Capturing views of men, women and youth on agricultural biodiversity resources consumed in Barotseland, Zambia CAPTURING CAPTURING OF MEN, VIEWS WOMEN AND YOUTH ON AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES CONSUMED BIODIVERSITY IN BAROTSELAND, ZAMBIA CAPTURING VIEWS OF MEN, WOMEN AND YOUTH ON AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES CONSUMED IN BAROTSELAND, ZAMBIA

Authors Joseph Jojo Baidu-Forson,1 Sondo Chanamwe,2 Conrad Muyaule,3 Albert Mulanda,4 Mukelabai Ndiyoi5 and Andrew Ward6 Authors’ Affiliations 1 Bioversity International (corresponding author: [email protected]) 2 Lecturer, Natural Resources Development College, Lusaka, Zambia 3 WorldFish and AAS Hub in Mongu, Zambia 4 Caritas, Mongu Diocese, Zambia 5 Lecturer, University of Barotseland, Mongu, Zambia 6 WorldFish, Africa Regional Office, Lusaka, Zambia Citation This publication should be cited as: Baidu-Forson JJ, Chanamwe S, Muyaule C, Mulanda A, Ndiyoi M and Ward A. 2015. Capturing views of men, women and youth on agricultural biodiversity resources consumed in Barotseland, Zambia. Penang, Malaysia: CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems. Working Paper: AAS-2015-17. Acknowledgments The authors would like to express sincere thanks to the indunas (community heads) for granting permission for the studies to be conducted in their communities. The authors are indebted to the following colleagues whose comments and suggestions led to improvements upon an earlier draft: Steven Cole, Mwansa Songe, Mike Phillips and Tendayi Maravanyika, all of WorldFish-Zambia; and Mauricio Bellon, Simon Attwood and Vincent Johnson of Bioversity International. We are grateful to Samantha Collins (Bioversity Communications Unit) for painstakingly editing the manuscript. Caritas-Mongu of the Catholic Diocese of Mongu and Catholic Relief Services in Zambia graciously assigned experienced and knowledgeable professional staff to assist with the field research. We acknowledge with gratitude the administrative arrangements and logistical support provided by the staff of the WorldFish Regional Office in Africa based at both Lusaka and Mongu. Finally, we want to recognize funding of the agrobiodiversity assessment provided through the CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems.

2 CONTENTS

Executive summary 4 Background 5 Methods 6 Results and discussion 8 Conclusions 25 Notes 26 References 27 Appendix 1. Crop species and varieties cultivated in AAS focal communities studied in Western Province, Zambia 30 Appendix 2. Vegetable species collected by households from local ecology for consumption in AAS focal communities 62 Appendix 3. Problem tree analyses for cassava production in AAS focal communities studied 66 Appendix 4. Problem tree analyses for cereals (maize and/or rice) production in AAS focal communities studied 68 Appendix 5. Land types and cropping cycle for major crops planted to them in Borotse floodplain, Western Province, Zambia 70 Appendix 6. Four-cell analyses for all crops, maize, rice and cassava cultivars planted in CONTENTS AAS focal communities studied in Western Province, Zambia 76

3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This paper presents data and findings from focus group discussions in study communities selected by the CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS) in the Western Province of Zambia. The discussions focused on cultivated crops and vegetables collected from open fields and consumed as food. The population in each of the communities studied was disaggregated into three peer categories: men older than 35 years, women older than 35 years, and men and women aged 35 years or less. Participatory tools for agricultural biodiversity (agrobiodiversity) assessment were used to capture community perspectives on plant species and varietal diversity; factors influencing the availability and use of plants for food; unique, common and rare crop species cultivated in a community, identified through a four-cell analysis methodology; and core problems, root causes, effects and necessary actions to tackle them, using problem tree or situation analysis methods.

Food security, income, hedging against food crop losses and diversifying food sources for diet diversity were major drivers of crop diversification strategies pursued by men, women and youth in the AAS focal communities studied. Low productivity was identified as a core problem that affected food security. To address low productivity concerns, it is recommended that future participatory action research test how best to facilitate farmers’ access to quality seeds or planting materials for preferred crop varieties, along with soil fertility improvement.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Based on responses from the initial focus group discussions, as well as those from the follow- up cross-group discussions, the study outlines farmers’ trait preferences for rice, maize and cassava. The data collected provide guidance to crop improvement programs that target Barotse communities dependent on aquatic agricultural systems. In addition, these preferences have didactic value for research in areas with seasonal flooding experiences similar to the communities studied in this research.

The 25 cultivated crops and their varieties that were identified by men, women and youth in the study communities provide the opportunity for exploring how to optimize crop diversification on different land types to meet household goals: food security, hedging against crop failure, and diversified diets. In almost all communities studied, Amaranthus spp. (amaranth), Cleome gynandra (cat’s whiskers), Chorchorus spp. (bush okra) and Hibiscus sabdariffa (roselle or sorrel) were the vegetables most frequently collected from the local agroecology for consumption. In view of their known high and diverse nutrient contents, we recommend that these local leafy vegetables be considered for inclusion in participatory action research on learning plots for crop diversification.

Once farmers understand the value of cultivating these local vegetables and grow them, it is recommended that market research address potential bottlenecks to widespread adoption, focusing on value chains from seed supply to prolonging shelf life and marketing. For other lesser-known locally collected vegetables, research is recommended to identify them (using both common and botanical names) and assess their bio-active nutrient contents. Research is also recommended to explore the presence and types of anti-nutrient factors in the vegetables and whether or not local indigenous treatment in traditional food preparation eliminates or attenuates the potential harmful effects of the identified anti-nutrient factors.

An important limitation of this study was that due to the breadth of issues covered it was not possible to explore responses further. As a result, some responses that portrayed differences across peer groups could not be explored in depth. Future studies may, therefore, want to consider reducing the number of issues to be covered and thus allow for more in-depth exploration. Also, the youth group could be split into males and females to bring out gender-related differences among young people.

4 BACKGROUND

The Zambezi River floodplain in Western Zambia resources. We covered cultivated lands, crop is an example of an inland aquatic agricultural species and varieties, native vegetation used as system where seasonal flooding impacts the sources of gathered food, livestock, fish, edible agricultural activities and livelihoods of the fungus, etc., found in the Borotse3 floodplain. riverine population. Aquatic agricultural systems This working paper reports data collected are generally highly productive. However, and findings synthesized from focus group productivity is often constrained by a lack of discussions conducted in the Barotse AAS focal inputs, poor access to markets, unpredictable communities. The focus groups were comprised seasonal flooding and a lack of innovation of peer groups disaggregated as follows: adult (WorldFish 2011). In Western Zambia, the key males and adult females in households, and a stakeholders actively practicing agriculture mixed group of young men and women who or managing resources used for agriculture play a different social role as youth in their in the Borotse1 floodplain are the Barotse communities. Royal Establishment, the Provincial Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, farmers and The overall objective of the focus group fishers, and nongovernmental organizations. discussion was to understand the views of Representatives of these stakeholder groups people in the focal communities on the diversity identified major agricultural development of plant food resources. It was designed challenges that impact the livelihoods of the to provide a framework for participatory population. The development challenges discussions within the defined peer categories. identified in the Barotse communities The disaggregated focus group discussion BACKGROUND practicing agriculture in the Zambezi River design facilitated group interactions and created floodplain include social and gender issues, a better understanding of the views, needs and low agricultural productivity, weak market desires of different segments in the Barotse AAS linkages, unpredictable flooding, seasonal focal communities. The findings from the focus migration, and a lack of well-adapted seed group discussions indicate entry points and systems and agronomic practices. Some factors pathways for research-in-development initiatives that contribute to low productivity include that could effectively harness agrobiodiversity mostly poor, sandy soils; a lack of inputs for resources for improving the agricultural system soil amendments; weak access to adapted and livelihoods of people in conformity with quality seeds; livestock diseases; crop pests their visions.4 This working paper is limited and diseases; unpredictable flooding; seasonal to plant species and diversity in varieties and migration; and a lack of well-adapted non-seed cultivars5 found in crops and plants collected technologies and agronomic practices (Baidu- from open fields or uncultivated lands for use as Forson et al. 2014). food by people in the focal communities.

An important concern expressed by the The focus group discussions were guided by four Barotse stakeholders is the loss of agricultural key questions: biodiversity (agrobiodiversity) resources • What are the crop species and wild plants that could be harnessed to improve people’s collected by people in the AAS focal livelihoods. In response to the stakeholders’ communities for use as food? concerns, the CGIAR Research Program on • What are the motivations for crop Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS) prioritized an diversification? assessment of agrobiodiversity resources in the • What are the key opportunities for harnessing floodplain to inform research-in-development2 plant species, varieties and cultivars for activities at hub and community levels, improving productivity and nutrition? particularly with respect to productivity, crop • What social and/or gender distinctions are diversification and nutrition. A three-step survey evident in terms of knowledge of, access to approach (expert or key informant surveys, focus and use of available plant diversity, and how group discussion, and individual household do these differences shape the ways in which surveys) was used to assess the status, AAS develops research-in-development dynamics and drivers affecting agrobiodiversity activities? 5 METHODS

The focus group discussions were conducted in referred to as objective tree analyses). Problem 10 AAS focal communities6 from July to August tree analysis or situation analysis is a key tool 2013. The four districts in which villages were used by major international and bilateral donor selected for the study in Western Province are agencies (Aune 2000; AusAID 2003). Some of shown in Figure 1. Details of the geographical the advantages of the problem tree approach coordinates and elevations of the villages are include the following (ODI 2009): presented in Table 1. In each of the AAS focal communities studied, the resident population • problems broken down into well-defined was disaggregated into three social groups: issues, which allow clearer focus on older men (>35 years), older women (>35 objectives and how to resolve them; years), and youth (both men and women • greater understanding of each problem ≤35 years). About 10–15 people from each and its causes, to facilitate identification of of these three categories (men, women and specific actions to be undertaken by whom youth) constituted the focus groups in each at each stage; community. • shared sense of understanding, purpose and action, particularly where collective Participatory tools outlined by Boef and community effort is needed to resolve Thijssen (2007) were employed during causes of identified problems. discussions of key issues, namely species and variety or breed diversity; current status and In our study, the application of the problem trends that underpin their availability and use; tree approach allowed us to do an analysis of

METHODS methods for identifying unique, common and differences in responses from the gender and rare crop species cultivated in a community social categories. This helped in identifying (we used a four-cell analysis methodology); appropriate actions and solutions to help meet and core problems, their root causes, their the needs of people who make up the different effects and necessary actions to tackle them categories. through problem tree analyses (or their inverse,

Kabula

Kapanda

Mapungu Situlu Mwandi

Lealui Nanikelako

Nembwela Village Sifuna Kabula Nalitoya Kapanda Lealui Mapungu Mwandi Nalitoya Nanikelako Nembwele Sifuna Situlu

Figure 1. Map showing the AAS focal communities studied in Kalabo, Lukulu, Mongu, and Senanga districts in Zambia. 6 In the “four-cell analysis” method, the cells The group discussions also focused on the defined for the assessments were Cell 1, many following commonly expressed priority issues: households cultivating large land areas (many crop diversification objectives and preferences; + large); Cell 2, many households cultivating indigenous or local crop species and varieties small land areas (many + small); Cell 3, few lost or at risk of loss; varieties and cultivars households cultivating large land areas (few + lacking adaptation to prevailing cropping large); and Cell 4, few households cultivating conditions in the Borotse floodplain; land types small land areas (few + small). Based on the and crops cultivated in them; and a cropping unit of land commonly understood in Barotse calendar and the dates of commencement and communities, we used the local measure end of flooding in each community. lima (equivalent to 0.25 hectares [ha]) as an indicative measure of relatively large and small A second round of visits was conducted in land areas. A “large” land area by local standards July 2014. During these visits, joint meetings in the AAS focal communities was greater than were held with people from all the three social or equal to 1 lima, and a “small” land area was categories for the purposes of sharing summary less than 0.5 lima (or 0.125 ha). For clarity in findings; seeking verification, confirmation differences in the assignment of crops to the and additional data; and providing avenues for cells, we focused on the two extreme cells, learning across the social groups. namely Cells 1 and 4.

Latitudinal coordinates Longitudinal coordinates Elevation (meters) Kalabo District: 15 degrees 5’ 0” S 22 degrees 46’ 984” E 1,026 Nu`nyama silalo Mapungu METHODS Mwandi Lower 15 degrees 6’ 362” S 22 degrees 51’ 187” E 1,023 Mwandi Upper 15 degrees 7’ 400” S 22 degrees 48’ 128 “ E 1,025 Lukulu District: 14 degrees 37’ 185” S 23 degrees 13’ 3” E 1,040 Mulundwe silalo Kabula Kapanda 14 degrees 42’ 274” S 23 degrees 12’ 33” E 1,035 Mongu District: 15 degrees 13’ 468” S 23 degrees 1’ 175” E 1,018 Siwito silalo Lealui Situlu 15 degrees 11’ 982” S 22 degrees 58’ 408”E 1,012 Nanikelako 15 degrees 11’ 761” S 22 degrees 57’ 232” E 1,023 Senanga District: 15 degrees 47’ 588” S 23 degrees 17’ 835” E 1,009 Liangati silalo Nembwele Sifuna 15 degrees 48’ 53” S 23 degrees 18’ 18” E 1,021 Nalitoya 15 degrees 47’ 963” S 23 degrees 18’ 435” E 1,026 Table 1. Global Positioning System (GPS) description of locations of study villages. (The GPS coordinates and elevations were primary data for the location of the home of the head of each village or community, collected by WorldFish staff based at the AAS hub in Western Province, Zambia.)

7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Crop species cultivated in AAS focal soil fertility and increasing productivity on communities sandy soils that lack organic matter. About 25 different crops and their varieties or Frost and flood damage to existing cassava cultivars were listed by the focus groups in the cultivars are significant problems in the AAS AAS focal communities (Appendix 1). A few focal communities. Early-maturing cassava sorghum and millet varieties mentioned by cultivars enhance capacity to escape frost study participants were listed as rarely seen damage and effects of unpredictable floods. or having disappeared. In addition, about 18 Frost damage is mitigated through storing plants were collected from the open fields or cassava cuttings during frost-prone months uncultivated lands for consumption (Appendix either under shade or by covering them with 2). We found that maize, rice, cassava and sweet branches. potato were the four major staples cultivated in the study communities. For the four Productivity on maize fields was affected by major staple crops, focus group participants floods, a lack of adapted or early-maturing mentioned about 30 cultivars of maize, 11 varieties or cultivars, erratic rains, and infertile cultivars of rice, 20 cultivars of cassava plus soils. Due to a lack of access to adapted seeds, most farmers across all the defined

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION another cultivar of cassava (Mandelena) that is no longer found in the communities, and 44 peer categories recycle maize seed from their cultivars of sweet potato. previous harvest or purchase seed from the market for use as planting material. However, The number and types of crops and the farmers in the communities studied were aware cultivars planted differed depending on of yield declines experienced as a result of the predominant land types, soil moisture planting of recycled maize seed. They noted conditions and flooding experiences. Some that this was particularly the case with hybrids differences were sometimes discernible across and less so with open-pollinated varieties. disaggregated group categories (men, women Farmers who are better off and/or are members and youth). In many communities, the youth of cooperatives access maize seeds from the groups listed many more species and varieties Farmer Input Support Programme,7 while the or cultivars (Appendix 1). This might reflect the resource-poor who are not members of the willingness or propensity of younger people to cooperatives only use recycled seed from experiment more on their plots than people of previous harvests. older age. Diversification of crops on Problem tree analysis data for cassava (Appendix 3) and cereals (Appendix 4) showed cultivated lands that low yields, resulting in low production, On all land types, people in the studied AAS often contributed to hunger, poverty and focal communities planted a diversity of crops, malnutrition in the AAS focal communities. which were used to achieve specific goals. In addition, older women (in comparison to Data analyses revealed location and gender older men) experienced additional constraints, differences in the underlying rationale for the such as access to only limited land areas pursuit of crop diversification in the study for cultivation and lack of access to tilling villages. Food security, defined by Barotse equipment and animal draft power (plows and households as having enough food (often oxen). In the case of the latter constraint, study referring to the staples) throughout the year, participants suggested that addressing cattle was cited as one of the main reasons for crop diseases would help avoid cattle deaths and diversification, particularly by older men and provide the draft power to cultivate increased youth (Table 2). This is attributable to gender land sizes. In addition, healthy cattle could roles of husbands or young adult males as enhance availability of manure for improved providers of household food security. Only a

8 few female groups cited food security as the increasing income sources as an important reason for pursuing crop diversification. This reason for pursuing crop diversification. It is possibly reflects the views of widows who noteworthy that older men never mentioned depend on their cultivated plots for food to increasing diet diversity as a reason for crop feed their families. diversification (Table 2). On the other hand, diversifying diets was important to women Hedging against crop failure was also cited as a and youth (which included young women). very important reason for crop diversification. These observations on diet diversity probably Hedging was practiced by all the focus groups arise because securing adequate nutrition is but particularly by the youth. It was explained gendered and most likely shaped by norms and that hedging against risk of crop failure power relations. Women tend to be responsible involved a mix of more productive but less for ensuring household members eat a diversity hardy crops or varieties and crops or varieties of foods, while men tend to be more concerned that were less productive yet more tolerant to about acquiring cash, producing cash crops, drought or floods. Older men and youth cited purchasing larger items for the home, etc.

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele Lower Upper Increase income M 1 1 1 - - 1 1 - 1 1 1

W ------RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Y 1 - - 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 Food security M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 W - 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 Y 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 - - 1 1 Enrich soil fertility M - - - - - 1 1 - - - - W 1 - 1 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - Y - - - - - 1 - - - - - Hedge crop failure M ------1 - - - W 1 - 1 1 - - - 1 1 1 1 Y 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - Limited land M - - - - - 1 - - - - - W - - - 1 1 1 1 1 - - - Y ------Pest and disease control M ------W - - - 1 - 1 - - 1 - - Y ------Increase diet variety M ------W - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 Y ------1 1 1 - Reduce labor M ------W - - 1 ------Y ------Notes: M = men older than 35 years; W = women older than 35 years (married and widowed women heading households); Y = youth (women and men 35 years or younger); 1 = cited by group as reason for crop diversification; - = not cited as reason for crop diversification. Table 2. Crop diversification reasons cited by men, women and youth in AAS focal communities in Western Province, Zambia.

