Introduction 1. the Convention Against Torture, and Other Cruel

Notes

Introduction

1. The Convention against Torture, and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment will be referred to throughout this monograph as the Convention against Torture. Also, degrading treatment will be used to signify “other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.” 2. Jack Donnelly, “Human Rights and Asian Values: A Defense of ‘Western’ Universalism,” in The East Asian Challenge for Human Rights, ed. Joanne Bauer and Daniel Bells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 63. 3. Adamantia Pollis, “A New Universalism,” in Human Rights: New Perspectives, New Realities, ed. Adamantia Pollis and Peter Schwab (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000), 10. 4. Donnelly, 69. 5. Referred to from now on as Universal Declaration. 6. Paul Gordon Lauren, The Evolution of International Human Rights: Visions Seen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 199– 232; Mary Ann Glendon, A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (New York: Random House, 2001), xxi; Johannes Morsink, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting, and Intent (Philadelphia: Univer- sity of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), xiv. 7. Lauren, 232. 8. Reza Afshari, “On Historiography of Human Rights: Reflections on Paul Gordon Lauren’s The Evolution of International Human Rights: Visions Seen,” Human Rights Quarterly 29 (2007): 51. 9. Roland Burke, The Politics of Decolonization and the Evolution of the International Human Rights Project (Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 2007), 53– 93. 10. Ibid., 95–152. 11. Susan Waltz, “Universalizing Human Rights: The Role of Small States in the Construction of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” Human Rights Quarterly 23 (2001): 44– 72; Waltz, “Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal 126 Notes

Declaration of Human Rights,” Third World Quarterly 23 (2002): 437– 48; Waltz, “Human Rights Standards and the Human Rights Movement in the Global South: The UDHR and Beyond,” in Concepts and Strategies in International Human Rights, ed. George Andreopoulos (New York: Peter Lang, 2002), 51–71; Waltz, “Uni- versal Human Rights: The Contribution of Muslim States,” Human Rights Quarterly 26 (2004): 799–844; Waltz, “Muslim State Partici- pation in UN Human Rights Debates, 1946– 1966,” in The Modern Middle East: A Sourcebook for History, ed. Benjamin Fortna, Camron Michael Amin, and Elizabeth Frierson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 444– 53. 12. Waltz, “Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” 440. 13. Waltz, “Universalizing Human Rights: The Role of Small States in the Construction of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” 54. 14. Waltz, “Universal Human Rights: The Contribution of Muslim States,” 837 and 901. 15. Ibid., 822– 23; Roland Burke, “Why Women’s Rights Aren’t Just Western—The Forgotten History of Iraqi Feminism,” The Diplo- mat 4, no. 5 (2005– 6): 46– 47. 16. For example, Karl Marx, whose philosophy inspired numerous revolutions, believed that “Oriental” societies required outside intervention—by European colonizers, for instance—to evolve. In Karl Marx, Selections: Karl Marx on Colonialism and Modernization; His Dispatches and Other Writings on China, India, Mexico, the Mid- dle East and North Africa (Garden City: Doubleday, 1968), 19. 17. Waltz, “Universal Human Rights: The Contribution of Muslim States,” 825– 29. 18. Ibid., 808. 19. Abdullahi An-Naïm, “Toward a Cross-Cultural Approach to Defin- ing International Standards of Human Rights: The Meaning of Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment,” in Human Rights in Cross-cultural Perspectives: A Quest for Consensus, ed. An-Naïm (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 38; Makau Mutua, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural Critique (Philadel- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 18; Joseph Massad, “Re-Orienting Desire: The Gay International and the Arab World,” Public Culture 14 (2002): 361; Talal Asad, “On Torture, or Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treatment,” in Social Suffering, ed. Arthur Notes 127

