical or- it at every moment, fnding the best der. The life of the favelado, in this sense, way to elude or deceive it. In this sees an awkward union between what sense, no life, as exiles and bandits Agamben denotes as bare life (natural be- know well, is more “political” than ing) and political life (political existence). his. (183) Respectively, these are what Agamben As Agamben clarifes, the bandit’s life— denotes as zoē and bios, the etymological both its “sanctity” and “curse”— is polit- division of the Greek words for “life”: zoē ical. It is political because—thinking in being “the simple fact of living common to terms of our bandits Ace and Laranjinha— all living beings” and bios being “the form these favelados have been both “banned” or way of living proper to an individual or and “banished” by political forces. There is a group” (1). Agamben’s new biopolitical a difference between the two acts: they are body of humanity therefore sees both forms “banned” from the urban elite but are later of life subsumed under sovereign rule. As “banished” from their home in the favela such, the homo sacer, whom Agamben con- due to the violence occurring against the frms as our fgure of a “bandit,” sees his state. way of life (bios) overcome by the polit- To better understand the connec- ical demand over his life (zoē). Agamben tion between the bandit and the actions explains his perspective of homo sacer as of “banning” and “banishing,” I turn to the bandit: Pablo Dabove’s literary analysis of ban- Let us now observe the life of ditry Nightmares of the Lettered City: homo sacer, or of the bandit […] his Banditry and Literature in Latin American entire existence is reduced to a bare 1816-1929 (2007). Dabove considers the life stripped of every right by vir- bandit as “perhaps the most important in tue of the fact that anyone can kill a series of dramatis personae that in post- him without committing homicide; colonial Latin American culture function as he can save himself only in perpet- frontiers between ‘domains of sovereign- ual fight or a foreign land. And yet ty’” (7). Etymologically, Dabove traces he is in a continuous relationship the word “bandit” to the Spanish “bando” with the power that banished him which represented a written proclamation precisely insofar as he is at every that ordered outlawed criminals to appear instant exposed to an unconditioned before their given authorities for trial (9).

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Rather obviously, it is unlikely that the ban- “banished” (that is obligated to fee the dit would appear before the authorities. The impeding violence). bandit therefore sees his identity embed- Both Ace and Laranjinha are caught ded into a position placed before the law in the paradox of the homo sacer. They through the bando. The law is therefore are bandits, residents who are exceptions placed upon him rather than the bandit pla- to the law yet inceptions to marginality. cing himself within the law. In this sense, Their bando is inherited, destining them the bando speaks less to the bandit’s ful- to a life of survival within a marginalized fllment of the law and more to the legitim- territory. Agamben, as previously men- ation of the law itself. By placing the ban- tioned, localizes their situation in the fgure dit outside of the law through the written of the “camp”—“the space that is opened bando, the bandit becomes marginalized when the state of exception begins to be- from the power of the law and therefore come the rule” (168). In our case, the camp becomes a focal point for the multitude of is the favela, the place where bandits be- similar subaltern subjects. Furthermore, the come judged by the bando, and thereby bandit’s marginalization from the law con- placed within the sovereign oversight of a sequently legitimates the state’s perform- state-mandated biopower. They are excep- ance of power through the act of exclusion. tions outside of the law, yet they are ruled It is for this reason that the favelado repre- from within it. In effect, our bandits’ zoē, sents the modern version of a bandit being their common ability to live with all be- that he is a marginal and excluded citizen ings, is interrupted in the patriarchal failure within the shantytowns originally created inherited in their society of violence. Bios by the hegemonic practices of the Brazil- interrupts their “bare life.” Interestingly, ian state. In this way, the bandit, the homo bios, the prefx of bio-logy (realized here in sacer, is sacred to the extent that he is out- the absence of a bio-logical father) repre- side of the state law and yet “accursed” be- sents the “accursed” life of our bandits. On cause he is condemned by the bando. His the outside, they live as part of a “sacred” very being is defned by his zoē, yet labeled multitude of favelados that have histor- by his bios, the sovereign biopower that ically transformed the oppressive lack of overlooks his operations and dictates the basic needs into a fourishing community; quality of his existence. We can acknow- however, they remain “accursed” due to ledge, therefore, that Ace and Laranjinha the bios-logical repercussions of being on are both sacred-and-thus-“banned” (that is the outside. As such, they suffer the con- legally marginalized through the proclama- sequences of their own people’s violent tion of the bando) and accursed-and-thus- resistance, dealt by the system that has