9 Other less frequently cited reasons for the provided a long harvest period due to the pursuit of crop diversification included the storability of the roots in the field, and had desire to enrich soil fertility and limited land. many food uses. The gender and location distinctions have implications for targeting specific species and In specific communities (e.g. Lealui), vegetables cultivars or varieties to address the different were uncommonly planted to large areas. These motivations for crop diversification. On the are communities accessible to the major district basis of these findings, it is recommended markets in Mongu. Women were predominantly that participatory action research to test the ones who planted the vegetables. and optimize the cropping options for Expensive seed, short shelf life, and the need diversification on available land resources for irrigation and chemicals for the control of should pay attention to gender and location pests and diseases were cited as important differences as well as the predominant reasons why few residents of the AAS focal diversification goals and strategies. communities planted vegetables on small land areas. Low market demand (due to poor market Characteristics of land types in the access and low prices) and low productivity were also mentioned as important decision Borotse floodplain, crops planted and factors for low vegetable production. For other the cropping cycle crops, pilot testing, difficulty in accessing seeds, limited suitable land (not affected by floods), The major land types found in the AAS lack of knowledge, and pest and disease risk focal communities and their characteristics

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION constituted reasons why they were planted are presented in Appendix 5. Men, women on small areas. More importantly, some crop and youth cultivate crops on different land characteristics (for example, vulnerability of types based on their knowledge of water sorghum and millet grains to bird damage, requirements, how well the crops matched soil late maturity of local cowpea, and pops8 in moisture conditions, and the onset, severity groundnut) led to the planting of some crops in and end of flooding. More crops were grown small areas. on relatively moist soils (e.g. mazulu), and fewer crops were grown on the drier, poor land Four-cell analyses of maize types (e.g. sandy mushitu). Land types closer to Four-cell analyses of maize varieties and homesteads (e.g. matongo or even lizulu when cultivars showed that seeds recycled from close to the homestead) had many different previous crop production (including grains of crops planted on them, including new crops, MM 441, which is a hybrid) were predominantly varieties or cultivars being tried out by the grown by many households on large areas. The farmers. recycled seeds were either purchased on the open market or collected from each farmer’s Four-cell analyses of crops own previous production, irrespective of Four-cell analyses of all crops whether they were hybrids or open-pollinated Residents of the AAS focal communities varieties. Men, who sometimes purchased explained that crops planted on large areas hybrid maize seed, were concerned about were staples with high market value capable the high cost of seed. Table 3 shows that of providing income as well as food. Maize inexpensive seed and easy access to maize seed was the crop predominantly planted on large are desired by at least one peer category in areas by many households (Appendix 6). Rice almost every one of the communities studied. and cassava were not planted on large areas of This finding reveals the two key motivations land by many study participants in any of the for the recycling of maize seed. Indeed, many communities studied. In some communities, farmers prefer to select, conserve and use easy access to planting materials (seeds or their own selected seeds year after year. The cuttings for cassava) was an important factor recycling of maize seed works well for open- that affected the size of plots cultivated. It was pollinated varieties that produce lower but noted, however, that cassava was the crop well stable yields and not so well for hybrids. adapted to the sandy soils in the floodplain Farmers indicated that yields from recycled and uplands. It required low external inputs, hybrids were low. Farmers also noted the

10 occurrence of yellow-striped leaves (possibly high transport costs to deliver seeds to the due to maize streak virus attack) on maize farm gate. We recommend market research to plants from recycled hybrid seed. examine the feasibility of alternative models for less costly seed deliveries to communities that Although McGuire and Sperling (2011) have poor transport access to town markets recognized seed as a vital input, they posited (including community seed production linked that farmers’ production and food security are to community genebanks and development likely to be affected by a myriad of factors other and training of local agro-dealers). than “small fluctuations in seed availability,” and hence poor seed access may not cause a Table 4 also shows that in many of the study household to fall into hunger. This assertion is communities, at least one peer group desired not supported by the experiences and views early-maturing cultivars. Due to the early- expressed by maize farmers in the AAS focal maturing trait of MM 441, it fits well with communities studied. Here, resource-poor the unpredictable onset of flooding in the farmers responded to weak access to seed by Borotse floodplain. With the exception of four recycling planting materials from their previous communities, early maturity was cited by at harvest in order to avert hunger, since they did least one peer group in each community as the not have the means to purchase seeds. Findings reason why many people planted particular from other studies in Tanzania indicate that the cultivars in large areas. Women and youth from poorest households are the most seed insecure, five communities cited low yield as the reason since they generally fail to produce enough why few people planted some cultivars in

crops to keep seed throughout the year and small areas. This may be linked to the intrinsic RESULTS AND DISCUSSION only access seed through the exchange of labor low yield traits of the cultivars. Nalitoya and for seed (Lazaro and Bisanda 2005). Nembwele are the only communities where youth cited limited access to land as the reason In the AAS focal communities, the critical factors why cultivars were planted in small areas. Table that motivated annual purchases of maize seed 4 shows that expensive seed and late maturity included good income (to facilitate availability were cited by at least one peer group in almost of extra cash for seed purchases), inexpensive all the communities as the reasons why few seed and easy access to seed. In view of the people planted maize cultivars in small areas. poor transport network to many of the AAS Expensive seed and difficulty in accessing seed focal communities (due to lack of roads, sandy were cited as important factors constraining soils and dispersed small communities), seed widespread use of modern maize cultivars (e.g. suppliers from outside the communities face MM 603, Pool 16).

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Why maize cultivars Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele were planted on Lower Upper large areas by many farmers Cheap seed Y M Y -- WY MWY MWY MWY W W W Easy seed access Y M -- Y -- M MWY Y Y Y Y Early maturity MW -- MW W -- MW -- MWY -- Y Y Drought tolerance ------Y ------Adapted to BFS Y ------Y Y ------High yield MW -- -- WY ------WY WY Stays above floods -- W ------Good grain quality ------Y Y Notes: M = men older than 35 years; W = women older than 35 years (married and widowed women heading households); Y = youth (men and women 35 years or younger); -- = not cited by any group. BFS stands for Borotse floodplain system. Table 3. Reasons cited in AAS focal villages as to why many people grow maize cultivars on large areas.

11 It was explained that late maturity was the visits were used to share findings from the first reason why a modern maize cultivar, MM agrobiodiversity survey and seek confirmation 603, was planted in small areas. Similarly, about the specific characteristics of maize due to the long-maturity characteristics of cultivars desired for the different land types. We local maize varieties such as Kandalendale, learned that maize was planted on five different Munali and Simikata, they were viewed as no land types, ranging from flood-prone litapa to longer adapted to the unpredictable flooding drought-prone mushitu and including mazulu, experienced in the Borotse floodplain. Some matongo and mabala. Early maturity was maize cultivars were deemed not adapted to mentioned in almost all AAS focal communities lower-lying areas in the floodplain (in Mwandi as a desired maize cultivar trait on all the land Lower, Lealui, Situlu and Nanikelako). An types on which maize was cultivated (Table 5). interesting observation was the preference It was explained that early-maturing cultivars, by women in Mwandi Lower for maize plants which have short crop cycles, were protected based on plant height. It was explained that from the effects of flooding and the early because of its plant height of 1.5 meters at cessation of rains. Long stalks were desired maturity, MM 441 was preferred to Pool 16, for flood-prone litapa where the maize cobs which was more prone to submergence in needed to stay above flood levels. Additionally, flooded areas. flood tolerance was desired for mazulu in areas prone to flooding. Drought tolerance was Based on the findings, factors that stimulate mentioned as desirable for cultivars grown on many people to cultivate maize in large areas mazulu and the drier mushitu.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION include cheap seed, easy access to seed and early maturity. On the other hand, lack of seed, We sought confirmation of the minimum set of expensive seed and late maturity are reasons traits desired for all maize cultivars. Drought and why few people grow certain maize cultivars flood tolerance characteristics were desired in in small areas. An additional consideration in all the AAS focal communities (Table 6). Taste promoting maize cultivars is adequate plant was mentioned as a desired maize cultivar height to avoid waterlogging on litapa and characteristic in Lealui (the highly populated mazulu land types. On the other hand, on traditional headquarters of the Lozi-speaking drier mushitu land types, where rain-fed maize people with proximity and easy access to large is cultivated on mostly sandy soils, drought markets and a consumer base in the provincial tolerance is a key desired trait. capital of Mongu). This desire reflected the sale of roasted maize on the cob. People in the AAS During the second visit to each of the focal communities in Kalabo and Mongu districts communities, joint meetings were held with (except Nanikelako village) cited long stalks as all social groups in each village. The second one of the desired minimum maize cultivar traits.

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Why maize cultivars Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele were planted on Lower Upper small areas by few farmers Expensive seed Y MW MY M W M M M WY Y -- Hard to access seed WY ------Y M W -- -- WY Y Late maturity MW -- -- MWY W MWY W -- W WY W Unadapted to BFS/ -- W ------W M WY ------plant too short Low market -- -- W ------W -- -- Y Y demand Low yield ------WY W -- -- W -- W W Snack food ------Y ------Limited land ------Y Y Notes: M = men older than 35 years; W = women older than 35 years (married and widowed women heading households); Y = youth (men and women 35 years or younger); -- = not cited by any group. BFS stands for Borotse floodplain system. Table 4. Reasons cited in AAS focal communities as to why few people grow maize cultivars on small areas.

12 Breeders have long reduced plant height during ascertained through plant trait preference crop improvements to increase grain yields. It is modeling, involving conjoint analysis (Baidu- noteworthy that high yields were not explicitly Forson et al. 1997) and/or practically through mentioned as one of the desired minimum traits. learning plots and participatory action research.

The lesson learned from the assessment of Four-cell analyses of rice maize cultivar trait preferences is that the Supa rice is the most preferred rice cultivar. It promotion of seeds needs to target cultivars is particularly suited to land types that have with specific traits to fit the different land types adequate water in the soil, but less suited cultivated and the times of year when crops to soils that do not receive or contain good are planted. Apart from the trait preference amounts of water. It is tolerant of flooding. assessments conducted through the focus group discussions, maize crop improvement Farmers in the AAS focal communities research could gain greater understanding explained that they purchased Supa rice grains of farmer choice decisions through exploring for use as seed from the open market, and not the relationship between farmers’ knowledge from agro-dealers. Farmers also recycled Supa of maize varieties and their selection under rice seeds selected from their own previous conditions of technological change (Bellon harvests. 1991). Trait preferences could also be

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Lower Upper Early maturing ------Mt, Mu, Mt, Mu, ------Mt, Mu, Mt, Mu, Mz, M Mz, L Mz, M Mz, L

Drought tolerant Mz L, Mz Mz Mu Mu Mz Mz, L Mz --- Mu Mu Flood tolerant --- L L Mz Mz, L Mz Mz, L L --- Mz Mz, L Long stalks L L ------L L ------Tasty roasted corn L ------L ------on cob Notes: --- not mentioned; L = litapa, Mz = mazulu, Mt = matongo, M = mabala and Mu = mushitu land types in the Borotse floodplain system. Table 5. Preferred maize characteristics for different cultivated land types.

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele Lower Upper Drought tolerant ------High yielding ------Early maturing ------Flood tolerant ------Long stalks ------Taste ------Notes: --- = not mentioned. Table 6. Characteristics desired in all cultivars of maize.

13 Supa rice was grown in large areas by many were experimenting with cultivars to assess the study participants because of its high market desirability of morphological and organoleptic value, potential for income, good taste, good qualities. aroma, wholeness of grain when milled, adaptation to flooded areas, and easy seed During second visits to the AAS focal access mainly from purchases in the open communities, we explicitly sought confirmation market or recycled harvested grains. Table 7 about the specific characteristics of rice cultivars reveals that in many of the communities studied, desired for the different land types. We learned high market value, taste and good aroma were that rice was cultivated on four different land very important reasons why rice cultivars are types: litapa, matunda, matongo and mabala. grown in large areas by many people. Appendix Early maturation is a desired trait for cultivation 6 shows that several other rice cultivars, notably on all four land types (Table 9). Locational Xiangzhou 5 (also known as Zhou 5 or Zawa), differences are observed in the desire for other Kajacket, Angola, Blue bonnet, Malawi faya and specific rice cultivar characteristics, such as high Burma, were typically grown in small land areas. yield, unpalatability of stalks to fish, low water demand and salinity tolerance. For example, Farmers in the study communities explained high yield and long stalks were mentioned as that they planted rice cultivars other than desired rice cultivar characteristics only in the Supa rice because the other cultivars had AAS focal villages in Senanga District. Good lower water demands than Supa and because aroma and good taste were the predominantly women prepared the local food buhobe desired characteristics across the AAS focal

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION from them. They further explained that the communities (Table 10). In larger communities rice cultivars desired for buhobe were Blue with proximity or easy access to large consumer bonnet, Angola, Xiangzhou 5, Burma, Nerica markets in the provincial capital of Mongu, long and ITTA. Table 8 shows that low market price grain after milling was a desired characteristic. and demand, as well as difficulty in accessing Only in Kabula (Lukulu District) was an early- seed, are predominant reasons why few people maturing trait not mentioned as a desired rice planted some rice cultivars in small areas. cultivar characteristic. Some of the other factors cited as reasons why people planted some rice cultivars in The overall lesson learned is that rice cultivar small areas include lack of adaptation to trait preferences differ across locations, land growing conditions in the Borotse floodplain, types and levels of moisture availability. Based susceptibility to bird damage, no aroma and on past research findings, Joshi et al. (2007) poor taste. Some new rice cultivars, such as note that when explicit measures are taken Nerica and black rice, were grown in small to account for the needs of clients (farmers plots, mainly by men and youth because they and consumers) through the participation of

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Why rice cultivars Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele were planted on Lower Upper large areas by many farmers High market value MW -- MWY MWY MWY MY MW MWY WY W -- Income Y ------W Y Y ------Adapted to BFS ------Y M MW -- Y -- Tasty MW -- -- Y MY -- MW Y WY W W Good aroma M -- -- MW Y -- MW Y Y -- WY Staple -- -- M ------M ------Easy seed access Y -- -- Y MY ------Y Whole grain -- -- W ------Y Big grain ------Y M ------Good food quality ------W -- -- Notes: M = men older than 35 years; W = women older than 35 years (married and widowed women heading households); Y = youth (men and women 35 years or younger); -- = not cited by any group. BFS stands for Borotse floodplain system. Table 7. Reasons cited in AAS focal villages as to why many people grow rice cultivars on large areas. 14 Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Why rice cultivars Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele were planted on Lower Upper small areas by few farmers Low market MWY -- MWY MWY MY MY WY WY W WY Y demand and price No aroma Y ------M ------Y Poor taste ------Y Hard to access MY -- W MWY MY ------Y WY WY seeds Gets flooded, not ------MW MW ------adapted to BFS New variety ------Y -- -- Y M MY -- -- Staple W ------Y ------Grains break -- -- Y ------Bird scaring labor M ------demands Notes: M = men older than 35 years; W = women older than 35 years (married and widowed women heading households); Y = youth (men and women 35 years or younger); -- = not cited by any group. BFS stands for Borotse floodplain system. Table 8. Reasons cited in AAS focal villages as to why few people grow rice cultivars on small areas.

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele

Lower Upper RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Early maturing L, Md, Mt N/A L, Md, N/A --- L, Md, N/A L, Md, Mt L, M L, M L, M Mt Mt High yielding --- N/A --- N/A ------N/A --- L, M L, M L, M Salinity tolerant --- N/A --- N/A L --- N/A ------Low water demand --- N/A --- N/A M --- N/A ------Long stalks to L, Md, Mt N/A L, Md, N/A --- L, Md, N/A L, Md, Mt ------compete with Mt Mt floods Stalks unpalatable L, Md, Mt N/A --- N/A --- L, Md, N/A L, Md, Mt ------to fish Mt No lodging L, Md, Mt N/A --- N/A --- L, Md, N/A L, Md, Mt ------Mt Notes: N/A = crop not grown; --- not mentioned; M = mabala, Md = matunda, Mt = matongo and L = litapa land types in the Borotse floodplain system. Table 9. Preferred characteristics of rice for different land types.

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele Lower Upper Good aroma N/A N/A N/A Early maturing --- N/A --- N/A --- N/A ------High yielding --- N/A --- N/A --- N/A ------

Good taste N/A N/A --- N/A Good buhobe --- N/A --- N/A ------N/A ------Long grain after N/A --- N/A --- N/A ------milling No lodging --- N/A N/A ------N/A ------Long stalk N/A --- N/A --- N/A ------Notes: N/A = crop not grown; --- = not mentioned; buhobe is the local thick paste prepared from flour (called nshima elsewhere in Zambia and Malawi). Table 10. Minimum characteristics desired in all cultivars of rice.

15 farmers in specifying the design of desirable In the study communities where cassava is varieties and their testing with the target grown, the predominant cassava cultivar grown clients in the target environments, the results on large areas by many households is Nalumino are effective client-oriented breeding. In (Appendix 5). Table 11 shows that in all but addition, we recommend that participatory three communities, cassava was grown in large action research focus on value chain studies areas by many people as the staple food. Easy that experiment with alternative means of access to planting materials (cuttings) and facilitating access to quality seeds, so that a adaptation of Nalumino to growing conditions lack of easy access to cheap seed does not in the floodplain and upland are important constitute a constraint to the large-scale reasons why it was cultivated in large areas adoption of rice cultivars. by many people. In at least one community in each district studied, youth and women were Four-cell analyses of cassava motivated by the high market value to plant Four-cell analyses for cassava cultivars showed Nalumino in large areas. Some of the other that in communities studied in Mongu reasons why people planted cassava cultivars District, cassava was not grown in large areas in large areas included good-quality flour for by many households. In Nanikelako village, preparation of local food (buhobe), resistance located in the floodplain, cassava does not do to drought, resistance to mealybug attacks well. The importance of cassava cultivation and early maturing. An interesting trait of was influenced by locational differences in Nalumino, mentioned by women, is the bitter landforms, as well as soils and land suitability taste, which prevents its theft in the fields for

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION for higher-valued crops such as maize and rice. raw consumption. Appendix 5 lists at least 17 Also, cassava is relatively important to the non- other varieties or cultivars of cassava (Kapumba, Lozi immigrant population, including Angolans Nakamoya, Kapulanga, Mutembo, Litale, Butiki, and Congolese, who typically grow and eat a Busele, Mbambi, Kakota, Portuguese, Bangweulu, lot of cassava. This finding is similar to what is Chila, Tumbangezhi, Rabbecca, Lingoma, Nyengo reported from a study by Murao (1995). and Makamwengo) grown on small land areas by only a few households.

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Why cassava Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele cultivars were Lower Upper planted on large areas by many farmers Easy access to MWY -- MW Y MY ------Y Y Y planting materials High yielding MWY WY MW W ------W WY Adapted to BFS MY -- M ------Y MY Y Y Y Good flour quality ------Y W ------Staple -- WY WY M WY -- -- MY Y Y Y Early maturity ------W ------High market value -- -- Y -- Y -- -- W -- -- Y Drought resistant ------W ------Y W -- W Bitter taste, which Y ------W W -- deters theft on farms Pest (mealybug) -- WY ------W W -- resistance Income ------Y Tuber stores well ------Y ------Notes: M = men older than 35 years; W = women older than 35 years (married and widowed women heading households); Y = youth (men and women 35 years or younger); -- = not cited by any group. BFS stands for Borotse floodplain system. Table 11. Reasons cited in AAS focal villages as to why many people plant cassava cultivars on large areas.