Kleinman, Veena Das, and Margaret Lock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 304. 20. Ibid.; An-Naïm, 38. 21. Ibid., 34. 22. Asad, “On Torture, or Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treatment,” 18. 23. Massad, 385. 24. An-Naïm, 23. 25. Massad, 361. 26. Mutua, 33; An-Naïm, 28; Massad, 361. 27. Mutua, 155. 28. Ibid., 10–38. 29. Monique Chemillier-Gendeau and Yann Moulier-Boutang, Le droit dans la mondialisation, une perspective critique (Paris: PUF, 2001), 209; Antony Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 31; Paul Keal, European Conquest and the Rights of Indigenous Peo- ples: The Moral Backwardness of International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 1–4; China Mieville, Between Equal Rights: A Marxist Theory of International Law (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 319. 30. Keal, 84. 31. Anghie, 87–90. 32. Ibid., 196–97. 33. An-Naïm, 428; Massad, 372; Mutua, 155. 34. Ann Marie Clark, Diplomacy of Conscience, Amnesty International and Changing Human Rights Norms (Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press, 2001), 37– 69. 35. An-Naïm, 35. According to the human rights activist Haytham Mana, the history of Islamic law is structurally related to the history of the Caliphates. In other words, the law’s nonprogressive provisions, such as whipping and the amputation of hands, are integral to the repressive logic of political authority. In Haytham Mana, Al-Usuliyya al-islamiyya wa huquq al-insan (Islamic Law and Human Rights) (Al-Qahira: Markaz al-Qahira li-dirasat huquq al-insan, 1999), 15. 36. Abdellah Hammoudi, Master and Disciple: The Cultural Foundations of Moroccan Authoritarianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Mounira Charrad, States and Women’s Rights: The Making of Post-colonial Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). 128 Notes

37. According to the anthropologist Mehdi Bennouna, “Combatants and men of political parties resemble each other very little; the only commonality would be the absence of women in either group.” In Héros sans gloire, échec d’une révolution 1963–1973 (Casablanca: Éditions Tarik, 2002), 9. 38. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1367 (1980), §20. 39. Herman Burgers and Hans Danelius, The United Nations Conven- tion against Torture: A Handbook on the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988), 31. 40. Ibid., v. 41. Ibid. 42. Saladin Meckeled-Garcia and Basak Çali, eds., Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Human Rights and Human Rights Law (New York: Routledge, 2006), 1– 3; Adamantia Pollis, “Towards a New Uni- versalism; Reconstruction and Dialogue,” Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 16, no. 1 (1998): 5. 43. Ian Brownlie and Guy Goodwin-Gill, eds., Basic Documents on Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Hurst Hannum, ed., Guide to International Human Rights Practice (New York: Transnational, 2004); United Nations, The United Nations and Human Rights 1945– 1995 (New York: United Nations Blue Book Series, 1995). 44. Saladin Meckeled-Garcia and Basak Çali, “Lost in Translation: The Human Rights Ideal and International Law,” in Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Human Rights and Human Rights Law, 25; Anthony Woodiwiss, “The Law Cannot Be Enough: Human Rights and the Limits of Legalism,” in Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Human Rights and Human Rights Law, 46; Michael Freeman, “Putting Law in Its Place: An Interdisciplinary Evaluation of National Amnesty Laws,” in Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Human Rights and Human Rights Law, 49– 63. 45. Pollis, “Towards a New Universalism; Reconstruction and Dia- logue,” 5. 46. Hannah Arendt, On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970). 47. Michel Foucault, Surveiller et punir, naissance de la prison (Paris: Gallimard, 1975). 48. Article 1 of the Convention against Torture. Notes 129 Chapter 1