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marginalized them. Being an out-law has “event” characterized by resistance. This consequently “outed” their need for patri- resistance is not futile, as Agamben would archal reform; the exclusion from sover- assume, since it “it is always a queer event, eignty has left these young men likewise a subversive process of subjectivization excluded from their own families. that, shattering ruling identities and norms, Despite Agamben’s unique obser- reveals the link between power and free- vation of the connection between politics dom, and thereby inaugurates an alterna- and biological life, his philosophy remains tive production of subjectivity” (Common- limiting in cases like Ace and Laranjinha’s. wealth 63). Surely Ace’s and Laranjinha’s Lemke has argued that biopolitics, for lives are conficted due to the collision of Agamben, becomes above all a demonstra- their zoē and bios. However, the “camp” of tion of “thanatopolitics” (53), whereby the the favela, through which their bare life and political project of life is really identifed political life are subsumed into one, does with that of death. Indeed, according to not imply their immanent subjectivity to the Agamben, “[a] law that seeks to decide on state and its bando; rather, it leaves room life is embodied in a life that coincides with for Hardt and Negri’s concept of “de-sub- death” (186). In this sense, the bando, pro- jectifcation,” and, therefore, for resistance. claiming the favelados as marginal citizens, This is evidenced in the moment when Ace would correspondingly imply the assertion holds a gun to Laranjinha’s head. The path of a death penalty, defnitive of either a of bios urges for an ending in violence. physical or a political death. For Agamben, Ace’s zoē should be subject to his precondi- exclusion is death, inclusion is life, and in tioned environment and history. He should both cases it is the sovereign power, the shoot Laranjinha and follow his immanent nation-state, that is in control: “the body is death as a henchman, leaving Clayton as always already a biopolitical body and bare fatherless as himself. But this is not what life, and nothing in it or the economy of happens; the cycle does not repeat. Ace is its pleasure seems to allow us to fnd solid obliged by his deep-felt friendship with ground on which to oppose the demands of Laranjinha to cut ties with their fathers’ past sovereign power” (187). and depart together from the favela and its In contrast, Hardt and Negri’s violence. Following their stand-off, the two interpretation of biopolitics challenges friends return to a family residence where Agamben’s assumption on the basis that Clayton is being safely cared for. Ace, biopolitics represents not resistant politi- holding his son, declares his love for him, cized “lives” unable to oppose the sovereign promising to always be there. Laranjinha discourse of biopower, but rather a political has likewise chosen to risk his life for his

Issue 5, 2016 Cruikshank 17 friend while acknowledging the inevitable courage to stay loyal to each other, leave failures of his father. New subjectivities are the favela, and take care of Ace’s son formed, ones in which the fatherless be- Clayton. This example, however, only pos- comes the father, the violent forgiving, and its a deeper problem of favelados, reveal- the trapped liberated. Ace and Laranjinha’s ing an inevitable tension between love and choice to identify themselves as “other” violence, desire and reality: if violence and than what the favelado has for so long been poverty contain one inside the favela and labelled not only refects Hardt and Negri’s love obliges one to leave, the favelado re- notion of biopolitical resistance and the mains trapped between the physical refuge formation of new subjectivities but also of his body and the material refuge of his gives way to a new form of life, both for home. In either case refuge is lost, and the the two young men and for the future life of bandit must choose between his local safety Clayton. As the flm reminds us, all resist- (his “sanctity”) or his departure from home ance affects generations to come. (his “curse”). The bandit must choose to To a certain extent the connection lose his body or his place—all-in-all re- of Cidade dos Homens with Agamben’s vealing the paradoxical dilemma of bio- biopolitical paradox reminds us as view- politics. In light of this confict, Hardt and ers to look beyond the urban structures of Negri explain that “[l]ove needs force to poverty and violence found in the favelas conquer their ruling powers and dismantle and into the physical life of their inhabit- their corrupt institutions before it can cre- ants. The flm narrates violence as some- ate a new world of common wealth” (Com- thing inherited within the favela and re- monwealth xii). Whether such a force, pol- cycled by favelados—a revolving social itically speaking, is possible is a question problem not of marginal citizens but of that cinematically remains overshadowed marginalized people. The bandit narrative by powerful images of violence. As it is, of the favela reminds us that the “evil” vio- any force of love in Brazilian favela flms, lence is rooted in a hegemonic system long in lieu of violence, is realized as nothing inspired by political objectives. Unlike more than a cinematic gesture of escape, a Agamben, Hardt and Negri’s biopolitical mere displacement of marginalized bodies agenda proposes a much-needed solution within a culture of hunger. to this, proposing that “love” provides a path for creating a place of self-rule and democratic organization among the com- 1 “Eu sou favela,” a well-known sam- mon poor. Love, for example, gives Ace and ba piece, was composed by Noca de Laranjinha a second chance at life, the Portela and Sergio Mosca in 1994 and has