16 Table 12 shows that in all the AAS focal damage in the field) of Nalumino mentioned communities studied, the lack of planting by the focus groups provide a useful guide material was an important reason why cassava to cassava breeding. Traits that cassava crop cultivars were planted in small areas. Based on improvement programs could consider include data in both Appendix 5 and Table 12, other early maturity (ready in 6 months if possible) factors motivating the cultivation of these and high yields (particularly on matongo and cassava varieties in small land areas included matunda land types), good quality flour for poor flour quality, poor tuber storage quality, buhobe and resistance to mealybug. low yields (notably Kapumba variety), pest and disease attacks (particularly susceptibility The cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti to mealybug), and limited suitable land. Matile-Ferrero (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Some cultivars (for example, Nakamoya) were was mentioned as being of particular concern planted in small areas by only a few households by some farmers in the study communities. because they were seen as mainly snack foods. It is one of the most severe pests of cassava In villages in Senanga District, the good taste (Bellotti et al. 1999). Natural enemies, of the Nakamoya variety was mentioned by discovered in South America in the late 1970s, women and youth as increasing its vulnerability were identified, multiplied and released in to theft in the field. On the contrary, women more than 100 locations in Africa with positive mentioned that Butiki was grown in small results (Neuenschwander 2001; Nweke 2009). land areas because of its bitter taste. Further Therefore, a biological remedy for handling studies are recommended to understand the cassava mealybug exists. It needs to be

differences in bitterness between Nalumino implemented by the extension services of the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and Butiki in relation to how their bitterness Provincial Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock characteristics differentially influenced their for the benefit of cassava producers in the relative acceptability to farmers. Good tuber cassava-growing areas in Western Province of quality in storage was mentioned as a desirable Zambia, where mealybug attacks occur. Apart trait in at least one study village. The desirable from desired cassava traits, it is evident that traits and defects (e.g. susceptibility to frost easy access to cuttings would affect widespread

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Why cassava Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele cultivars were Lower Upper planted on small areas by few farmers Lack of planting MWY WY WY MY WY WY Y MW MWY WY WY materials Pest (mealybug) -- -- W -- -- W ------W -- attack Not adapted to BFS M -- M -- -- W -- Y ------Snack food -- -- Y Y -- -- Y M Y Y -- Low market ------M ------demand and price Poor flour quality ------Y ------Poor tuber storage ------Y ------Theft due to taste ------MW -- -- Require lots of Y ------Y -- -- moisture New cultivar ------WY ------Bitterness -- W ------Labor constraint ------Y ------Notes: M = men older than 35 years; W = women older than 35 years (married and widowed women heading households); Y = youth (men and women 35 years or younger); -- = not cited by any group. BFS stands for Borotse floodplain system. Table 12. Reasons cited in AAS focal villages as to why few people grow cassava cultivars on small areas.

17 adoption of new cassava cultivars. In view of For example, drought and frost tolerance the bulkiness of cassava cuttings, research is were mainly the desired traits in the AAS focal needed on how best to facilitate continuous communities in Senanga District. ready access to cassava planting materials, particularly within communities having enclave Factors motivating cropping strategies characteristics due to a lack of roads that link communities with market centers or sources of Resilient agricultural systems are vital in sub- planting materials, along with high transport Saharan Africa, where many communities costs. depend on agricultural products for their livelihoods (Altieri 1999). Due to the During second visits to the AAS focal vulnerability of livelihoods of people in rural communities, we sought confirmation about communities, farmers have limited capacity the characteristics of cassava cultivars desired to invest in coping strategies that require a for different land types. We learned that cassava lot of expenditure (Lin 2011). During focus cultivars were cultivated on matongo, mushitu, group discussions, participants in the AAS matunda and sishanjo (only in Sifuna and focal communities mentioned food security, Nalitoya villages in Senanga District) land types. increased productivity and income as the main High yield was the desired cassava trait on all goals of crop producers. However, hedging, the four land types (Table 13). Early maturity through the planting of multiple crops on land (crop cycles of 6 months) and high yield were spatially or temporally, was practiced in the AAS desired cassava traits in all the AAS focal focal communities as a strategy against crop failure and food insecurity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION communities (Table 14). Other desired cassava traits mentioned were quite location specific.

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele Lower Upper High yielding Mt, Md N/A Md, Mt, Mt, Mu Mt, Mu Mt, N/A Mt, Md Mt Mt Mt Mu Md Tolerant to drought --- N/A --- Mt, Mu ------N/A --- Mu ------Bitter taste to avoid --- N/A --- Mt, Mu ------N/A ------theft Resistant to --- N/A ------Mt, Mu --- N/A ------mealybug Flood tolerant --- N/A ------N/A --- S S --- Notes: N/A = crop not grown; --- not mentioned; Mt = matongo, Mu = mushitu (matema), S = sishanjo, and Md = matunda land types in the Borotse floodplain system. Table 13. Characteristics of cassava for different cultivated land types.

Kalabo District Lukulu District Mongu District Senanga District Mapungu Mwandi Mwandi Kapanda Kabula Lealui Situlu Nanikelako Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele Lower Upper Good buhobe --- N/A ------N/A ------High yielding --- N/A N/A Early maturing N/A N/A before floods (6 months) Frost tolerance --- N/A ------N/A ------Drought tolerance --- N/A ------N/A --- Resistance to --- N/A ------N/A ------mealybugs Notes: N/A = crop not grown; --- = not mentioned. Table 14. Minimum characteristics desired in all cultivars of cassava.

18 This strategy for limiting vulnerability to Low productivity livelihood insecurity is consistent with previous research findings (e.g. Pretty et al. 2011).Crop Some crops and their cultivars were reported by diversification is seen as one of the most feasible farmers as having low productivity (Table 15). and rational ways of reducing uncertainties in The predominant culture of recycling grains agriculture, especially among small-scale farmers as seed, including those from hybrids; (Mugendi 2013). unpredictable flooding; low yields from the local varieties; poor soils; and the late receipt Trapnell and Clothier (1996) report that, in the of seeds from the formal seed sector were all floodplain near Mongu, different crop varieties factors that contributed to low productivity in were grown to increase food security and that maize. Damage from cold spells and mealybug crop diversification was an adaptation strategy attacks contributed to low productivity in in response to changing flood scenarios, cassava. Pearl or bulrush millet, finger millet, and enabling farmers not to be dependent on sorghum cultivated in the Borotse floodplain a single crop variety. Farmers spread risks were predominantly low-yielding local varieties through temporal and/or spatial use of crop (including landraces, which refer to locally diversity to increase resilience. Future research adapted or traditional varieties), but they do could evaluate the total factor productivities of have traits that appeal to farmers. In addition to alternative crop diversification options, including fertility improvement of poor soils to increase valuation of ecosystem services, with a view productivity, we recommend participatory to optimizing crop diversification on different action research for comparative evaluation of newly bred and local varieties, including

land types. Related ecosystems research could RESULTS AND DISCUSSION also document the impact of alternative landraces from climatic analogue sites that are diversification options on ecosystem services stored in genebanks or with Barotse farmers. (e.g. pest control) and the implications for This would provide opportunities for learning sustainability of relevant production systems. by all participants on relative performances and desirability of different millet cultivars.

District and villages Men Women Youth Mongu District Lealui Recycled maize Maize, pumpkin, squash Maize Situlu Recycled maize, Blue bonnet and Local maize, watermelon, pumpkin, Groundnut, rice, cassava Malawi fire for rice local cucumber Nanikelako Kandalendale variety of maize, Recycled MM 441, pumpkin Maize, vegetables pumpkin, watermelon Kalabo District Mapungu Supa rice Recycled MM 441 and recycled MM Groundnut 603 for maize Mwandi Lower Maize when early flooding of litapa Recycled maize, sweet potato, Recycled maize field occurs pumpkin, cucumber Mwandi Upper Recycled maize, rice cultivars not Supa rice because it is not adapted Supa rice, maize adapted to low soil water to low soil water in the area Senanga District Sifuna Nalumino variety of cassava All crops Groundnut, Bambara nut, (damaged by cold spells), maize (due sweet potato, millet to late availability of seed), cowpea Nalitoya Cassava (damaged by cold spells Maize, cowpea, groundnut Cowpea, groundnut, Bambara and mealybugs) nut Nembwele Nalumino variety of cassava (due Maize, rice, groundnut, beans Maize, sorghum, groundnut, to cold spells), maize (formal seed millet distributed too late), cowpea Lukulu District Kapanda Recycled maize Maize, sorghum, rice, millet, Maize, sorghum, groundnut vegetables Kabula Maize, rice Maize, rice, cowpea, watermelon, Maize, rice finger millet

Table 15. Crops and cultivars with low productivity in AAS focal communities studied.

19 Flood risk to crops communities, social and gender norms may limit the capacity of women to adapt to the In the Borotse floodplain, annual floods have floods. According to Kwashimbisa and Puskur positive and negative consequences for human (2014), this is because women are less mobile and agricultural activities. People located in and cannot easily move onto lands to start the Borotse floodplain are accustomed to cultivating different kinds of crops whenever the benefits and risks associated with annual they want. Women’s mobility is constrained, flooding from the Zambezi River. Cropping which may restrict their opportunities to calendars and other activities, particularly cattle adapt to flooding. Norms and power relations grazing and movements, are highly influenced give men greater mobility, freedom of choice by the timing and severity of the floods. Lower- and other advantages (Steven Cole, personal lying areas of the floodplain, such as milapo communication). and litapa gardens, benefit from sediments eroded from the upper reaches of the Zambezi River and deposited there during the annual Indigenous or local crops and wild food flooding. The negative effects of floods are plants lost or at risk of loss experienced when flooding starts earlier and Some examples of indigenous or local crops with greater severity than normal or expected, were listed by study participants living in the leading to the submergence of crops. When this AAS focal communities in Barotseland as “lost” happens, the productivity of crops not adapted or “at risk of being lost” (Table 16). Specific crop to excess water is badly affected. This is because varieties mentioned were some landraces of flooding and deeper submergence constitute RESULTS AND DISCUSSION local pearl or bulrush millet, and local finger major abiotic constraints on growth, species millet. Study participants explained that the distribution and agricultural productivity risk of losing desired pearl millet, finger millet (Jackson and Colmer 2005). Based on regional and sorghum varieties was primarily due to modeling of water resources in the Zambezi bird damage. This is because when farmers River basin countries, Beck and Bernauer (2010) experience substantial bird damage, they point out that climatic change and other factors abandon the cultivation of millet and with time related to population and economic growth lose access to seeds. This suggests the need for would result in drastically reduced runoff in the breeding programs that prioritize how to make dry season and changing shares of runoff and the millet grains less vulnerable to bird damage. water demand of the countries. Study participants in the AAS focal communities outlined specific individual and collective During the focus group discussions, study communal actions critical to preventing the participants indicated that the key strategies total disappearance of desired local crops and farmers adopted in response to flood risk varieties. These actions include encouraging potential or in flood-prone areas were early many farmers to grow local sorghum and planting of crops, planting early-maturing millet at the same time (as a way of spreading cultivars (e.g. MM 441, Pool 16 and Pan 53 maize loss from bird damage across many farms), cultivars) on mazulu and litapa land types, canal creating community seed banks, restoring clearing to facilitate water flow, opting to grow lost materials, and educating youth about the Supa rice and cassava (Nalumino variety) on the nutritional values of millet and sorghum and matongo land type, and irrigating early-planted their use as buhobe. In addition to the local maize prior to the normal rains. Decisions on millets, Kapumba variety of cassava, local yams the specific flood risk adaptation strategies (Kalungwa and Malumba varieties), Maelepu and adopted were mostly made jointly by married Makonga varieties of sorghum, local sugarcane, couples or by the head of household in single- and the Kandalendale variety of local maize headed homes (usually widows). were mentioned as being at risk of being lost. Appendix 5 contains data that show specific Adaptation to the annual floods in aquatic cultivars for which the communities would like systems is largely dependent on the frequency, crop improvement research to reselect or purify extent and impacts of the floods as well as and restore to their communities. the technological advancement of the society (Trapnell and Clothier 1996). In addition, it has been noted that in some of the Barotse 20 District and villages Men Women Youth Mongu District Lealui Kandalendale variety of maize, Local yams, Maelepu and Makonga Millet, sorghum finger millet, aquatic plants varieties of sorghum, aquatic plants, Kandalendale variety of maize Situlu Aquatic plants (Mampana, Finger millet, Munanana variety of Simikata variety of maize, Mashela, Linjefu, Nswe), Munanana pearl millet, sorghum, Kalungwa sorghum, Tunkolala and Mupusi variety of pearl millet, Tulungwa and Kapumba varieties of cassava, varieties of pumpkin variety of finger millet, local yams Siboyani variety of local yam, aquatic plants (Linjefu, Mashela, Makwangala); Sishungwa (Cleome gynandra) Nanikelako Munanana variety of millet, finger Finger millet, Bambara nut, Sorghum, groundnut, Bambara millet, local yam, Makonga variety Namakando and Kashala varieties nut, aquatic plant (Nswe), of sorghum of sweet potato, Munanana Kandalendale variety of maize, variety of millet, Tepe (red leaf local yam amaranth), watermelon and Mucelo (vegetable collected from the wild) Kalabo District Mapungu Makonga and Maelepu varieties of Millet, Makonga variety of Pumpkin, Bambara nut, Kapumba sorghum, millet sorghum, pumpkin, squash, local and Mutembo varieties of cassava, cucumber, local yam, aquatic local maize, millet, sorghum plants (Makwangala, Linjefu, Lindowa) Mwandi Lower Maelepu variety of sorghum, Bambara nut, finger millet, Kankolola, Munali variety of maize, Munanana variety of millet, cowpea, sorghum, pearl millet, Kapumba variety of cassava

aquatic plants aquatic plants (Makwangala, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Maoma, Linjefu) Mwandi Upper Millet, sorghum, local yam Sorghum, millet, cowpea, finger Sorghum, millet millet, Kapumba and Kamuliboko varieties of cassava Senanga District Sifuna Taro, finger millet Finger millet, local yams, Makonga Millet, pumpkin, local yam, variety of sorghum, millet, local Bambara nut, groundnut, sweet banana, local sugarcane, Tepe (red potato, banana leaf Amaranthus spp.) Nalitoya Taro, Mubotu and Makonga Finger millet, local yam, pearl Finger millet, Irish potato varieties of sorghum, Munanana millet, Makonga variety of variety of millet sorghum Nembwele Taro, finger millet Finger millet, local yam, millet, Sorghum, millet, local maize sweet potato, Sesheke and Mashewa varieties of sorghum, Munali variety of maize, Sishungwa (Cleome gynandra), amaranths Lukulu District Kapanda Millet, Kapumba and Nguvu Groundnut, Bambara nut, cowpea, Lukesha variety of finger millet, varieties of cassava, cowpea pumpkin, local cucumber pearl millet, Sikuswani variety of local yam Kabula Sorghum, millet, tobacco Sorghum, millet, local yam, finger Millet, sorghum, cowpea, local millet, Tepe (red leaf Amaranthus yam, finger millet, bulb onion, spp.) tobacco Table 16. Local or indigenous plant materials lost or at risk of loss.

21 Materials not adapted to flooding and do contain desirable characteristics that crop improvement programs may want to explore other environmental conditions in the and incorporate in new materials. For example, floodplain Pool 16 has the desirable traits of early maturity and resistance to lodging. Also, MM 603 has For most crops in flood-prone areas, excess desired high yield, resistance to maize streak water is a major constraint to productivity virus disease, good taste and long stalks. The (Jackson 2004). This constraint is expressed key traits that cereal crops need to contain to through adverse effects on crop growth become adapted to the environmental and and yields. Advances have been made in growing conditions in the floodplain are early developing cultivars for lowland areas prone maturity, high yield, long stalks and resistance to short-duration flooding (Siangliw et al. to lodging. Good taste and good aroma from 2003; Toojinda et al. 2003). Based on the floods food preparations are also quite important and environmental changes experienced traits. However, when canal clearing opens up recently in the AAS focal communities, some more fertile lands and helps to control flooding, crops and varieties were described during the the types of cultivars desired because of focus group discussions as no longer adapted inundations, which plague many farmers, may to prevailing environmental and growing change (Steven Cole, personal communication). conditions in the Borotse floodplain (Table 17). The prominent reasons mentioned for a lack of adaptation included late maturity, pests and Species collected from the local diseases, erratic rains, unpredictable floods, and ecology for food RESULTS AND DISCUSSION granivorous bird risk to cereal grains. Ethnic groups from all over Africa have a Locational differences exist in the perceived long history of consuming traditional leafy suitability of crops. Study participants in vegetables to supplement their diets (Chweya Senanga District felt that maize and cassava and Eyzaguirre 1999). Food resources collected were unsuitable crops for the growing from the local ecology are important for the conditions in their locations. Maize and rice livelihoods of resource-poor rural women and were also cited as not suited to growing children in times of drought and when vulnerable conditions in the AAS focal communities in groups in society have less access to land, labor Lukulu District. Farmers in Mwandi Upper, and capital. However, vegetables collected from located on an upland area dependent on rains, the local ecology are generally underutilized felt that the much-appreciated Supa rice was in favor of introduced non-native vegetables not well-adapted to their area because Supa rice (Rubaihayo 1992). Also, investment in research required more water than could be available and development to generate knowledge and in the predominant land types and soils. Also, improve the qualities of plants collected from the Supa rice was not suitable for cultivation on local ecology for food is miniscule compared to mabala and matunda land types due to the that for exotic vegetables. short period of water availability. Pool 16 maize While some literature report that there was cited as not adapted to cultivation on the is increased consumption of indigenous litapa land type because of the short plant vegetables, both annual and perennial, in height that made it susceptible to submergence Africa (Bharucha and Pretty 2010; Dweba and in flood waters. The late maturity of the MM 603 Mearns 2011), other research reports that maize cultivar was also not adapted to growing the availability of indigenous vegetables has conditions in the Borotse floodplain. However, declined drastically because of the excessive where irrigation facilities were available on cultivation of field crops, the use of chemicals to litapa and lower mazulu land types, early eliminate wild vegetables, and habitat change planting of MM 603 could take place in August (Odhav et al. 2007). Young people were found and September, and this shift in planting time to be unaware of the nutritional qualities of made it more adapted. local vegetables (Odhav et al. 2007). The decline During the focus group discussions, study in the consumption of indigenous vegetables participants indicated that some varieties is reported to have contributed to poor diets that are currently not adapted to flooding and the increased incidence of nutritional

22 deficiency disorders and diseases in many parts called libowa or musame, although there are of Africa (Kwapata and Maliro 1995). However, other local names for different varieties of traditional vegetables represent inexpensive, amaranth); Abelmoschus esculentus Moench high-quality nutrition sources for the resource- (commonly known as bush okra and locally poor. Several publications (Nesamvuni et al. called delele); and several varieties of Hibiscus 2001; Steyn et al. 2001; Jansen van Rensburg et spp. (commonly known as roselle and locally al. 2004) have documented the nutritional value called sindambi or mundambi). Preferred species of indigenous leafy vegetables. are marked with asterisks in Annex 1. Cleome gynandra is preferred for its high market value, During the focus group discussions in AAS focal good taste and aroma, and the fact that it could communities, 18 species of vegetables collected be eaten alone during lean food availability from the local ecology for consumption were periods. identified. The vegetable species commonly collected for consumption in almost all the The high nutritional and medicinal properties AAS focal communities and cited by men, of Cleome gynandra are well noted (Nyirenda women and youth groups included Cleome et al. 2007; van den Heever and Venter 2007). gynandra (cat’s whiskers or African cabbage, Documented nutrient contents of Cleome locally known as sishungwa); Amaranthus spp. gynandra include 14 milligrams (mg) per (commonly known as amaranths and locally 100 grams (g) of vitamin C, 115 mg/100 g of

District and villages Men Women Youth RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Mongu District Lealui All crops due to floods MM 603 and local maize, Kapumba Cassava, sorghum, pearl millet variety of cassava affected by pests Situlu All crops except Supa rice Munali, yellow maize and Pool Groundnut, cowpea, finger millet, 16 for maize; pumpkin; local Maelepu and Makonga varieties of cucumber; aquatic plants (sweet sorghum reeds) Nanikelako MM 441 and local Kandalendale Local and recycled maize varieties Nalumino variety of cassava for maize Kalabo District Mapungu All crops with duration > 6 months MM 441 and MM 603 for maize, MM 441 for maize, Nalumino cycle Supa rice on upland and rainfed, variety of cassava, Zaire variety of groundnut, watermelon planted sweet potato, groundnut on mabala to use residual moisture Mwandi Lower Local maize, groundnut, pumpkin Recycled maize, sweet potato, Nalumino variety of cassava for pumpkin, cucumber the area Mwandi Upper Rice—except when cultivated to Supa rice grown in areas where Supa rice, MM 441 for maize deeply flooded areas water dries up before maturity Senanga District Sifuna Cowpea, rice, cassava Beans—due to black aphids Maize when late maturing and cannot withstand floods Nalitoya No response Pan 53 for maize, Supa for rice Late-maturing maize Nembwele Xiangzhou 5 for rice, sorghum due Maize, sweet potatoes, Groundnut, maize to bird menace groundnut, Bambara nut, cowpea, watermelon, pumpkin Lukulu District Kapanda No response Maize, cowpea, pumpkin, Bambara Sorghum, groundnut nut, watermelon, Kapumba variety of cassava Kabula Rice not adapted to saline soils Maize, rice, cowpea, watermelon, Tomato, cabbage, onion, millet, finger millet sorghum Table 17. Crops and cultivars lacking adaptation in the Borotse floodplain.

