UNION REPRESENTATION of WOMEN in NON-STANDARD JOBS: Evidence from Advanced Economies

LERA 2020 Conference San Diego, January 4th 2020

Session 6.1: Intersectionality of Labour Rights and Gender Inequality

UNION REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN NON-STANDARD JOBS: Evidence from advanced economies

Chloé TOUZET and Sébastien MARTIN Employment, Labour and Social Affairs OECD WOMEN IN NON-STANDARD JOBS ACROSS OECD COUNTRIES: TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

2 The incidence of non-standard work among working women is high across OECD countries

Percentage of women aged 15-64, 2018

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Standard employment Non-standard employment Temporary full time Permanent part time Temporary part time Self-employed Unpaid family workers Employment rate 3 The rise in FLFP has been largely driven by the development of female non-standard employment

Percentage-point change in female employment rate and the contribution of its components, 1994-2018

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15

Standard employment Non-standard employment (US) Temporary FT Permanent PT Temporary PT Self-employed Unpaid family workers Employment rate 4 The higher non-standardisation of women contributes to the gender wage gap in some countries

Composition of the mean gender wage gap (hourly earnings), 2018 or latest (%)

Discrimination part Contractual segregation Occupational segregation Composition differences (age and education) Raw gender wage gap

-5

-10

5 And women in non-standard jobs also face pay discrimination Discrimination part of the mean gender wage gap, by forms of work, 2018 or most recent (%)

Standard workers Part-time workers Temporary workers

6 Women in non-standard jobs also : 1) face working environment of lower quality …

Percent deviation from the average number of job demands and resources

Women Temporary workers Part-time workers Women in temporary jobs Women in part time jobs 8 **

-2

-4 ***

-6 ** *** ** -8 Number of job demands Number of job resources 7 … 2) have less access to training …

Percent deviation from the average likelihood to access training

Women Temporary workers Part-time workers Women in temporary work Women in part-time work 2

-1

* -2

-3

-4 ***

-5

8 … and less access to social protection

Overall out-of-work support among women, 2014-2015

Baseline: past standard work Past non-standard (significant gap) Past non-standard (non-significant gap)

100 A. Probability of receiving any benefits 80 60 40 20 0 GRC ITA POL EST GBR AUT LVA PRT CZE SVK FRA HUN LUX ISL ESP SVN BEL

B. Benefit generosity for recipients (% of median income) 60

20 9 0 GRC ITA POL EST GBR AUT LVA PRT CZE SVK FRA HUN LUX ISL ESP SVN BEL

9 CAN COLLECTIVE BARGAINING HELP WOMEN IN NON-STANDARD JOBS?

10 Can collective bargaining help to reduce the gender pay gap? 1/2

Raw gender wage gap of temporary workers by type of collective bargaining, 2018 or most recent (%)

Netherlands Germany 15.0 25.0 20.0 10.0 15.0 5.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 First quartile Median Last quartile 0.0 First quartile Median Last quartile -5.0 -5.0 No collective bargaining Sectoral bargaining No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining Sectoral bargaining Spain United Kingdom 25.0 20.0

20.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 First quartile Median Last quartile First quartile Median Last quartile 11 No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining Sectoral bargaining No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining Sectoral bargaining Can collective bargaining help to reduce the gender pay gap? 2/2

Raw gender wage gap of temporary workers by type of collective bargaining, 2018 or most recent

Canada United States 25.0 25.0

20.0 20.0

15.0 15.0

10.0 10.0

5.0 5.0

0.0 0.0 First quartile Median Last quartile First quartile Median Last quartile No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining

12 Can union representation help secure progress for women in non-standard jobs?

1. Beyond pay, collective agreements can secure concrete progress on issues such as: • Healthcare • Flexible working time and childcare arrangements • Gender equality and violence at work

2. Unions can also secure progress for women in NS jobs through lobbying and advocacy

3. Local union initiatives for women and for non-standard workers also exist

13 REPRESENTING WOMEN IN NON-STANDARD JOBS: CHALLENGES FOR UNIONS

14 The gender gap in unionisation is closing…

Percentage point difference between male and female in trade union density in OECD countries, 2000 or closest & 2018 or latest

2018 or latest (↗) 2000 or closest

p.p

-10

-20

15 …but non-standard workers are still 50 % less likely than standard ones to be unionised on average…

Actual and adjusted ratio of trade union density among non-standard workers relative to standard workers (%), latest available year

A. Low union density among standard workers B. Intermediate union density among standard C. High union density among (less than 20%) workers (20 to 50%) standard workers (50% or more)

100 100 100

90 90 90

80 80 80

70 70 70

60 60 60

50 50 50

40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

0 0 0

Actual ratio (↗) Ratio adjusted for individual characteristics 16 … and unionisation among women in non-standard jobs is even lower

Actual and adjusted ratio of trade union density among non-standard female workers relative to standard workers (%), latest available year

A. Low union density among standard workers B. Intermediate union density among C. High union density among (less than 20%) standard workers (20 to 50%) standard workers (50% or 106.5 more) 102.7 100 100 100 90 90 90 80 80 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0

Actual ratio (↗) Ratio adjusted for individual characteristics 17 Organising women in non-standard jobs: challenges and potential way forward

1. Organising women in non-standard jobs comes with particular challenges: 1. Male leadership and the union premium gap 2. Organising without a workplace, and the issue of counterpart identification 3. Organising devalued labour: the case of domestic workers

2. Alternative structures have emerged to organize women in non- standard work, with mixed results

1. Intersectionality as an organisational resource?

18 Thank you for your attention!

For more information, contact: Chloe.TOUZET@oecd.org

Read more about our work: http://www.oecd.org/employment/collective-bargaining.htm 19 ADDITIONAL SLIDES

20 Female labour market participation has been rising steadily since 1975 across OECD countries

Percentage of women aged 15-64, 1975-2018 90 Sweden

Netherlands 80 United Kingdom France United States 70 Belgium Poland Korea 60 Italy

50 Mexico

0 21 Employment segregation and discrimination by type of contract

Discrimination Employment segregation

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time workers Part-time

Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard workers Standard

Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary workers Temporary AUS BEL CAN CZE EST FIN FRA DEU HUN ITA LVA LTU NLD NOR POL PRT SVK ESP GBR USA

22 Can collective bargaining help to reduce the discrimination part of the gender pay gap? 1/2

Adjusted gender wage gap of temporary workers by type of collective bargaining, 2018 or most recent Netherlands Germany First quartile Median Last quartile First quartile Median Last quartile 10.0 15.0 8.0 10.0 6.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 -5.0 -2.0 -4.0 -10.0 No collective bargaining Sectoral bargaining No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining Sectoral bargaining

Spain United Kingdom First quartile Median Last quartile First quartile Median Last quartile 12.0 20.0 10.0 8.0 15.0 6.0 4.0 10.0 2.0 0.0 5.0 -2.0 -4.0 0.0 23 No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining Sectoral bargaining No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining Sectoral bargaining Can collective bargaining help to reduce the discrimination part of the gender pay gap? 2/2

Adjusted gender wage gap of temporary workers by type of collective bargaining, 2018 or most recent

Canada United States First quartile Median Last quartile First quartile Median Last quartile 16.0 45.0 14.0 40.0 12.0 35.0 10.0 30.0 8.0 25.0 6.0 20.0 4.0 2.0 15.0 0.0 10.0 -2.0 5.0 -4.0 0.0 No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining No collective bargaining Firm-level bargaining