Scum & Villainy 18 Te Word Hoard Bandits and Biopolitics been popularized in the song versions by Bezerra da Silva and Seu Jorge. For the English translation and further discus- sion on the samba lyrics see chapter six “Marginality from Myth to reality” where these lyrics are quoted in Janice Perman’s Favela: Four Decades of Living on the Edge in Rio de Janeiro (2010). 2 See “De Corpore 1: Biopolitics as an Event” in Hardt and Negri’s book Commonwealth (2009). 3 I follow the meaning of “multitude” as an expansive politicalized network and common unity of cultural differences as stipulated in Hardt and Negri’s work Mul- titude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire (2004).

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Works Cited Penguin P, 2004. Print. Holden, Stephen. “Movie Review ‘City of Agamben, Giorgio. Homo Sacer: Men’: Fathers and Sons in Gloom Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Above Rio’s Sunny Beaches.” The Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1998. New York Times. 29 Feb 2008: Print. Movies. Web. 12 June, 2016. Augustine, Saint. The City of God. Trans. Lemke, Thomas. Biopolitics: An Advanced Marcus Dods. 1913. New York: Introduction. New York, NY: New Modern Library, 1950. Print. York UP, 2011. Print. Cidade de Deus. Dir. Meirelles, Fernando Lins, Paulo. Cidade De Deus: Romance. and Lund, Kátia. O2 Filmes and São Paulo: Companhia Das Letras, VideoFilmes. 2002. Film. 2002. Print. Cidade dos Homens. Dir. Paulo Morelli. Pablo Dabove, Juan. Nightmares of Miramax Films. 2007. Film. the Lettered City: Banditry and Cidade dos Homens: As 4 Temporadas da Literature in Latin America série de TV. Dir. Paulo Morelli. 02 1816-1929. Pittsburgh, PA: Films and Central Globo de Pittsburgh UP, 2007. Print. Televisão. 2005. DVD. Perlman, Janice. Favela: Four Decades Da Silva, Bezerra. “Eu Sou Favela.” O of Living on the Edge in Rio de Partido Alto do Samba. By Writers Janeiro. Oxford, UK: Oxford UP, Noca da Portela and Sergio 2010. Print. Mosca. BGM Brasil LTDA, 2004. Rocha, Glauber. “An Esthetic of Hunger.” CD. New Latin American Cinema, Foucault, Michel. Security, Territory, Volume I: Theory, Population: Lectures at the Collège Practice, and Transcontinental de France 1977-78. Ed. Michel Articulations. Ed. Michael T. Senellart. Basingstoke: Palgrave Martin. Detroit, MI: Wayne State Macmillan, 2007. Print. UP, 1997. 59-61. Print. Hardt, Michael and Negri, Antonio. Vieira, Else R P. “Introduction: Is the Commonwealth. Cambridge, MA: Camera Mightier than the Word? Belknap Harvard UP, 2009. City of God in Several ---. Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, Voices: Brazilian Social Cinema as 2000. Print. Action. Nottingham, UK: CCCP, ---. Multitude: War and Democracy in the 2005. Print. Age of Empire. New York, NY:

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