23 calcium, and 9 mg/100 g of iron (Muchuweti et Varieties of Hibiscus spp. were collected for al. 2009). Botanically, Abelmoschus esculentus food from the local ecology in the communities (okra) is a perennial flowering plant belonging studied because of their high market value, to the Malvaceae (mallow) family. taste and value as a replacement food during lean periods. Bidens pilosa (blackjack) was also Nutritional information for okra show that its collected from the local ecology and consumed pods are low-calorie vegetables (30 calories in the AAS focal communities. Literature reveals per 100 g) and are rich sources of dietary fiber, that Bidens pilosa is a valuable source of vitamin minerals and vitamins, as well as a mucilage C (63 mg/100 g), iron (15 mg/100 g) and zinc substance that helps smooth peristalsis of (19 mg/100 g; Muchuweti et al. 2009). Odhav et digested food through the gut and eases al. (2007) report results of proximate analyses constipation (www.nutrition-and-you.com). In of 100 g fresh weight showing that blackjack or terms of nutrients, okra contains vitamin A and amalenjane (Bidens pilosa Asteraceae) contains flavonoid antioxidants such as beta-carotene, copper (10 mg/100 g), fiber (2.92 g), energy (39 xanthin and lutein; folates (providing about kilocalories), moisture (88 g), protein (5 g), fat (0.6 22% of the recommended daily allowance g), ash (2.82 g) and carbohydrates (estimated at per 100 g); vitamin C (about 36% of daily 3.72 g). Other past analysis of B. pilosa shows that recommended levels); B-complex vitamins its essential oils and aqueous extracts possess like niacin, vitamin B-6 (pyridoxine), thiamin antioxidant and antimicrobial activities that might and pantothenic acid; vitamin K (a co-factor be a natural potential source of preservative for for blood-clotting enzymes and required for use in food and other allied industries (Deba et strengthening of bones); and many important al. 2008). Based on the high market and food RESULTS AND DISCUSSION minerals such as iron, calcium, manganese and value (taste and use as replacement food in lean magnesium (www.nutrition-and-you.com). periods), Cleome gynandra, Amaranthus spp. and Hibiscus spp. are three priority species that Research on the nutritional (crude protein, we recommend for horticultural research and potassium, iron and beta-carotene) contents development, particularly within the pursuit of of 17 genotypes belonging to six jute species an objective to promote a nutrition-sensitive (Corchorus fascicularis, C. trilocularis, C. aestuans, cropping landscape in the floodplain. C. tridens, C. capsularis and C. olitorius) showed that C. olitorius genotypes were found to be the We noted differences in groups and locations best performer for all the parameters except iron with respect to the collection of some indigenous content, for which C. aestuans outperformed the vegetables from the local ecology. Katokwani others (Choudhary et al. 2013). Also, Choudhary was collected only by older women in villages et al. (2013) show that C. olitorius cv. JRO-204 in Kalabo and Mongu districts (Appendix 2). Out had the highest leaf area (23.9 by 10.4 square of the 18 species identified, women in Lukulu meters) and foliage yield (276.67 kilograms District collected only four species, namely [kg] per hectare) and a good amount of protein Amaranthus spp., Abelmoschus esculentus, Cleome (3.79%), iron (67.93 mg/kg), beta-carotene (51.0 gynandra and Hibiscus spp. In addition, locational mg/kg) and potassium (4400 mg/kg). differences exist in species collected from local ecology for use as vegetables. Kahinga, silelemi, Amaranthus spp. were collected in the AAS focal kapusipusi, ndulweti, manansa and lulimi were communities because they were plentiful, grew not collected by residents of communities in well, were easy to cook, provided good sources of the AAS study villages in Lukulu and Senanga income and had good taste. In addition to these districts. Very little is known about the nutrient characteristics, research findings (Achigan-Dako contents of many of the local plants collected et al. 2014) reveal some reasons why Amaranthus and consumed as vegetables. We recommend spp. have become a promising food source. These research and development investment focused include resistance to heat and drought; pest and on establishing and documenting the bio- disease resistance; and high nutritional value of active nutrient profiles of these plants. This both seeds and leaves, notably the richness of documentation would also need to address the leaves in protein and micronutrients such as types and levels of toxicity where they occur zinc, vitamin C and vitamin A. and traditional knowledge applied by women, men and youth in communities to remove or attenuate potentially undesirable elements.

24 CONCLUSIONS

Focus group discussions conducted in AAS In addition, it is recommended that nutrition focal communities in Zambia revealed that studies be conducted to determine the bio-active the agroecologies and experiences within ingredients (both nutritive and anti-nutritive aquatic agricultural systems in the Zambezi elements) of many of the vegetables collected River floodplain defined the human values that to inform public education on their usefulness underpinned plant and varietal preferences as food. Additional follow-up crop improvement and choices. Out of about 25 crops cultivated research may focus attention on enhancing in the AAS focal communities, the predominant desired qualities and reducing undesirable traits, food crops were maize, rice, cassava and on seed production, and on increasing storage sweet potato. For each of these crops, farmers shelf life to enhance marketing. We noted that cultivated a diversity of varieties (including men and youth focused on cultivating rice, maize, landraces) that provide options for follow- cassava and sweet potato for household food up participatory action research seeking to security. In addition to these staple crops, women optimize crop and varietal diversification. Based cultivated vegetables for home consumption. on the findings from the research reported in This finding reveals gender and social roles of this paper, crop diversification optimization men and women in cultivation of crops and studies would need to take into consideration has implications for paying particular attention the differing opportunities offered by available to gender and social categories, in addition to and suitable land types: from flood-prone litapa locational differences in terms of land suitability and matongo, to mazulu and mabala, and to for crops in the research-in-development drought-prone, rain-dependent, dry sandy soils approach. CONCLUSIONS on mushitu. The specific plant and consumer trait preferences for the most commonly grown The scope of the studies and findings reported rice, maize and cassava and their relevance to in this paper are of particular relevance to breeding and crop improvement research have communities within the floodplain. However, been reported in this paper. However, since the findings have didactic value for studies it is unlikely that all preferred traits would be in similar aquatic agricultural systems. The present at the same time in one variety, there is limitations to the study reported in this paper a need for further research to examine possible include the following: tradeoffs in trait preferences through conjoint analyses. Similar trait tradeoff analyses could • Group responses recorded during focus be obtained through the type of participatory group discussions do not necessarily action research that Bentley (1994) prescribes translate into individual choices or decisions. to involve farmers in collaborative research. • Due to the length of time it took to Of 18 plants collected from the local ecology complete the focus group discussions in for consumption as vegetables, the most each community, detailed explanations widely preferred were local amaranths, cat’s of underlying reasons for a number of whiskers, bush okra, and roselle or sorrel. responses could not be explored. Future These leafy vegetables contain nutrients that studies may want to balance depth and enrich diet diversity and quality and therefore breadth of issues to be covered. are good candidates for crop diversification within the context of nutrition-sensitive • The study team was also unable to probe landscapes. The inclusion of improved varieties further where differences occurred within of the predominantly collected vegetables the peer groups. In particular, since the in participatory learning plots would provide youth peer group comprised both males and useful pathways for motivating farmers to females, the lack of in-depth examination of embed their preferred vegetables in crops on responses may have masked gender-related their fields. Research is needed to identify the differences among young persons, and thus it scientific and common names of several plant is recommended that future studies separate species collected and consumed as vegetables. young people according to their gender. 25 NOTES

1 Definitions of Barotse and Borotse, as used in this paper: Barotse = Marotse, Malozi = People; and Borotse = Bulozi (Mukelabai Ndiyoi, University of Barotseland, Mongu, Zambia, personal communication).

2 Research in development focuses on research within the context and taking cognizance of ongoing developmental activities by all actors.

3 In this paper, “Borotse” is used in connection with the land (e.g. Borotse floodplain), while “Barotse” is used when referring to the communities or people.

4 The Barotse community visioning is documented in Lunda J, Cole S, Apgar M, Mutimukuru T, Chisonga N, Muyaule C and Zulu F. Action planning in 10 AAS focal communities in the Barotse Hub. CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems, 12–20 June 2014, Western Province, Zambia. Unpublished document.

5 A variety (abbreviated as “var.”) is a plant that grows from its seeds or occurs naturally in the plant kingdom. This is distinct from a cultivar or cultivated variety (abbreviated “cult.”), which is a plant produced through human selection for specific desired traits such as high yield, early maturity, tolerance or resistance to pests and diseases, etc. Included in the description of variety is a special class called landrace, which is a domesticated regional ecotype or locally adapted traditional variety that has evolved through adaptation to its natural and cultural environment. Zeven (1998) defines an autochthonous landrace as a variety with a high capacity to tolerate

NOTES biotic and abiotic stress, resulting in high yield stability and intermediate yield level under a low- input agricultural system.

6 The AAS hub in Western Province works in 10 focal villages, but one of the villages (Mwandi) is sometimes split into two, namely Mwandi Upper (upland areas) and Mwandi Lower (lowland areas). This is because some people reside in the lowland village most if not all year round, and thus it appears there are two subcommunities.

7 This is a government of Zambia program through which farmers who are members of cooperatives access subsidized inputs.

8 Calcium deficiency leads to restricted seed development, resulting in poor pod filling. Such pods are called “pops.” Air fills the pods in the absence of proper seed development. When such pods are pressed between the fingers, air comes out, making a sound like “pop.”

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29 APPENDIX 1. CROP SPECIES AND VARIETIES CULTIVATED IN AAS FOCAL COMMUNITIES STUDIED IN WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA

District: Mongu Maize Rice Cassava Sweet potato Groundnut Bullrush (pearl) millet Sorghum Village: Lealui Men MM 441 recycled Supa Cultivar name unknown Lusaka ------MMV 400 recycled Angola Carrot MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Kalembula ZMS 521 Blue bonnet Hippo (big) Kajacket Women MM 441 recycled Supa Cultivar name unknown Mushungumani ------Makonga MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Carrot Maelepu SC 513 Angola Namaoma Kuyuma Pool 16 recycled Kajacket Namakando MRI 734 Blue bonnet Kenya Yellow maize Kashala Hippo Youth MM 441 Supa Kapumba Mushungumani 3 months ------Mazulu 3 months Angola Namaoma Pool 16 Xiangzhou 5 Teleza Litapa 3 months Kajacket Kashala ZMS 402 Blue bonnet Nakashi (white) MM 602 Namakando PANA 53 Hippo Grain on market Carrot

APPENDIX 1 Kapulanga APPENDIX 1 Village: Situlu Men MM 441 recycled Supa ---- Lusaka ------Maelepu Kandalendale Xiangzhou 5 Zaire Makonga MM 603 Angola Namaoma Munanana Simikata Kajacket Burma Blue Bonnet Women MM 441 recycled Supa ------MRI 521 Xiangzhou 5 Munali Kajacket Simikata Blue bonnet Kandalendale Angola Youth MM 441 recycled Supa Mutembo adapted Lusaka ------MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Nalumino Namaoma Pool 16 Blue bonnet Kapumba Carrot PANA 53 Angola Nakamoya MTN (yellow flesh) Yellow maize ITTA 212 Kashala Simikata Nerica Nasilele Grain from market Kajacket Popcorn Burma Kandalendale Malawi faya Village: Nanikelako Men MM 441recycled Supa ---- Zaire Kadononga ------Lyatolo Angola Makunupo Blue bonnet Pool 16 Kajacket MM 603 Women MM 441 recycled Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Munamalali ------Kandalendale Kajacket Mukuwa Mushungumani Xiangzhou 5 Namakando Kaoma Mupulanga Youth Kandalendale Supa Nalumino Carrot/Zaire Kadononga ------MM 441 Kajacket Nakamoya Lusaka Mushungumani Pool 16 Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Kashala PANA 53 Blue bonnet Mupulanga Angola Namaoma Burma Namakando 30 31 District: Mongu Cowpea Tomato Onion Rape Pumpkin Irish potato Cabbage Village: Lealui Men ---- Tengelo Bulb Hobson ------Copenhagen Rodade Spring English rape Heinz Nanga Money maker Women ---- Tengelo Bulb Hobson Round ---- Copenhagen Rodade Spring English rape Oval Riana F1 Money maker Nanga Kankolola Drumhead Heinz Sugar loaf Youth Tengelo Spring May ford ---- Money maker English rape ------Hobson Nanga Village: Situlu Men ---- Rodade Spring Giant rape Round ---- Cultivar name unknown Money maker Nanga rape Oval Red khaki Women ---- Money maker Spring Giant rape Oval ---- Drumhead Roma Bulb Nanga Kankolola Sugar loaf Heinz English rape Kababe Youth ---- Rodade Bulb Hobson Local cucumber ---- Riana F1 Tengelo Spring Giant rape Squash Nanga Kankolola Village: Nanikelako Men ---- Rodade Bulb Hobson Sibili (yellow, green) ---- Riana F1 Tengelo Spring English rape Giant rape Women ---- Rodade ---- Giant rape ------Money maker APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 1 Youth Cultivar name unknown Rodade ---- Giant rape Round ------(brown, white) Money maker Oval Tengelo

District: Mongu Other vegetables Wheat Beans Sugarcane Carrot Eggplant/ Impwa (wild eggplant) Bambara groundnut Village: Lealui Men Chinese cabbage Lorrie 2 ---- Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Impwa

Women Pepper Lorrie 2 Kabulangeti Nakambala Nantes Eggplant ---- Okra Impwa Chinese cabbage Sindambi Youth Sindambi Kabulangeti Nakambala Nantes Eggplant Sishungwa ---- Impwa ---- Okra Chinese cabbage Village: Situlu Men Chinese cabbage ------Nakambala ---- Eggplant ----

Women Water melon Lorrie 2 (Demos) ---- Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Local cucumbers Squash Youth Okra ------Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Mamenge Nswe Village: Nanikelako Men Chinese cabbage ---- Shungumani Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Sindambi Okra Women Sindambi ------Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Okra

Youth Sindambi Makonga ------Eggplant ---- Nswe Impwa Paprika 32 33 District: Senanga Maize Rice Cassava Sweet potato Groundnut Bullrush (pearl) millet Sorghum Village: Sifuna Men Recycled grain Supa Nalumino Sisheke Mushungumani Lubasi Makonga Mashewa Xiangzhou 5 Kapumba Chingovwa Kayuma MM 603 Blue bonnet Mutembo Namaoma PANA 53 Angola Nakamoya Teleza MM 521 Malawi faya Bangwuelu Carrot Women MM 441 Supa Nalumino Teleza Red type, small early- Cultivar name unknown Makonga MM 521 Burma Nakamoya Namakande maturing Munali Kapumba Carrot local (runner type) Recycled Litale Kanyopi Youth PANA 53 Supa Nalumino Teleza Mushungumani ---- White local Local tall var. Angola Kapumba Chungovwa Local spreading Makonga MM 603 Kajacket Mbambi Muzilili Blue bonnet Mutembo Sisheke Xiangzhou 5 Chitakwa Village: Nalitoya Men Recycled grain Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Lozi local Angola Kapumba Sisheke Mokola Xiangzhou 5 Litale Mulonga (black and white seeds) Mbambi Mashewa Mutembo Women PANA 53 Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Natal common Local Makonga Mokula Burma Nakamoya Teleza Chalimbana Lubasi (no longer available) Kanyemu - (lost) Munali Angola Kapumba Namakando Sishango Mubofu MM 441 Blue Bonnet Bangweulu Sisheke GV 4 Sipupe - (lost) MM 400 Xiangzhou 5 Portuguese Carrot Kuyuma Kajacket Litale Namushakende Wakwinji (only flood-tolerant Black rice Kokota Kanyopi variety known) Kapulanga L9 APPENDIX 1 Mandelena (lost) APPENDIX 1 Lingoma Youth PANA 53 Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Cultivar name unknown Local Hybrid MM 441 Burma Kapumba Teleza White big grain Market grain Blue bonnet Bangweulu Carrot Local kabupo Local Xiangzhou 5 Nakamoya Sisheke Mubofu Malawi faya (lost) Mutembo Namakando Angola Kanyopi Village: Nembwele Men MM 441 Supa Nalumino Teleza Cultivar name unknown Local Lozi variety Sibolo PANA 53 Malawi faya Kapulanga Carrot Makonga MM 603 Angola Kapumba Sisheke Munanana Mashewa Burma Nakamoya Chungovwa Serotsi Blue bonnet Chila Namushakende Munali Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Bangweulu Women PANA 53 Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Makonga SC 627 Xiangzhou 5 Kapulanga Teleza Mubofu MM 441 Angola Kapumba Carrot Munali Burma Nakamoya Namakande Recycled Kajacket Namashakende Namushakende Blue bonnet Malawi faya Youth MM 441 Supa Nalumino Teleza Shungumana Cultivar name unknown Makonga Simikata Burma Kapumba Carrot Kadononga Syndicate (Ma nyambe) Popcorn (white, yellow) Xiangzhou 5 Nakamoya Chingovwa Namalala MM 305 Blue bonnet Kapulanga Kanyopi MM 441 Angola Namakando Local Kajacket Sisheke