1. International Aspects of the Arab Human Rights Movement, An Inter- disciplinary Discussion Held in Cairo in March, 1998, Organized by the Harvard Law School Human Rights Program and the Center for the Study of Developing Countries at Cairo University (Cambridge: Harvard Law School Human Rights Program, 2000), 22– 23. 2. Makau Mutua, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural Critique (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 33; Mutua, “Ideology of Human Rights,” Virginia Journal of International Law 36 (1995–96): 640; Abdullahi An-Naïm, “Toward a Cross-Cultural Approach to Defining International Standards of Human Rights: The Meaning of Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Pun- ishment,” in Human Rights in Cross-cultural Perspectives: A Quest for Consensus, ed. An-Naïm (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 28; Joseph Massad, “Re-Orienting Desire: The Gay International and the Arab World,” Public Culture 14 (2002): 361. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid., 362. 5. Ann Marie Clark, Diplomacy of Conscience, Amnesty International and Changing Human Rights Norms (Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press, 2001), 46. 6. Amnesty International Report on Torture (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1973), 75. 7. Clark, 43– 45; Herman Burgers and Hans Danelius, The United Nations Convention against Torture: A Handbook on the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988), 13; William Korey, “To Light a Candle: Amnesty International and the ‘Pris- oners of Conscience,’ ” in NGOs and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 159– 80. 8. Amnesty International Report on Torture, 112– 217. 9. Ibid., 180. 10. Ibid., 179–80. 11. Ibid., 119. 12. Ibid., 120–21. 13. Clark, 125. 14. Rabéa Bennouna, Tazmamart côté femme, témoignage (Casablanca: Addar Al Alamia Lil Kitab, 2003), 74– 75. 15. Ahmed Marzouki, Tazmamart, cellule 10 (Casablanca: Tarik Édi- tions, 2000), 113. 130 Notes

16. Ibid., 118–19. 17. Clark, 125. 18. Amnesty International Report on Torture, 18. 19. Clark, 43–45. 20. Ibid., 124. 21. Ibid., 127. 22. Burgers and Danelius, 13. 23. Ibid., 14. 24. Ibid. 25. Res. 3452 (XXX) from the UNGA. 26. Res. 3453 (XXX) from the UNGA. 27. Res. 34/169 from the UNGA. 28. Res. 37/194 from the UNGA. 29. UN Doc. A/C.3/32/L.13 (1977). 30. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314, Add. 1, §15. 31. Burgers and Danelius, 34. 32. 32 UN GAOR, Supp. (No. 45) 137 UN Doc. A/32/45 (1978). 33. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285 (1978). 34. UN Doc. E/CN.4/NGO/213 (1978). 35. Article 1, in UN Doc. E/CN.4/NGO/213 (1978). 36. Article 16 to 20, in UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285 (1978). 37. Article XIV, in UN Doc. E/CN.4/NGO/213 (1978). 38. Hans-Peter Gasser, “Les projets de la Convention contre la torture: État de la situation,” in The Need for an International Convention against Torture, ed. Hans Thoolen (Geneva: Commission of the Churches on International Affairs, 1978), 45. 39. UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1400 (1978), §7. 40. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1409 (1980). 41. Article 8, in UN Doc. E/CN.4/1409 (1980). 42. Burgers and Danelius, vi. 43. 32 UN GAOR, Supp. (No. 45) 137 UN Doc. A/32/45 (1978). 44. Burgers and Danelius, vi. 45. Chris Inglese, The UN Committee against Torture: An Assessment (The Hague: Kluwer Academic, 2001), 68. 46. Burgers and Danelius, 15–16. 47. UN Doc. A/10260 (1975). 48. Burgers and Danelius, 31. 49. Ibid., 32. 50. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1347 (1979), §7; UN Doc. E/1980/13, §4; UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1576 (1981), §3; Burgers and Danelius, 32. 51. UN Doc. A/C.3/33/SR.73 (1978), §3. Notes 131