34 35 District: Senanga Cowpea Tomato Onion Rape Pumpkin Irish potato Cabbage Village: Sifuna Men Local Tengelo Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown ------Cultivar name unknown Bubebe Rodade Money maker Romans Women Nyamunene Money maker Spring Cultivar name unknown Red round ---- Riana F1 Munamalali Tengelo Texas grano II Oval Ndondi Rodade Meshoangombe Local small Youth Bubebe Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown 5 years Kankolola ------Nyamunene English giant Mupusi Nyamuzula Lutembwe Village: Nalitoya Men Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown ------Cultivar name unknown

Women Local Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Giant rape Local round type ---- Riana F1 Musandile Long type Drumhead Lutembwe Nyamunene Black pure Youth ---- Money maker ---- Choumolia ------Cultivar name unknown Local Giant rape 5 years Chibandankonde Village: Nembwele Men Cultivar name unknown Rodade Spring Giant rape (same as English Ndombe-looking ---- Cultivar name unknown Money maker Bulb onion giant) Mucus

APPENDIX 1 Romans Kankolola APPENDIX 1 Tengelo Malaka Women Munamalali Tengelo Bulb Giant rape Round ---- Riana F1 Shungumana Money maker Spring Oval Copenhagen Roma Kankolola Rodade Youth Cashew (red and yellow) Tengelo Bulb Giant rape Ndombe-looking Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Money maker Spring 5 years Mupusi Small local Chibandankonde Kankolola Malaka

District: Senanga Other vegetables Wheat Beans Sugarcane Carrot Eggplant/Impwa (wild eggplant) Bambara nut Village: Sifuna Men ------Cultivar name unknown (black and white types)

Women Watermelon (red flesh and white flesh) ------Nakambala ------Cucumber (round and oval) Solwezi wasilozi Squash (round and oval) Youth Mundambi/Sindambi (red, Angola, ------Mamenge ------Black Nyaleleka) White Red Village: Nalitoya Men ------Nakambala ------Black Solwezi wasilozi White Mamenge Red Women Cucumber (local Kankoya) ------Local

Youth Sindambi (Nyaleleka, Nyalolombe) ------Likelengwe Village: Nembwele Men ------

Women Pepper (paprika and green) ------

Youth ------

36 37 District: Lukulu Maize Rice Cassava Sweet potato Groundnut Bullrush (pearl) millet Sorghum Village: Kapanda Men Namwenyi Supa Nalumino Teleza Kadononga ------Munali Angola Litale Ndola Chalimbana Kandale Xiangzhou 5 Tumbangezhi MM 603 Blue bonnet Nalitoya MM 441 Kajacket PANA 6363 MM 604

Women MM 603 Supa Nalumino Makeni Cultivar name unknown Tau Syndicate MM 441 Blue bonnet Litale Lusaka Lozi tall variety Makonga Popcorn Angola Rabbeca Mukasela Maelepu Namwenyi Kajacket Tumbangezhi Ndola Yellow maize Xiangzhou 5 Lingoma Carrot Mutembo Muzilili Teleza Selumona Kashale Youth MM 603 Supa Nalumino Makeni Makulu red (no shattering Lozi local variety Sindeketi (not easily eaten by MM 602 Angola Litale Ndola grains) birds) MM 441 Blue bonnet Rabbecca Namaoma Kadonongo Makonga Pool 16 Kajacket Mutembo Teleza Chalimbana Local red PANA 53 Kapumba Kapokoto Local yellow Nakamoya Lusaka Kandalendale Lingoma Muzilili Not-not Tumbangezi Mukansela Nakashi Village: Kabula Men Recycled Supa Nalumino Lusaka ------Makonga

APPENDIX 1 Kandalendale Angola Litale Ndola Maelepu APPENDIX 1 Namwenyi Blue bonnet Mwakamwenge Kashala Syndicate Burma Mutembo Namaoma Women MM 441 recycled Supa Nalumino Makeni Chalimbana ---- Syndicate Yellow Blue bonnet Litale Mukwilela Natal common Makonga Kadalendale Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Lusaka Makulu red Maelepu Burma Kapumba ka Nyengo Chingovwa Angola Ndola Mubulenga Namakando Nselumuna Youth MM 603 Supa Nalumino Lusaka ------Syndicate (Sindiketi) MM 604 Blue bonnet Mutembo Ndola Local Yellow Angola Litale Makeni MM 441recycled Burma Makamwengo Teleza Carrot Musoma Chingovwa Selumuna Muzilili Namaoma Nakashi Namakando Kashala

38 39 District: Lukulu Cowpea Tomato Onion Rape Pumpkin Irish potato Cabbage Village: Kapanda Men Selozi ------Women ---- Money maker Bulb ---- Oval red ---- Drumhead Rodade Spring Round red Main crop Tengelo Youth ---- Money maker ---- Giant ------Rosell Chibangankonde Rodade Choumolia 5 years Village: Kabula Men ---- Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown ------Cultivar name unknown Women Local Money maker Spring English giant (same as giant ------Copenhagen Roma rape) Rodade Youth ---- Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Giant rape Mupusi ---- Cultivar name unknown 5 years Namundalangwe Chibuga Malaka Maliupu

District: Lukulu Other vegetables Wheat Beans Sugarcane Carrot Eggplant/Impwa (wild eggplant) Bambara nut Village: Kapanda Men ------

Women Pepper (big and oval) ------White Black Brown Youth Sindambi ------Black and white White Black APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 1 Brown Village: Kabula Men ------

Women ------

Youth ------

Notes: Underlined variety is most preferred.

40 41 District: Kalabo Maize Rice Cassava Sweet potato Groundnut Bulrush (pearl) millet Sorghum Village: Mapungu Men MM 441 Supa Nalumino Zaire Kandalendale ------MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Kenya Kadononga MM 600 Burma (all above recycled) Kajacket Blue bonnet Women MM 441 recycled Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Shungumani ------MM 603 recycled Xiangzhou 5 Kenya Kadononga Pool 16 Burma Makulu red Yellow maize Blue bonnet Popcorn recycled Youth MM 441 recycled Supa Nalumino Zaire Local ------Pool 16 recycled Xiangzhou 5 Kapumba Liyi Shungumani MRI 514 Kajacket Mutembo Kenya Grain recycled Burma Nakamoya Muzilili Blue bonnet Musele Ndola Butiki Luapula Litale Namaoma Namakando Boyd Carrot Temusimbunde Village: Mwandi Lower Men MM 441 ---- Nalumino Zaire Kadononga ------Pool 16 Namakando Local MMV 400 Carrot Women MM 441 ---- Nalumino Chingovwa ------MM 603 Mutembo Kalembula Pool 16 Nakamoya Kenya

APPENDIX 1 (all above recycled) Salaula APPENDIX 1 Youth MM 441 ---- Nalumino Zaire Shungumani ------MM 603 Nakamoya Kenya Muzauli Pool 16 Mutembo Mbowe Local (Lozi) (all above recycled) Carrot Namakando Mubiana Shakapele Ya purple Village: Mwandi Upper Men MM 441 Supa Nalumino Zaire Shungumani Sesame Makonga (white) MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Carrot Munamalali (all above recycled) Angola Butiki Kapumba Women MM 441 (mounds) Supa Nalumino Kenya Munamalali (spread) Local Makonga white MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Carrot Chalimbana Makonga red Pool 16 (wetlands) Kapumba Monde Shungumani (dwarf) (all above recycled) Butiki Kashala Kandalendale Lii Yellow maize Youth MM 441 Supa Nalumino Kenya Shungumani Dollar Makonga white MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Kapumba Zaire Munamalali Makonga red Pool 16 Mutembo (all above recycled) Butiki Local Nakamoya

42 43 District: Kalabo Cowpea Tomato Onion Rape Pumpkin Irish potato Cabbage Village: Mapungu Men ---- Rodade Spring Angola Round ---- Copenhagen Tengelo Bulb

Women Local cowpeas Tengelo recycled Bulb Hobson Round ---- Copenhagen Rodade Spring Nanga Oval Riana F1 Money maker Sugar loaf Heinz Youth ---- Tengelo Spring Hobson Round ---- Copenhagen Heinz Bulb 5 years Riana F1 Rodade Giant rape Sugarloaf Roma Angola Village: Mwandi lower Men ------Giant rape Mutopo ------Round

Women ---- Tengelo Bulb Giant rape Oval ---- Riana F1 Money maker Spring Hobson Round Copenhagen Rodade Angola Variety with different colors Roma Youth ---- Tengelo ---- Giant rape ------Copenhagen Rodade Angola Riana F1

Village: Mwandi Upper Men ---- Rodade Spring English giant (same as giant Round ---- Copenhagen Tengelo Bulb rape) Hobson Women Munamalali (spread) Tengelo Bulb Giant Ndombe-shaped ---- Riana F1 Mushungumani (dwarf) Rodade Spring Hobson Drumhead Money maker Sugar loaf Local small APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 1 Youth ---- Tengelo Spring Giant rape Round ---- Chinese Rhodade Robson Chibandankonde Money maker Angola

District: Kalabo Other vegetables cultivated Wheat Beans Sugarcane Carrot Eggplant/Impwa (wild eggplant) Bambara nut Village: Mapungu Men Chinese cabbage ------Nakambala ------Sidambi

Women Cucumbers ---- White (cooks fast) ------Local Sidambi Local Amaranthus Watermelon Youth ------

Village: Mwandi Lower Men ------Nakambala ---- Impwa ----

Women Cucumbers ------Nakambala ---- Big and oval ---- Watermelon Small Gourd ------Nakambala ------White Brown Youth Black

Village: Mwandi Upper Men ------Nakambala ------

Spinach ------Nakambala ------White Women Lettuce Black

------Nakambala ------Youth

44 45 District: Mongu Maize Rice Cassava Sweet potato Groundnut Bullrush (pearl) millet Sorghum Village: Lealui Men MM 441 recycled Supa Cultivar name unknown Lusaka ------MMV 400 recycled Angola Carrot MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Kalembula ZMS 521 Blue bonnet Hippo (big) Kajacket Women MM 441 recycled Supa Cultivar name unknown Mushungumani ------Makonga MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Carrot Maelepu SC 513 Angola Namaoma Kuyuma Pool 16 recycled Kajacket Namakando MRI 734 Blue bonnet Kenya Yellow maize Kashala Hippo Youth MM 441 Supa Kapumba Mushungumani 3 months ------Mazulu 3 months Angola Namaoma Pool 16 Xiangzhou 5 Teleza Litapa 3 months Kajacket Kashala ZMS 402 Blue bonnet Nakashi (white) MM 602 Namakando PANA 53 Hippo Grain on market Carrot Kapulanga Village: Situlu Men MM 441 recycled Supa ---- Lusaka ------Maelepu Kandalendale Xiangzhou 5 Zaire Makonga MM 603 Angola Namaoma Munanana Simikata Kajacket Burma Blue bonnet Women MM 441 recycled Supa ------APPENDIX 1 MRI 521 Xiangzhou 5 APPENDIX 1 Munali Kajacket Simikata Blue bonnet Kandalendale Angola Youth MM 441 recycled Supa Mutembo Lusaka ------MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Nalumino Namaoma Pool 16 Blue bonnet Kapumba Carrot PANA 53 Angola Nakamoya MTN (yellow flesh) Yellow maize ITTA 212 Kashala Simikata Nerica Nasilele Grain from market Kajacket Popcorn Burma Kandalendale Malawi faya Village: Nanikelako Men MM 441 recycled Supa ---- Zaire Kadononga ------Lyatolo Angola Makunupo Blue bonnet Pool 16 Kajacket MM 603 Women MM 441 recycled Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Munamalali ------Kandalendale Kajacket Mukuwa Shungumani Xiangzhou 5 Namakando Kaoma Mupulanga Youth Kandalendale Supa Nalumino Carrot/Zaire Kadononga ------MM 441 Kajacket Nakamoya Lusaka Shungumani Pool 16 Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Kashala PANA 53 Blue bonnet Mupulanga Angola Namaoma Burma Namakando

46 47 District: Mongu Cowpea Tomato Onion Rape Pumpkin Irish potato Cabbage Village: Lealui Men ---- Tengelo Bulb Hobson ------Copenhagen Rodade Spring English rape Heinz Nanga Money maker Women ---- Tengelo Bulb Hobson Round ---- Copenhagen Rodade Spring English rape Oval Riana F1 Money maker Nanga Kankolola Drumhead Heinz Sugar loaf Youth Tengelo Spring May ford ---- Money maker English rape ------Hobson Nanga Village: Situlu Men ---- Rodade Spring Giant rape Round ---- Cultivar name unknown Money maker Nanga rape Oval Red khaki Women ---- Money maker Spring Giant rape Oval ---- Drumhead # Roma Bulb Nanga Kankolola Sugar loaf Heinz English rape Kababe Youth ---- Rodade Bulb Hobson Local cucumber ---- Riana F1 Tengelo Spring Giant rape Squash Nanga Kankolola Village: Nanikelako Men ---- Rodade Bulb Hobson Sibili (yellow, green) ---- Riana F1 Tengelo Spring English rape Giant rape Women ---- Rodade ---- Giant rape ------Money maker APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 1 Youth Cultivar name unknown Rodade ---- Giant rape Round ------(brown, white) Money maker Oval Tengelo

District: Mongu Other vegetables Wheat Beans Sugarcane Carrot Eggplant/Impwa (wild eggplant) Bambara groundnut Village: Lealui Men Chinese cabbage Lorrie 2 ---- Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Impwa

Women Pepper Lorrie 2 Kabulangeti Nakambala Nantes Eggplant ---- Okra Impwa Chinese cabbage Sindambi Youth Sindambi Kabulangeti Nakambala Nantes Eggplant Sishungwa ---- Impwa ---- Okra Chinese cabbage Village: Situlu Men Chinese cabbage ------Nakambala ---- Eggplant ----

Watermelon Lorrie 2 (Demos) ---- Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Women Local cucumbers Squash Okra ------Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Youth Mamenge Nswe Village: Nanikelako Men Chinese cabbage ---- Shungumani Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Sindambi Okra Women Sindambi ------Nakambala ---- Eggplant ---- Okra

Youth Sindambi Makonga ------Eggplant ---- Nswe Impwa Paprika

48 49 District: Senanga Maize Rice Cassava Sweet potato Groundnut Bullrush (pearl) millet Sorghum Village: Sifuna Men Recycled Supa Nalumino Sesheke Shungumana Lubasi Makonga Mashewa Xiangzhou 5 Kapumba Chingovwa Kufuna MM 603 Blue bonnet Mutembo Namaoma PANA 53 Angola Nakamoya Teleza MM 521 Malawi faya Bangwuelu Carrot Women MM 441 Supa Nalumino Teleza Red type Cultivar name unknown Makonga MM 521 Burma Nakamoga Namakande small early maturing Munali recycled Kapumba Carrot Local (runner type) Litale Kanyopi Youth PANA 53 Supa Nalumino Teleza Shungumana ---- White local Local tall var. Angola Kapumba Chungovwa Local spreading Makonga MM 603 Kajacket Mbambi Muzilili Blue bonnet Mutembo Sisheke Xiangzhou 5 Chitakwa Village: Nalitoya Men Recycled grain Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Lozi local Angola Kapumba Sisheke Mokola Xiangzhou 5 Litale Mulonga (black and white seeds) Mbambi Mashewa Mutembo Women PANA 53 Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Natal Local Makonga Mokola Burma Nakamoya Teleza Chalimbana Lubasi (no longer available) Kanyemu (no longer available) Munali Angola Kapumba Namakando Sishango Mubofu MM 441 Blue bonnet Bangweulu Lisheke GV4 Sipupe (no longer available) MM 400 Xiangzhou 5 Portuguese Carrot Kuyuma Kajacket Litale Namushakende Wakwinji (only flood-tolerant Black rice Kokota Kanyopi variety known) Kapulanga L9

APPENDIX 1 Mandelena (lost) APPENDIX 1 Lingoma Youth PANA 53 Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Cultivar name unknown Local Dollar Hybrid MM 441 Burma Kapumba Teleza Hybrid (no longer available) White big grain Local grain Blue bonnet Bangweulu Carrot Local Xiangzhou 5 Nakamoya Sisheke Kabupo Malawi faya (no longer available) Mutembo Namakando Mubofu Angola Kanyopi Village: Nembwele Men MM441 Supa Nalumino Teleza Cultivar name unknown Local Lozi variety Sibolo PANA 53 Malawi faya Mapulanga Carrot Makonga MM 603 Angola Kapumba Sesheke Munanana Mashewa Burma Nakamoya Chungovwa Serotsi Blue bonnet Chila Namushakende Munali Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo PANA 13 Bangweulo Women PANA 53 Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Makonga SC 627 Xiangzhou 5 Kapulanga Teleza Mubofu MM 441 recycled Angola Kapumba Carrot Munali Burma Nakamoya Namakande Kajacket Namashakende Namushakende Blue bonnet Malawi faya Youth MM 441 Supa Nalumino Teleza Shungumana Cultivar name unknown Makonga Simikaka Burma Kapumba Carrot Kadongo Syndicate (Ma nyambe) Popcorn (white, yellow) Xiangzhou 5 Nakamonga Mamakando Namalala MM 305 Blue bonnet Kapulanga Chingovwa MM 441 Angola Kanyopi Local grain Kajacket Namakando Sisheke

50 51 District: Senanga Cowpea Tomato Onion Rape Pumpkin Irish potato Cabbage Village: Sifuna Men Local Tengeru Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown ------Cultivar name unknown Bubebe Rodade Money maker Romans Women Nyamunene Money maker Spring Cultivar name unknown Red round ---- Riana F1 Munawani Tengelo Texas grano Oval Ndondi Rodade Meshoangombe Local small Youth Bubebe Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown 5 years Kakolola ------Nyamunene English giant Mupusi Nyamuzula Lutembwe Village: Nalitoya Men Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown ------Cultivar name unknown

Women Local Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Giant rape Local round type ---- Riana Musandile Long type Drumhead Lutembwe Nyamunene Black pure Youth ---- Money maker ---- Choumolia ------Cultivar name unknown Local Giant rape 5 years Chibanga Nkonde Village: Nembwele Men Cultivar name unknown Rodade Spring Bulb Giant rape (same as English Ndombe-looking ---- Cultivar name unknown Money maker giant) Mupusi Romans Kankolola APPENDIX 1 Tengeru Malaka APPENDIX 1 Women Munamalali Tengelo Bulb Giant rape Round ---- Riana F1 Shungumanan Money maker Spring Oval Copenhagen Roma Kankolola Rodade Youth Cashew (red and yellow) Tengelo Bulb Giant rape Ndombe Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Money maker Spring 5 years Mupusi Small local Chibangankonde Kankolola Malaka

District: Senanga Other vegetables Wheat Beans Sugarcane Carrot Eggplant/Impwa (wild eggplant) Bambara nut Village: Sifuna Men ------Cultivar name unknown (black and white types) Women Watermelon (red flesh and white flesh) ------Nakambala ------Cucumber (round and oval) Solwezi wasilozi Squash (round and oval) Youth Mundambi/Sindambi (red, Angola, ------Mamenge ------Black Nyaleleka) White Red Village: Nalitoya Men ------Nakambala ------Black Solwezi wasilozi White Mamenge Red Women Cucumber (Local Kankoya) ------Local

Youth Sindambi (Nyaleleka, Nyalolombe) ------Likelengwe Village: Nembwele Men ------

Women Pepper (paprika and green) ------

Youth ------

52 53 District: Lukulu Maize Rice Cassava Sweet potato Groundnut Bullrush (pearl) millet Sorghum Village: Kapanda Men Namwenyi Supa Nalumino Teleza Kadononga ------Munali Angola Litale Ndola Chalimbana Kandale Xiangzhou 5 Tumbangezhi MM 603 Blue bonnet Nalitoya MM 441 Kajacket Litale PANA 53 MM 604 Women MM 603 Supa Nalumino Makeni Cultivar name unknown Tau Syndicate MM 441 Blue bonnet Litale Lusaka Lozi tall variety Makonga Popcorn Angola Rabbeca Mukasela Maelepu Namwenyi Kajacket Tumbangezhi Ndola Yellow maize Xiangzhou 5 Lingoma Carrot Mutembo Muzilili Teleza Selumona Kashala Youth MM 603 Supa Nalumino Makeni Makulu red (no shattering Lozi local variety Sindeketi (not easily eaten by MM 602 Angola Litale Ndola grains) birds) MM 441 Blue bonnet Rabbecca Namaoma Kadonongo Makonga Pool 16 Kajacket Mutembo Teleza Chalimbana Local red PANA 53 Kapumba Kapokoto Local yellow Nakamoya Lusaka Kandalendale Lingoma Muzilili Not-not Tumbangezhi Mukansela Nakashi Village: Kabula Men Recycled Supa Nalumino Lusaka ------Makonga Kandale Angola Litale Ndola Maelepu Namwenyi Blue bonnet Mwakamwenge Kashala Syndicate

APPENDIX 1 Burma Mutembo Namaoma APPENDIX 1 Women MM 441 recycled Supa Nalumino Makeni Chalimbana ---- Syndicate MM 603 Blue bonnet Litale Mukwilela Natal common Makonga Yellow Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Lusaka Makulu red Maelepu Kadalendale Burma Kapumba ka Nyengo Chingovwa Angola Ndola Mubulenga Namakando Nselumuna Youth MM 603 Supa Nalumino Lusaka ------Syndicate MM 604 Blue bonnet Mutembo Ndola Local Yellow Angola Litale Makeni 90 days recycled Burma Makamwengo Teleza Carrot Musoma Chingovwa Selumuna Muzilili Namaoma Nakashi Namakando Kashala

54 55 District: Lukulu Cowpea Tomato Onion Rape Pumpkin Irish potato Cabbage Village: Kapanda Men Selozi ------

Women ---- Money maker Bulb ---- Oval red ---- Drumhead Rodade Spring Round red Main crop Tengelo

Youth ---- Money maker ---- Giant ------Rosell Chibangankonde Rodade Choumolia 5 years Village: Kabula Men ---- Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown ------Cultivar name unknown

Women Local Money maker Spring English giant (same as giant ------Copenhagen Roma rape) Rodade

Youth ---- Cultivar name unknown Cultivar name unknown Giant rape Mupusi ---- Cultivar name unknown 5 years Namundalangwe Chibuga Malaka Maliupu

District: Lukulu Other vegetables Wheat Beans Sugarcane Carrot Eggplant/Impwa (wild eggplant) Bambara nut Village: Kapanda Men ------APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 1

Women Pepper (big and oval) ------White Black Brown

Youth Sindambi ------Black & white White Black Brown Village: Kabula Men ------

Women ------

Youth ------

56 57 District: Kalabo Maize Rice Cassava Sweet potato Groundnut Bulrush (pearl) millet Sorghum Village: Mapungu Men MM 441 Supa Nalumino Zaire Kandalendale ------MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Kenya Kadononga MM 600 Burma (all above recycled) Kajacket Blue bonnet Women MM 441 (recycled) Supa Nalumino Chingovwa Shungumani ------MM 603 (recycled) Xiangzhou 5 Kenya Kadononga Pool 16 Burma Makulu red Yellow maize Blue bonnet Popcorn (recycled) Youth MM 441 (recycled) Supa Nalumino Zaire Local ------Pool 16 (recycled) Xiangzhou 5 Kapumba Liyi Shungumani MRI 514 Kajacket Mutembo Kenya Grain (recycled) Burma Nakamoya Muzilili Blue bonnet Musele Ndola Butiki Luapula Litale Namaoma Namakando Boyd Carrot Temusimbunde Village: Mwandi Lower Men MM 441 ---- Nalumino Zaire Kadononga ------Pool 16 Namakando Local MMV 400 Carrot Women MM 441 ---- Nalumino Chingovwa ------MM 603 Mutembo Kalembula Pool 16 Nakamoya Kenya APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 1 (all above recycled) Salaula MM 441 ---- Nalumino Zaire Shungumani ------Youth MM 603 Nakamoya Kenya Muzauli Pool 16 Mutembo Mbowe Local (Lozi) (all above recycled) Carrot Namakando Mubiana Shakapele Ya purple Village: Mwandi Upper Men MMV 441 Supa Nalumino Zaire Shungumani Sesame Makonga (white) MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Carrot Munamalali (all above recycled) Angola Butiki Kapumba Women MM 441 (mounds) Supa Nalumino Kenya Munamalali (spread) Local Makonga white MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Mutembo Carrot Chalimbana Makonga red Pool 16 (wetlands) Kapumba Monde Shungumani (dwarf) (all above recycled) Butiki Kashala Kandalendale Liyi Yellow maize Youth MM 441 Supa Nalumino Kenya Shungumani Dollar Makonga white MM 603 Xiangzhou 5 Kapumba Zaire Munamalali Makonga red Pool 16 Mutembo (all above recycled) Butiki Local Nakamoya

58 59 District: Kalabo Cowpea Tomato Onion Rape Pumpkin Irish potato Cabbage Village: Mapungu Men ---- Rodade Spring Angola Round ---- Copenhagen Tengelo Bulb

Women Local cowpeas Tengelo (recycled) Bulb Hobson Round ---- Copenhagen Rodade Spring Nanga Oval Riana F1 Money maker Sugar loaf Heinz

Youth ---- Tengelo Spring Hobson Round ---- Copenhagen Heinz Bulb 5 years Riana F1 Rodade Giant rape Sugarloaf Roma Angola Village: Mwandi lower Men ------Giant rape Mutopo ------Round

Women ---- Tengelo Bulb Giant rape Oval ---- Riana F1 Money maker Spring Hobson Round Copenhagen Rodade Angola Variety with different colors Roma Youth ---- Tengelo ---- Giant rape ------Copenhagen Rodade Angola Riana F1

Village: Mwandi Upper Men ---- Rodade Spring English giant (same as giant Round ---- Copenhagen Tengelo Bulb rape) Hobson Women Munamalali (spread) Tengelo Bulb Giant Ndombe-shaped ---- Riana F1 Mushungumani (dwarf) Rodade Spring Hobson Drumhead Money maker Sugar loaf APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 1 Local small Youth ---- Tengelo Spring Giant rape Round ---- Chinese Rhodade Robson Chibandankonde Money maker Angola

District: Kalabo Other vegetables cultivated Wheat Beans Sugarcane Carrot Eggplant/Impwa (wild eggplant) Bambara nut Village: Mapungu Men Chinese cabbage ------Nakambala ------Sindambi

Women Cucumbers ---- White (cooks fast) ------Local Sindambi Local Amaranthus spp. Watermelon Youth ------

Village: Mwandi Lower Men ------Nakambala ---- Impwa ----

Women Cucumbers ------Nakambala ---- Big and oval ---- Watermelon Small Gourd Youth ------Nakambala ------White Brown Black Village: Mwandi Upper Men ------Nakambala ------

Women Spinach ------Nakambala ------White Lettuce Black

Youth ------Nakambala ------

60 61 APPENDIX 2. VEGETABLE SPECIES COLLECTED BY HOUSEHOLDS FROM LOCAL ECOLOGY FOR CONSUMPTION IN AAS FOCAL COMMUNITIES

Amaranth [Amaranthus spp.] – Bush okra [Abelmoschus Cat’s whiskers or African Litindi Katokwani Nasilele (same as Njakele) Malumba (leaves called Roselle [Hibiscus spp.] – locally called locally called Libowa (including esculentus Moench] – locally cabbage [Cleome gynandra] Lumuna) Sindambi or Mundambi (including Musame – tall Libowa variety, called Delele – locally called Sishungwa Nyalombe, White, Nyaleleka, Tepe or Thepe variety of [2 vars: Lunembwe – grows in Likwasha, Angola, Makuku, amaranth) Matongo; Seto – grows in Njelelo] Likelenge, Chilelemu, Mutete) Women Senanga District villages Sifuna 1 1 1* 0 0 0 0 1 Nalitoya 1 1 1* 1 0 1 1 1 Nembwele 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1*

Kalabo District villages Mwandi Lower 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 Mwandi Upper 1 1 1* 1 1 1 1 1* Mapungu 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1*

Lukulu District villages Kapanda 1 1 1* 0 0 0 0 1 Kabula 1 1 1* 0 0 0 0 1

Mongu District villages Lealui 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1* Situlu 1 1 1* 1 1 0 0 1 Nanikelako 1 1 1* 1 1 1 1 1

APPENDIX 2 Men APPENDIX 2 Lukulu District villages Kapanda 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Kabula 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

Kalabo District villages Mwandi Lower 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1* Mwandi Upper 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1* Mapungu 1* 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

Mongu District villages Lealui 1* 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 Situlu 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1* Nanikelako 1* 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

Senanga District villages Sifuna 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nalitoya 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nembwele 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Youth Lukulu District villages Kapanda 1 1 1* 0 0 0 0 1 Kabula 1* 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

Kalabo District villages Mwandi Lower 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1* Mwandi Upper 1 1 1* 1 0 0 0 1 Mapungu 1 1 1* 1 0 1 0 1

Mongu District villages Lealui 1* 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 Situlu 1* 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 Nanikelako 1 1 1* 1 0 1 0 1

Senanga District villages 1 Sifuna 1* 1 0 0 1 0 1 Nalitoya 1* 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 Nembwele 1 1 1* 1 0 0 0 1 *Plentiful, grows well, cooks *Highly preferred for market *Taste and market value. Replace easily. Good taste, source of value and food; tasty and staple in lean period. income, grows easily. good aroma. Replace buhobe in lean period. Notes: 1 = collected by group in the community; 0 = not collected by group in the community.

62 63 Mambumbwe Limbembe or Mucelo Sihali or Blackjack or Manansa or Kahinga Silelemi Ndulweti Kapusipusi or Libumbwe Litokola Katete or Amalenjane Lulimi or Iwa Women Katetekalunga or [Bidens pilosa] Komu Senanga District villages Kanyokamulamu – locally called Sifuna 0 0 0 0 or Kamulamu Mbububu or Mbwanyo or Nalitoya 0 0 0 0 Mbuwanyao Nembwele 0 0 0 0 Women Senanga District villages Kalabo District villages Sifuna 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mwandi Lower 0 1 1 1 Nalitoya 0 0 0 1 0 0 Mwandi Upper 0 1 1 1 Nembwele 0 1 0 0 0 0 Mapungu 0 1 1 1

Kalabo District villages Lukulu District villages Mwandi Lower 1 1 1 1 0 0 Kapanda 0 0 0 0 Mwandi Upper 1 1 1 1 1 0 Kabula 0 0 0 0 Mapungu 1 1 1 1 1 0 Mongu District villages Mongu District villages Situlu 0 1 1 1 Lealui 1 1 1 1 0 1 Lealui 0 1 1 1 Situlu 1 0 0 0 0 0 Nanikelako 0 1 1 1 Nanikelako 1 1 1 1 1 1 Men Lukulu District villages Lukulu District villages Kapanda 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kapanda 0 0 0 0 Kabula 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kabula 0 0 0 0 Men Senanga District villages Senanga District villages Sifuna 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sifuna 0 0 0 0 APPENDIX 2 Nalitoya 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nalitoya 0 0 0 0 APPENDIX 2 Nembwele 0 0 1 1 0 0 Nembwele 0 0 0 0

Lukulu District villages Kalabo District villages Kapanda 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mwandi Lower 0 1 1 1 Kabula 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mwandi Upper 0 1 1 1 Mapungu 0 1 1 1 Mongu District villages Lealui 1 1 0 1 0 1 Mongu District villages Situlu 1 1 0 1 1 1 Situlu 0 1 0 0 Nanikelako 1 1 1 1 1 1 Lealui 0 0 1 1 Nanikelako 0 0 1 0 Kalabo District villages Mwandi Lower 1 1 1 1 0 1 Youth Mwandi Upper 0 1 0 1 0 0 Lukulu District villages Mapungu 1 1 1 1 0 0 Kapanda 0 0 0 0 Kabula 0 0 0 0 Youth Lukulu District villages Kalabo District villages Kapanda 1 1 0 0 0 0 Kabula 1 0 1 1 1 0 Mwandi Lower 0 1 1 1 Mwandi Upper 1 1 1 1 Kalabo District villages Mapungu 1 1 1 1 Mwandi Lower 1 1 1 1 0 1 Mwandi Upper 1 1 0 1 0 0 Mongu District villages Mapungu 1 1 1 1 1 0 Situlu 0 1 1 1 Lealui 0 0 1 1 Mongu District villages Nanikelako 0 0 1 1 Lealui 1 0 1 0 0 1 Situlu 0 1 1 1 0 1 Senanga District villages Nanikelako 1 1 1 1 1 1 Sifuna 0 0 0 0 Nalitoya 0 0 0 0 Senanga District villages Nembwele 0 0 0 0 Sifuna 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nalitoya 0 1 1 1 1 0 Nembwele 0 1 1 1 0 0

64 65 APPENDIX 3. PROBLEM TREE ANALYSES FOR CASSAVA PRODUCTION IN AAS FOCAL COMMUNITIES STUDIED

District and villages Men Women Youth Mongu District Lealui No data No data No data

Situlu No data No data No data

Nanikelako No data No data Branches*: cassava crop failure leading to low yields, low production and hunger Stem**: flash floods (Mabuba) Root***: lack of adapted early-maturity cassava varieties; late access to planting materials

Kalabo District Mapungu No data No data Branches*: small fields leading to low production and low income; poor plant growth and crop failure; hunger Stem**: lack of planting materials Root***: flood damage to plants; low income; lack of transport to distant sources of planting materials; poor plant stands from diseases and infertile soils Mwandi Lower No data Branches*: small cassava fields leading to Branches*: small fields leading to low production and hunger low production and hunger Stem**: lack of planting materials (cuttings) Stem**: lack of animal draft power for Root***: distance to source of cuttings and expensive transport costs; lack of money; flood damage to crop contributing to lack of APPENDIX 3 cassava fields planting material APPENDIX 3 Root***: cattle diseases Mwandi Upper No data Branches*: small fields leading to low Branches*: poor crop and yields leading to hunger, low income and malnutrition production and hunger Stem**: poor infertile soils Stem**: lack of animal draft power Root***: lack of manure; sandy soils; continuous mono-cropping due to lack of alternative fields; lack of seeds for crop rotation Root***: diseases affecting cattle Senanga District Sifuna No data Branches*: low cassava yields and Branches*: low cassava yields and production; low income; food insecurity and hunger; lack of diversification production leading to hunger Stem**: small cassava fields Stem**: frost damage Root***: lack of farm implements and animal draft power Root***: climate change; deforestation Nalitoya No data Branches*: cassava plants die, leading to Branches*: small cassava fields leading to low production, low income, hunger and malnutrition low yields and low production, leading Stem**: lack of cassava planting materials to hunger Root***: frost damage; diseases; drought; lack of capital Stem**: frost Root***: climate Nembwele No data Branches*: low cassava yields and No data production Stem**: frost damage Root***: climate Lukulu District Kapanda No data No data Branches*: malnutrition; poverty from lack of income Stem**: low crop yields and low production Root***: small fields cultivated; lack of farm implements; high labor demand due to bulky planting material for cassava

Kabula No data No data Branches*: low yields and low production; low income; hunger; malnutrition Stem**: infertile soils Root***: continuous cropping; lack of manure or fertilizer; sandy soils

Notes: *Branches denote the effects of main problem experienced; **stem denotes the perceived main problem; ***root denotes the perceived causes of the main problem.

No data means either crop is not grown or no problem was identified for discussion by a group.

66 67 APPENDIX 4. PROBLEM TREE ANALYSES FOR CEREALS (MAIZE AND/OR RICE) PRODUCTION IN AAS FOCAL COMMUNITIES STUDIED

District and villages Men Women Youth Mongu District Lealui No data Branches*: submerged maize crop; loss of manure; hunger; Branches*: poor growth leading to low maize yields and low production, hunger and malnutrition; small rice fields and inability to poverty diversify crops Stem**: flood destruction of maize crop Stem**: infertile soils affecting maize; lack of oxen and plow for rice cultivation Root***: lack of canal drainage Root***: lack of manure; continuous mono-cropping; soil erosion due to floods; low income; lack of cooperation in sharing farm implements Situlu Branches*: forced to harvest reeds to support livelihood; Branches*: recycled maize seeds leading to low yields and Branches*: small rice fields cultivated; low rice yields and low production; hunger; low income; flood damage to late-maturity maize poverty low production; pests and diseases; hunger leading to low yields, low production, hunger and low income from maize Stem**: early flooding of maize fields Stem**: lack of maize seeds adapted to Borotse floodplain Stem**: lack of farm implements for rice fields; lack of early-maturity maize cultivars Root***: frequent high floods; climate Root***: no money; no business opportunities Root***: lack of credit; low income from rice production; planting un-adapted maize seeds; lack of timely availability of adapted maize seeds; expensive adapted maize seeds Nanikelako Branches*: poverty Branches*: maize crops submerged, leading to low yields; Branches*: flood damage to late-maturity maize, leading to low maize yields and production Stem**: small maize fields flooding deposits soils Stem**: lack of early-maturity maize Root***: limited suitable arable land (sitapa and mazulu) for Stem**: floods destroy maize crops Root***: untimely availability of adapted maize seeds; expensive adapted maize seeds; low income to afford maize seed purchases maize Root***: no embankments along major waterways; lack of cooperation Kalabo District Mapungu Branches*: poverty; incapacity to invest in rice production Branches*: low maize and rice yields and low production, Branches*: small fields leading to diversification; low yields; low production; low income; hunger; malnutrition Stem**: poor markets leading to hunger Stem**: lack of farm implements Root***: undefined weight measures for rice; low Stem**: droughts and floods Root***: low income; lack of market access and transport productivity on rice fields Root***: deforestation Mwandi Lower Branches*: low maize yields and production, contributing to Branches*: low maize yields, small rice plots and low Branches*: recycling of seeds; delayed crop planting; crop failure from floods; low yields, leading to hunger food insecurity and poverty production, leading to hunger and malnutrition Stem**: lack of improved seeds APPENDIX 4 APPENDIX 4 Stem**: floods on mazulu and sitapa lands cultivated to Stem**: lack of adapted maize seeds; lack of animal draft Root***: low income; lack of capital; lack of outlets maize power Root***: late rains and flooding Root***: no money; diseases affecting cattle Mwandi Upper Branches*: low rice production; low maize production; low Branches*: maize crop failure, leading to low production and Branches*: inability to cultivate large fields; poor crop and yields leading to hunger, low income and malnutrition income and poverty hunger Stem**: poor or infertile soils; lack of farm implements Stem**: small rice fields; erratic rains on fields cultivated to Stem**: erratic rains Root***: lack of manure; sandy soils; continuous mono-cropping due to lack of alternative fields; lack of income; lack of seeds for crop maize Root***: climate rotation Root***: floods; lack of animal draft power; declining residual moisture in soils; deforestation Senanga District Sifuna Branches*: low demand for maize seeds due to unresponsive Branches*: small maize fields, leading to low production and Branches*: low rice production, contributing to low income and hunger; poor maize plant growth, leading to poor harvest, hunger, national seed system hunger poverty and malnutrition Stem**: small maize fields Stem**: lack of farm implements Stem**: small rice fields; infertile soils on maize fields Root***: low income; customary rules guiding land access by Root***: lack of farm implements and animal draft power; lack of credit; continuous cropping of maize fields; lack of manure; deforestation Root***: inadequate animal draft power because of cattle women deaths; poor soil fertility; no seasonal loans Nalitoya Branches*: hunger Branches*: recycling of maize seed; low yields and Branches*: small maize fields, leading to low maize yields and production, low income, poverty and hunger Stem**: low maize yields and production production leading to hunger Stem**: lack of improved maize seeds (both varieties and hybrids) Root***: infertile soils; no fertilizers due to lack of money Stem**: lack of maize seed Root***: low maize yields; expensive improved seeds; low income resulting in no money Root***: no money due to poverty Nembwele Branches*: low income Branches*: waterlogging maize fields; low maize yields and Branches*: low maize yields and production, contributing to food insecurity and hunger, low income, and poverty; small rice fields, Stem**: low rice production production and small rice fields, leading to hunger leading to low rice production, low income and hunger Root***: clogged canals; no incentive to clear canals Stem**: lack of canal drainage, affecting maize; lack of farm implements, affecting rice fields Stem**: drought on maize fields; lack of farm implements (plow and oxen) for cultivating rice Root***: lack of canal drainage equipment as a result of poverty and lack of cooperation due to social conflicts and non- Root***: erratic rainfall; deforestation; animal diseases affecting oxen; lack of capital enforcement of bylaws; cattle diseases and theft of livestock Lukulu District Kapanda Branches*: subsistence production; no cash income Branches*: late planting; recycling of grains as seed; low Branches*: low production and low yields; hunger and low income, leading to poverty; malnutrition Stem**: low yield and low production yields Stem**: small fields Root***: lack of good seed; inadequate access to fertilizer Stem**: late delivery of seeds and fertilizer Root***: lack of oxen and plow implements; lack of credit; death of oxen from diseases and manure; lack of implements (oxen and plow); poor road Root***: inactive local cooperative; no transport; poor roads infrastructure Kabula Branches*: low production; poverty Branches*: low productivity leading to low yields; hunger Branches*: low yields and low production; food insecurity; hunger Stem**: small fields cultivated Stem**: small fields Stem**: small fields Root***: lack of farm implements; poor soils; cattle deaths; Root***: lack of farm implements; no money; cattle diseases Root***: lack of farming implements (plow and oxen); lack of good seed; limited suitable soils poor market access due to poor roads

Notes: *Branches denote the effects of main problem experienced; **stem denotes the perceived main problem; ***root denotes the perceived causes of the main problem.

No data means either crop is not grown or no problem was identified for discussion by a group. 68 69 Land type Land, soil and moisture characteristics Mongu District APPENDIX 5. LAND TYPES AND CROPPING CYCLE Lealui Situlu Nanikelako MATUNDA These land types, mostly located in Maize (MM 441, Pool Maize Sweet potato, maize (plural of litunda) the Borotse floodplain, have loamy 16), rice, sweet potato, (MM 441), cassava FOR MAJOR CROPS PLANTED TO THEM IN BOROTSE soils and little water retention vegetables capacity.

FLOODPLAIN, WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA Plant—Sep.; harvest—Feb. Plant—Aug.; Plant—Sep.; harvest—Jan. harvest—Feb. LITAPA These fields are found in flooded Maize (MM 441, Pool 16, Maize, vegetables Maize (MM 441), Land type Land, soil and moisture characteristics Mongu District (plural of sitapa) waterways in the Borotse floodplain. local maize), vegetables (including sweet potato, Lealui Situlu Nanikelako They represent landforms on which (giant rape and Hobson pumpkins) vegetables (tomato, MATONGO Rarely flooded landforms often Maize Not applicable Rice, maize, cassava, annual flooding of the plain deposits rape) pumpkin) (plural of litongo) found either within or at the margins Plant—Sep.; harvest—Jan. pumpkin, sweet silt and humus from vegetation of the Borotse floodplain. These potato, cucumber, and decaying aquatic plants. These fields are located a few meters from Rice groundnut deposits enrich the fertility of the homesteads. The soils are sandy Plant—Nov.; harvest—May land on the plains, creating fertile Maize Vegetables Maize and have little water retention arable land for crop production. Plant—Aug.; harvest—Jan. Plant—Aug.; Plant—Aug.; capacity. In the upper land, matongo Rice (irrigated or residual However, in the late-season heat, harvest—Dec. harvest—Jan. also describes ndamino or kitchen moisture) after the floods have receded, the Vegetables gardens. Plant—Jun.; harvest—Nov. Plant—Nov.; soils harden. These high-moisture Plant—May or Jun.; Maize Sweet potato harvest—Mar. fields provide residual moisture for harvest—Dec. Plant—Aug.; Plant—Jul.; Wheat cropping. harvest—Jan. harvest—Dec. Plant—May; harvest—Feb. MATEMA These are found in the forest or Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Vegetables (plural of litema) woodland areas. This land type is Plant—Jul.; suitable for crops that do not require harvest—Dec. a lot of soil moisture. Soil types are Flooding period Oct. – May Dec. – Jun. Sep. – Jul. predominantly sandy and sometimes (start month to mixed with decaying leaves. end month) (Flooding starts when (Flooding begins (Flooding starts MAZULU These are large mound fields (made Maize (MM 441, Pool 16, Maize, rice, Maize (MM 441), Zambezi River is full in Oct. in Dec. when main when Zambezi River (plural of lizulu) by white ants over the ages) located MM 603, local maize), rice, vegetables, sweet sorghum, rice and ends in May when waterways outflow is full in Sep. and APPENDIX 5 APPENDIX 5 on raised gardens anywhere within vegetables potato (Xiangzhou 5), major waterways dry up.) and ends in Jun. ends in Jul. when and above the general floodplain watermelon, when they dry out.) main waterways dry level. They have clay and loamy soils, Maize Maize (MM 441) sweet potato, out.) which are some of the best soils in Plant—Nov.; harvest—Jan. Plant—Sep.; nswe, vegetables the floodplain but are also exposed harvest—Feb. (pumpkin, squash, Community- Irrigate crops on litapa and Irrigate crops on Embank on major to risks from flooding and drought. Rice local cucumber) desired changes mazulu. litapa and mazulu. waterways clearance. Some of this land type is left fallow Plant—Nov.; harvest—Jan. Sweet potato in use of Plant early-maturity Embark on due to inaccessibility. Plant—Jan.; Maize (MM 441) agrobiodiversity varieties; e.g. MM 441. major waterways Vegetables harvest—Jun. Plant—Sep.; resources to Form cooperatives to clearance. Plant—Jan.; harvest—Apr. harvest—Mar. fulfill dreams and access farm inputs. Rice visions Plant—Nov.; Vegetables Agrobiodiversity Munanana (sorghum Kandalendale (local Makonga (sorghum harvest—May (pumpkin, resources variety) maize) variety) watermelon) recommended Kuyuma (sorghum variety) Munanana Munanana (sorghum Vegetables Plant—Jan.; for conservation, Finger millet (sorghum variety) variety) (pumpkin, tomato, harvest—May purification Kalungwa (local yam Makonga (sorghum Lewanika (maize cabbage) and restoration variety) variety) variety) Plant—Nov.; Nswe strategies Kapumba (cassava variety) Angola (rice variety) Finger millet harvest—May Plant—Jan.; Millet (bulrush or pearl) Supa (rice variety) Wheat harvest—May Local cowpea Wheat Notes: Sorghum 1. In Situlu, crops required for diversification are those that can grow on residual moisture. Alternatively, there is the need for Plant—Jan.; technology to cultivate current crops during the off season. harvest—May 2. In Situlu, “liabelela” refers to land with residual moisture (“inpomposentle”), while rainfed soil is referred to as “lishata.” 3. In Nanikelako, vegetables are seen as the first choice for diversification of an enterprise mix since fishing is no longer a Sweet potato dependable source of livelihood. Plant—Jan.; harvest—May

Rice (Zhou 5) Plant—Nov.; harvest—May

70 71 Land type Land, soil and moisture characteristics Senanga District Land type Land, soil and moisture characteristics Senanga District Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele Sifuna Nalitoya Nembwele MATONGO Rarely flooded landforms often found either Maize (early- Maize (PANA 53 Maize (early- LITAPA These fields are found in flooded waterways Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable within or at the margins of the Borotse maturing varieties), variety), millet, maturing varieties), (plural of sitapa) in the Borotse floodplain. They represent floodplain. These fields are located a few sweet potato, cassava, cowpea, cowpea, cassava landforms on which annual flooding of meters from homesteads. The soils are sandy cassava (Kapumba Hibiscus spp., the plain deposits silt and humus from and have little water retention capacity. In variety), vegetables banana Plant—Sep.; vegetation and decaying aquatic plants. the upper land, matongo also describes (including tomato harvest—Mar. These deposits enrich the fertility of the land ndamino or kitchen gardens. and okra), beans, Plant—Sep.; on the plains, creating fertile arable land for pumpkin harvest—Mar. crop production. However, in the late-season heat, after the floods have receded, the soils Plant—Sep.; harden. These high-moisture fields provide harvest—Feb. residual moisture for cropping. SISHANJO Sishanjo or shishango—drained seepage Maize (early- Maize (early- Maize, sweet potato, MALAPO (plural Landforms along waterways. The landforms Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable (plural of gardens. They describe marsh gardens on maturing varieties), maturing varieties), rice, vegetables of milapo) are lower than the general level of the lishanjo) the edge of a forest or upper land. These land sweet potato, sweet potato, (onion, tomato, floodplain or are bound by matongo. types are found in permanently waterlogged vegetables (onion, pumpkin, cassava rape), cassava Flooding period Jan. – May Nov. – May Jan. – May areas where crop cultivation is risky due rape, tomato, (Kapumba and (Kapumba, (start month to to flooding. They have peat soils, which pumpkin), cassava Nakamoya varieties) Nakamoya and end month) are poorly drained and difficult to till. The (Kapumba variety), Nalumino varieties), Community- Seeds: early Seeds: withstand Seeds: early farming practices on sishanjo soils involve rice Plant—Aug.; groundnut, cowpea, desired changes maturity and high bad weather maturity the digging of trenches around garden beds harvest—Jan. pineapple in use of yielding to drain mounds. The fertility of the acidic Vegetables agrobiodiversity peats can be increased by burning them to Plant—Mar.; Rice resources to raise the pH and nutrient availability. harvest—Jul. Plant—Dec.; fulfill dreams and harvest—May visions Other crops Agrobiodiversity Maize, cassava Maize, cassava Maize, cassava Plant—Sep.; All other crops resources harvest—Jan. Plant—Aug.; recommended harvest—Dec. for conservation, MUSHITU Cropped land within forest or woodland, Bambara nut, Cassava, yam, Cassava, cowpea, purification most likely on upper land, which rarely cassava (Nalumino maize, Hibiscus spp., maize, yam,

APPENDIX 5 and restoration APPENDIX 5 floods, if ever. Suitable for crops that do not variety), maize, millet, groundnut, Bambara nut, strategies require a lot of soil moisture or drought- millet, cowpea, yam, cowpea groundnut, millet, tolerant crops. squash, Hibiscus squash spp., sorghum Plant—Nov.; harvest—Mar. Plant—Oct.; Plant—Oct.; harvest—Feb. harvest—Apr. MAZULU These are large mound fields (made by white Maize from market Maize, millet, Sorghum, maize, (plural of lizulu) ants over the ages) located on raised gardens vegetables (okra, pumpkin, sweet anywhere within and above the general Plant—Nov.; tomato), sorghum potato, watermelon, floodplain level. They have clay and loamy harvest—Mar. vegetables (okra) soils, which are some of the best soils in the Plant—Nov.; floodplain but are also exposed to risks from harvest—May Plant—Nov.; flooding and drought. Some of this land type harvest—Mar. is left fallow due to inaccessibility. MATABA Swamp, morass, marsh and waterlogged Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable areas where there are moderate amounts of water. Land is cultivated to rain-fed and residual moisture crops. MATEMA These are found in the forest or woodland Cassava (early- Cassava, maize Cassava, maize, (fields in areas. This land type is suitable for crops maturing varieties) cowpea, groundnut, MUSHITU) that do not require a lot of soil moisture. Maize millet Soil types are predominantly sandy and Plant—Aug.; Plant—Sep.; sometimes mixed with decaying leaves. harvest—after 2–3 harvest—Mar. Plant—Aug. (dry years plant); harvest— Cassava Mar. Plant—Sep.; harvest—after 2 years

72 73 Land type Land, soil and moisture characteristics Kalabo District Land type Land, soil and moisture characteristics Lukulu District Mapungu Mwandi Lower Mwandi Upper Kapanda Kabula MATONGO Rarely flooded landforms often found either Maize, sweet potato Cassava, groundnut Cassava MATONGO Rarely flooded landforms often found either Groundnut (Shungumana Maize, cassava, sorghum, (plural of litongo) within or at the margins of the Borotse within or at the margins of the Borotse variety), sweet potato groundnut, sugarcane, nswe, floodplain. These fields are located a few Plant—Oct.; Plant—Jul.; Plant—Jun.; floodplain. These fields are located a few (Makeni variety), Bambara cowpea, Bambara nut meters from homesteads. The soils are sandy harvest—Feb. harvest—Mar. harvest—Mar. meters from homesteads. The soils are sandy nut, cowpea, maize (MM 441), and have little water retention capacity. In and have little water retention capacity. In the cassava (Kapumba variety) the upper land, matongo also describes upper land, matongo also describes ndamino Plant—Nov.; harvest—Mar. ndamino or kitchen gardens. or kitchen gardens. Plant—Oct.; harvest—Apr. MATEMA These are found in the forest or woodland Cassava, maize, Maize, cowpea, Maize (local and MUSHITU Cropped land within forest or woodland, most Cassava, Bambara nut, maize Cassava, sorghum, millet, (plural of litema) areas. This land type is suitable for crops groundnut, pumpkin, cassava MM 603), cowpea, likely on upper land, which rarely floods, if ever. (MM 603 and local varieties, maize, cowpea (runner variety that do not require a lot of soil moisture. Bambara nut, cassava (Nalumino Suitable for crops that do not require a lot of which do not require a lot of not requiring moist soil), Soil types are predominantly sandy and cowpea, sweet Plant—Nov.; variety), rice (Supa) soil moisture or drought-tolerant crops. moisture) watermelon, groundnut, sometimes mixed with decaying leaves. potato harvest—Apr. Bambara nut Plant—Nov.; Plant—Nov.; harvest—Mar. Plant—Aug.; harvest—Feb. Plant—Oct.; harvest—Apr. harvest—Mar. or Mar. MAZULU These are large mound fields (made by white Maize, sweet potato, Maize, vegetables Maize (MM 441, MAZULU These are large mound fields (made by white Maize (MM 603 and local Not applicable (plural of lizulu) ants over the ages) located on raised gardens rice, groundnut, (tomato, pumpkins), Pool 16), pumpkin (plural of lizulu) ants over the ages) located on raised gardens varieties), sorghum, pumpkin anywhere within and above the general cowpea groundnut, sweet anywhere within and above the general floodplain level. They have clay and loamy potato Plant—Oct.; floodplain level. They have clay and loamy soils, which are some of the best soils in the Plant—Nov.; harvest—Mar. soils, which are some of the best soils in the Plant—Oct.; harvest—Mar. floodplain but are also exposed to risks from harvest—Mar. Plant—Nov.; floodplain but are also exposed to risks from or Apr. flooding and drought. Some of this land type harvest—Mar. flooding and drought. Some of this land type is is left fallow due to inaccessibility. left fallow due to inaccessibility. MATUNDA These land types, mostly located in the Maize, pumpkin, Cassava, groundnut, Maize (MM 441, LITAPA These fields are found in flooded waterways Not applicable Maize, pumpkin, rice (soils (plural of litunda) Borotse floodplain, have loamy soils and little groundnut, sweet Bambara nut, Pool 16, local in the Borotse floodplain. They represent in Kabula are saline, hence water retention capacity. potato, vegetables pumpkin, maize, grain), pumpkin, landforms on which annual flooding of the saline-tolerant rice varieties (tomato) cowpea groundnut, sweet plain deposits silt and humus from vegetation needed), sweet potato, potato and decaying aquatic plants. These deposits vegetables Plant—Aug.; Plant—Sep.; enrich the fertility of the land on the plains, harvest—Dec. harvest—Mar. Plant—Aug.; creating fertile arable land for crop production. APPENDIX 5 APPENDIX 5 harvest—Feb. However, in the late-season heat, after the Plant—Sep.; harvest—Feb. LITAPA These fields are found in flooded waterways Maize, sweet Maize, vegetables Maize (MM 441, floods have receded, the soils harden. These (plural of sitapa) in the Borotse floodplain. They represent potato, groundnut, Pool 16—to high-moisture fields provide residual moisture landforms on which annual flooding of vegetables (tomato, Plant—Aug.; mature before for cropping. the plain deposits silt and humus from pumpkin, others) harvest—Jan. floods), sweet MABALA Plains may get waterlogged by floods. Rice (Supa), maize (maturing Not applicable vegetation and decaying aquatic plants. potato, pumpkin, (plural of libala) early before floods) These deposits enrich the fertility of the land Plant—Sep.; groundnut on the plains, creating fertile arable land for harvest—Dec. Plant—Oct.; harvest—May crop production. However, in the late-season Plant—Sep.; MALAPO Landforms along waterways. The landforms are Not applicable Rice heat, after the floods have receded, the soils harvest—Jan. (plural of milapo) lower than the general level of the floodplain or harden. These high-moisture fields provide are bound by matongo. Plant—Nov.; harvest—Jun. residual moisture for cropping. MATONGO Rarely flooded landforms often found either Groundnut (Shungumana Not applicable Community- Need to grow Grow early- Need to grow within or at the margins of the Borotse variety), sweet potato desired changes drought-resistant maturing varieties; drought-resistant floodplain. These fields are located a few (Makeni variety), Bambara in use of and early-maturing e.g. MM 441. and early-maturing meters from homesteads. The soils are sandy nut, cowpea, maize (MM 441), agrobiodiversity varieties or hybrids varieties or hybrids and have little water retention capacity. In the cassava (Kapumba variety) resources to (e.g. Makonga Use irrigation (e.g. MM 441 for upper land, matongo also describes ndamino fulfill dreams and and Maelepu [for pumps in maize, Xiangzhou 5 or kitchen gardens. Plant—Oct.; harvest—Mar. visions sorghum]; millet; gardening. and Nerica for rice, Flooding period Jan. – Mar. Dec. – Mar. MM 441 [maize]). millet). (start month to Agrobiodiversity Yellow maize, Yellow maize, Nerica (rice), end month) resources Kandalendale (for Makonga and Makonga Community- No response No response recommended maize), finger millet, Maelepu varieties (sorghum), millet desired changes millet, local cowpea, (sorghum), for conservation, in use of sweet reeds, local Kapumba (cassava) purification agrobiodiversity sorghum, Hibiscus and restoration resources to spp. (Sindambi) strategies fulfill dreams and Notes: visions 1. Sindambi or Mudambi is the local name for Hibiscus spp. Agrobiodiversity Cassava Maize—tolerant to floods and 2. Floods start in December to end of September depending on location. resources Maize drought and must be early 3. Mwandi Upper sits on an upland plain (Simunyange); therefore, upland rice is desired in view of the uncertainty of flooding in recommended Rice maturing the plain. Non-photoperiodic varieties are needed for planting to shallow waters or the forest. for conservation, purification Cassava—early maturing and restoration strategies Rice that does not require a lot of water

74 75 APPENDIX 6. FOUR-CELL ANALYSES FOR ALL CROPS, MAIZE, RICE AND CASSAVA CULTIVARS PLANTED IN AAS FOCAL COMMUNITIES STUDIED IN WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA

Four-cell methods 1. Many households + large area (>= 0.25 ha or 1 lima) 2. Many households + small land area 3. Few households + large land area 4. Few households + small area (< 0.125 ha or 0.5 lima = 0.25 of football field)

District: Mongu All crops All crops Maize Maize Rice Rice Cassava Cassava Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Village: Lealui Men Maize Cassava, groundnut, sweet potato Recycled grain MM 603 Supa Xiangzhou 5, Kajacket - Nalumino --new crops --cheap seed --expensive seed --high market value --low market demand --low market demand --easy seed access --hard to access seed --no aroma --early maturity --late maturity --get flooded Women Maize, rice, tomato, rape, okra, Onion, sorghum, beans, pepper, MM 441 recycled Local variety Supa Kajacket, Xiangzhou 5, - Kapumba eggplant carrot, Irish potatoes --cheap seed --late maturity - source of income Angola --not adapted to Barotse --staple (maize) --lack of knowledge (onions, pepper, --early maturity --not adapted to Barotse - hard to access seed floodplain system --market value (rice, vegetables) carrot, Irish potatoes) floodplain system --not adapted to Barotse --pest attack -- high labor for bird scaring (sorghum) floodplain system --lack of cuttings

APPENDIX 6 Youth Maize, rice, rape, cabbage, tomato Sweet potatoes, impwa, okra, MM 441, Pool 16 recycled Local maize Supa Kajacket, Angola, Blue - Nalumino APPENDIX 6 --staple eggplant, wheat, carrot, green --cheap seed --late maturity --high market value bonnet --no cuttings --source of income pepper, beans --drought tolerant --does well in Barotse --low market demand --new crops --adapted to the floodplain (MM 441) floodplain system --limited non-flooded land --lack of production knowledge Village: Situlu Men Maize, rice Sorghum, groundnut MM 441, Pool 16 (recycled) Pool 16, MM 603 Supa Xiangzhou 5, Blue - - --disappearing crops, high labor --cheap seed --expensive seed --high market value bonnet, Angola demand for bird scaring (sorghum) --easy seed access --not adapted to Barotse --tasty --hard to access seed floodplain system --aroma --not adapted to Barotse --adapted to Barotse floodplain system floodplain system Women Maize, rice Sweet potato, rape, tomato, MM 441 recycled Kandalendale, Munali, Supa Kajacket, Angola, - - --staple okra, onion, pumpkin, cabbage, --cheap seed Simikata, MRI 521 --high market value Xiangzhou 5, Blue --source of income sindambi, watermelon --easy seed access --lack of seed --taste, aroma bonnet --expensive seed (Kandalendale, Simikata) --low market demand --late maturity (Munali) --not adapted to the --low market demand floodplain Youth Maize, rice Banana, cassava Grain (recycled) Popcorn, yellow maize Supa Blue bonnet, Angola, Mutembo Kapumba, Nakamoya --source of income (rice, maize) --lack of suitable arable lands not --easy seed access --snack food --source of income Nerica, ITTA 212, --adapted --snack food --staple (maize) affected by flood --cheap seed Burma, Malawi faya --good flour --poor flour --low market demand --lack of cuttings --new variety --hard to access seed Village: Nanikelako Men Maize, rice, sweet potato Watermelon, pumpkin, MM 441 (recycled) MM 441 Supa Nerica Nalumino Nakamoya vegetables --cheap seed --expensive seed --high market value --new variety --staple --snack food --early maturing -- adapted to the floodplain --adapted to the --lack of cuttings --staple floodplain Women Maize, rice, cassava, sweet potato Pumpkin, sweet reeds, MM 441 (recycled) Pool 16 Supa Xiangzhou 5, Kajacket Nalumino Kapumba, Nakamoya --staple watermelon --cheap seed --low yield --high market value --low market value --early maturity --lack of cuttings --source of income (rice) --early maturity --not adapted to Barotse --adapted to Barotse --hard to access seed --high market value floodplain system floodplain system --good food quality Youth Maize, rice, sweet potato Tomato, vegetables MM 441 (recycled) Pool 16 Supa Angola, Burma Nalumino Nakamoya --staple --damaged by floods --cheap seed --early maturity --source of income --staple --adapted to Barotse --not adapted to Barotse --source of income --short shelf life --easy seed access --not adapted to Barotse --aroma --hard to access seed floodplain system floodplain system --good taste (maize) --require chemicals --early maturity floodplain system --good taste --low market value --staple --poor tuber storage --require irrigation --high market value --drought resistant

76 77 District: Kalabo All crops All crops Maize Maize Rice Rice Cassava Cassava Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Village: Mapungu Men Maize recycled, Bambara nut, vegetables, MM 441, MM 603 Yellow maize Supa Xiangzhou 5, Kajacket Nalumino Kapumba Sicikwele sorghum, millet, cowpea --early maturity (MM 441) --late maturity --high market value --high labor demand for --easy cuttings --no cuttings --easy seed access --late maturity (cowpea) --high yielding (MM 603) --aroma bird scaring access --low yielding --bird menace (millet and sorghum) --tasty --hard to access seed --adapted to Barotse --not adapted to Barotse --low market demand (cowpea) floodplain system floodplain system --high yielding Women Rice, maize, groundnuts, sweet Cabbage, local beans MM 441, MM 603 Yellow maize, popcorn, Supa Xiangzhou 5, Burma, Nalumino Nakamoya, Kapumba, potato --pest attack --early maturity (MM 441) Pool 16 --high market value Blue bonnet --easy cuttings Kapulanga, Mutembo --staple --expensive seed --high yielding (MM 603) --hard to access seed --tasty --lack of market access --no cuttings --require irrigation (popcorn) --staple --high yielding --low yielding (Kapumba) --low yielding (Pool 16) --late maturity (yellow maize) Youth Maize, cassava Vegetables, Bambara nuts MM 441, MM 603 (recycled) Pool 16 Supa Xiangzhou 5, Kajacket, Nalumino Kapumba, Nakamoya, --staple --expensive seed --adapted to Barotse floodplain system --expensive seed --source of income Burma, Blue bonnet --easy cuttings Mutembo, Litale, Butiki, --adapted to Barotse floodplain --easy seed access --hard to access seed --easy seed access --hard to access seed access Busele system (cassava) --cheap seed --low yielding --low market demand --high yielding --no cuttings --low prices --adapted to Barotse --require more moist soils --no aroma floodplain system than Nalumino --low theft due to bitter taste Village: Mwandi Lower Men Maize Groundnut, sweet potato, Recycled grain Pool 16 - - - - vegetables, impwa, tomato --easy seed access --expensive seed --cheap seed Women Maize, cassava Cabbage, onion, impwa, delele, Recycled grain Pool 16 - - Nalumino Nakamoya, Mutembo, --staples eggplant, Chinese cabbage --taller than Pool 16, which gets --expensive seed --staple Kapumba, Butiki, --source of income --pest and diseases submerged in flooded areas --not adapted to Barotse --high yielding Namunji

APPENDIX 6 --expensive seed floodplain system (too --resistant to --no cuttings APPENDIX 6 short) mealybug --bitter (Butiki) Youth Maize Groundnut, Bambara nut, sweet Recycled grain Pool 16 - - Nalumino, Butiki Kapumba, Mutembo, --staple potato --cheap seed --expensive seed --staple Nakamoya --source of income --lack of seed access --high yielding --no cuttings --expensive seed --resistant to --low market demand mealybug --grown for relish Village: Mwandi Upper Men MM 441 (recycled) Millet, sorghum, vegetables MM 441 (recycled) Pool 16 Supa Xiangzhou 5 Nalumino Kapumba, Nakamoya --early maturity --lack of seed access (millet and --early maturity --expensive seed --high market value --low market demand --adapted to Barotse --not adapted to Barotse --drought resistant sorghum) --staple floodplain system floodplain system --high labor for bird scaring --easy access to --limited production skills cuttings --expensive pesticides (vegetables) --high yielding Women Maize, rice, cassava, groundnut Bambara nut, Bulrush millet, MM 441 (recycled) Kandalendale Supa Kajacket, Angola, Nalumino Kapumba, Butiki, --staple sorghum --adapted to Barotse floodplain system --low market demand --high market value Xiangzhou 5 --early maturity Mutembo --grown for relish --hard to access seed --grain whole when --low market demand --staple --no cuttings milled --hard to access seed --high yielding --pest attack --disease attack Youth Rice, maize, cassava Sweet potato, vegetables Recycled grain Pool 16 Supa Xiangzhou 5 Nalumino Kapumba, Mutembo, --high yielding --hard to access seed --cheap seed --expensive seed --high market value --low market demand --high market value Nakamoya, Butiki --high market value --require chemicals --low yielding --grains break --staple --no cuttings --staple --damaged by floods --snack food

78 79 District: Senanga All crops All crops Maize Maize Rice Rice Cassava Cassava Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Village: Sifuna Men Cassava, maize Groundnut, cowpea, Bambara Recycled grain, market grain PANA 53, hybrids Supa Black rice Nalumino Kapumba --staple nut, Livingstone yam, rice --new variety --lack of cuttings --source of income (Xiangzhou 5) --hard to access seeds Kajacket, Burma, Nakamoya --pops in groundnut Angola --tastiness vulnerable to --eaten by birds theft Women Cassava, maize Rice, sweet potato, tomato, Recycled Munali Supa Burma Nalumino Litale, Kapumba, --staple pumpkin --cheap seed --late maturity --high market value --low market demand --drought resistant Nakamoya --need money for seed --tasty --pest and disease --tastiness vulnerable to MM 441, MM 521 --good buhobe resistant theft --need money for seed --bitter taste --lack of cuttings --expensive seed prevents theft Cassava Rice, sorghum, cowpea, Bambara Recycled grain MM 441, Pool 16, Supa Kajacket Nalumino Mutembo, Kapumba, Youth --low external input nut --easy seed access hybrids --high market value --new cultivar --staple Mbambi --long harvest period --lack of inputs --expensive seed --aroma --hard to access seeds --adapted to Barotse --snack food --multiple food uses --limited land --taste floodplain system --suited to moist plain soils edges Millet --easy cuttings --lack of cuttings --bird damage access

Vegetables --waterlogged Village: Nalitoya Men Cassava, maize Tobacco, Bambara nut, sorghum, MM 441, PANA 53 Local maize Supa Angola, Blue bonnet Nalumino Kapumba, Litale, --cheap seed millet --market grain Nakamoya --easy cuttings access --staple Groundnut

APPENDIX 6 --pops in groundnut APPENDIX 6 Women Rice, maize, cassava Bambara nut, cowpea, groundnut Recycled maize, PANA 53, MM 441 PANA 53 Supa Burma, Karjacket Nalumino Litale, Bangweulu, --staple --low market demand --cheap seed --hard to access seed --taste --low market demand --pest and disease Kakota, Nakamoya, --high market value resistant Portuguese Sorghum Mokola Blue bonnet --high yield --lack of cuttings --bird menace --late maturity --hard to access seed --bitter taste prevents theft Kapumba MM 441, Munali --susceptible to --displaced by hybrids mealybug Youth Cassava, rice, maize Vegetables, sorghum, millet, Local maize PANA 53, MM 441 Supa Burma, Xiangzhou 5, Nalumino Nakamoya, Bangweulu, --staple Bambara nut, cowpea, sugarcane --easy seed access --seeds expensive --easy seed access Blue bonnet, Angola --staple Kapumba, Mutembo --income source --limited suitable land --hard to access seeds --high market demand --hard to access seeds --high market value --snack food --good yields --low market demand --adapted to flooded --low market demand --easy cuttings --lack of cuttings --low productivity areas access --adapted to Barotse floodplain system soils Village: Nembwele Men Rice, cassava Millet, sorghum Recycled grain, hybrids PANA 53 Supa Blue bonnet, Kajacket Nalumino Chila, Bangweulu, --bird menace Xiangzhou 5, P 13, Kapulanga, Portuguese Nerica Bambara nuts --hard to access seeds Women Maize, rice, cassava Tomato, cabbage, onion, pepper Recycled grain MM 441, SC 627, MMV Supa Malawi faya, Blue Nalumino Bangweulu --staple --new crops --cheap recycled seed 400 --high market value bonnet, Kajacket --drought resistant --lack of cuttings --pests and disease menace --low yield --aroma --hard to access seed --high yields PANA 53 --taste --high yield Munali --late maturity Rice, maize, cassava Sugarcane, banana, Bambara nut, Local maize, MM 603 Popcorn, yellow maize, Supa Burma, Angola, Nalumino Kapumba, Nakamoya, --high market value cowpea --early-maturity hybrid simikata --aroma Kajacket, Xiangzhou 5, --staple Kapulanga Youth --staple --limited land, for relish, lack of --easy seed access --hard to access seed --high market value Blue bonnet --source of income --lack of cuttings --adapted to Barotse floodplain chemicals --high yield --limited land --milled whole grain --low market price --adapted to Barotse system soils --good-quality grains --low market demand --hard to access seed floodplain system --easy access to seed --no aroma soils --easy cuttings access --poor taste --high yield --easy cuttings access

80 81 District: Lukulu All crops All crops Maize Maize Rice Rice Cassava Cassava Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Many + large Few + small Village: Kapanda Men Maize, cassava Cabbage, sorghum, millet, Market grain, MM 604 Munali, Kandalendale Supa Burma, Blue bonnet Nalumino Litale, Tumbangezhi, --staple Bambara nut, hibiscus, delele --late maturity --high yield --low market demand --staple Bangweulu, --high yield --high market value --hard to access seed Portuguese, Rabbecca, Cowpea Hybrids --aroma Lingoma, Nakamoya Maize --hard to access seed --expensive seed --lack of cuttings --early maturity Millet, sorghum Cassava --pest attack --long storability --low market demand

Bambara nut, hibiscus, delele --low use Women Maize, cassava Sorghum MM 603, MM 604 MM 441, yellow maize, Supa Xiangzhou 5, Burma, Nalumino Tumbangeshi --staple --hard to access seed --high yield, medium maturity other locals --high yield Angola, Kajacket, Blue --high yield Bangweulu, --high market value --low yield --high market value bonnet --drought tolerant Portuguese, Rabbecca, --low labor needs Pepper, onion --late maturity --aroma --low market demand Lingoma, Nakamoya --low market demand --hard to access seed --new variety

Cabbage --no irrigation facility

Youth Cassava, maize, rice Cowpea, Bambara nut, Irish Local grain Yellow, Kandalendale, Supa Kajacket, Blue bonnet Nalumino Lingoma, Rabbecca --staple potato, sorghum --easy seed access PANA 53 --high market value --new variety --easy cuttings --lack of cuttings --adapted to Barotse floodplain --difficult to grow --does well with limited fertilizer --late maturity --easy seed access --hard to access seed access --new variety system soils --hard to access seed --low yield --taste --low market demand --recycling cuttings --easy seed access --big grain (Blue bonnet) --tubers store well Nakamoya --easy cuttings access --snack food Village: Kabula

APPENDIX 6 Men Maize, cassava Millet Market grain Mumbali (lost), Supa Kajacket Nalumino Lingoma, Nakamoya, APPENDIX 6 Munali, Kandalendale, --high market value --hard to access seed --easy cuttings Rabbecca Tobacco hybrid --easy seed access access --low soil fertility and low --taste Blue bonnet production --big grain --low market demand

Vegetables --pest attack

Bambara nut --labor constraint --low yield --low market demand Women Maize, cassava Sorghum, groundnut, Bambara Recycled grain MM 603, MM 604 Supa Burma, Angola, Blue Nalumino Litale, Mutembo, --staple nut, sweet potato --cheap --expensive seed --high market value bonnet, Xiangzhou 5 --staple Kapumba, Nyengo --hard seed access --lack of animal draft --no cuttings Local yellow, power to cultivate large Kandalendale fields --long maturity

MM 441 --low yield Youth Maize, cassava Vegetables, groundnut, sorghum, 90-day local Yellow maize Supa Blue bonnet, Burma, Nalumino, Litale Mutembo, --staple millet, cowpea, sweet potato, --cheap seed --hard seed access --high market value Angola --staple Makamwengo --high market value Bambara nut --adapted to Barotse floodplain system soils --easy seed access --hard seed access --easy cuttings --no cuttings --adapted to Barotse floodplain --hard seed access --taste --low market demand access --labor constraint system soils --limited fields --aroma --high market --bird menace demand --lack of production knowledge

82 83 This publication should be cited as: Baidu-Forson JJ, Chanamwe S, Muyaule C, Mulanda A, Ndiyoi M and Ward A. 2015. Capturing views of men, women and youth on agricultural biodiversity resources consumed in Barotseland, Zambia. Penang, Malaysia: CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems. Working Paper: AAS-2015-17.

About the CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems Approximately 500 million people in Africa, Asia and the Pacific depend on aquatic agricultural systems for their livelihoods; 138 million of these people live in poverty. Occurring along the world’s floodplains, deltas and coasts, these systems provide multiple opportunities for growing food and generating income. However, factors like population growth, environmental degradation and climate change are affecting these systems, threatening the livelihoods and well-being of millions of people.

The CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS) seeks to reduce poverty and improve food security for many small-scale fishers and farmers depending on aquatic agricultural systems by partnering with local, national and international partners to achieve large-scale development impact.

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Contact Details: CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems Jalan Batu Maung, Batu Maung, 11960 Bayan Lepas, Penang, MALAYSIA [email protected] 100% RECYCLED Photo credit: Front cover, Conrad Muyaule/WorldFish Paper made from Photo credit: Back cover, Albert Mulanda/Caritas-Mongu recycled material