52. Susan Waltz, “Universal Human Rights: The Contribution of Mus- lim States,” Human Rights Quarterly 26 (2004): 808. 53. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1347 (1979), §10; UN Doc. E/1980/13, §8; UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1576 (1981), §5. 54. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1347 (1979), §9; UN Doc. E/1980/13, §8; UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1576 (1981), §5. 55. UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1400 (1978); UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1470 (1979); UN Doc. E/CN.4/1367 (1980). 56. UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1576 (1981), §50–55; UN Doc. E/CN.4/ 1982/L.40, §49–83; UN Doc. E/CN.4/1983/L.2, §28–68; UN Doc. E/CN.4/1984/L.2, §45– 56. 57. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 4, §11, §14, and §16. 58. Burgers and Danelius, 32. 59. Ibid. 60. Res. 1984/21 from March 6, 1984. 61. UN Doc. A/C.3/39/SR.44– 46 and 48– 52 (1984). 62. UN Doc. A/C.3/39/L.40 (1984). 63. Burgers and Danelius, 105; Herman Burgers, “An Arduous Delivery: The United Nations Convention against Torture,” in Effective Nego- tiation: Case Studies in Conference Diplomacy, ed. Johan Kaufmann (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1989), 52. 64. Bayefsky.com, Status of Ratifications/CAT as of May 31, 2012, http:// www .bayefsky .com/ pdf/ cat _ratif _table.pdf. 65. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314, Add. 4, §11, §14, and §16.

Chapter 2

1. Salah el-Ouadie, Le marié, trans. Abdelhadi Drissi (Casablanca: Tarik Éditions, 2001), 102– 3. 2. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285 (1978); UN Doc. E/CN.4/1347 (1979); UN Doc. E/1980/13; UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1576 (1981); UN Doc. E/CN.4/1982/L.40. 3. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285 (1978); UN Doc. E/CN.4/1347 (1979); UN Doc. E/1980/13; UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1576 (1981); UN Doc. E/CN.4/1982/L.40. 4. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285 (1978). 5. UN Doc. E/1978/34, §8, and §17. 6. Res. 18 (XXXIV) from the Human Rights Commission dated March 1978. 7. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314, §6. 8. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314, Add. 1, Add. 2, Add. 3, and Add. 4. 132 Notes

9. UN Doc. E/CN.4/WG.1/WP.1 (1979). 10. Ibid., §41. 11. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1978), §31. 12. Ibid., §34. 13. Ibid., §36. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid., §24. 16. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 2, §2. 17. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1978), §38. 18. Ibid., §25. 19. Ibid., §35. 20. Ibid., §48. 21. Ibid., §49. 22. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314/(1979), Add. 1. 23. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1978), §50. 24. Burgers and Danelius, 46. 25. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1984/L.2. 26. Balakrishnan Rajagopal, International Law from Below (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 91. 27. Claude Palazzoli, Le Maroc politique, de l’indépendance à 1973 (Paris: Sinbad, 1975), 61. 28. Susan Waltz, “Universal Human Rights: The Contribution of Mus- lim States,” Human Rights Quarterly 26 (2004): 808. 29. Ibid. 30. José Lindgren Alves, “The Declaration of Human Rights in Post- modernity,” Human Rights Quarterly 22 (2000): 483. 31. The Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Aiming at the Abolition of the Death Penalty, and the Optional Protocol to the International Cov- enant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. 32. Maâti Monjib, La monarchie marocaine et la lutte pour le pouvoir, Hassan II face à l’opposition nationale de l’indépendance à l’état d’exception (Paris: Harmattan, 1992), 7. 33. Jean-Noël Ferrié, “Le jeu du roi et le jeu des partis, ou le nouvel avatar marocain du paradoxe de Lampedusa,” Annuaire de l’Afrique de Nord 39 (2003): 230. 34. Hannah Arendt, On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970), 44– 45. 35. Palazzoli, 61; Allal Al-Fasi, An-naqd adh-dhati (A Self-critique) (al-Qahira: Dar el-kachf Lin-nashr wa at-tibaa, 1966), 156. Notes 133

36. Al-Fasi, An-naqd adh-dhati (A Self-critique), 151– 61; Mehdi Ben Barka, Option révolutionnaire au Maroc, suivi des Écrits politiques, 1960– 1965 (Paris: Maspero, 1966), 45. 37. If Mohamed V never explicitly expressed his desire to place the monarchy above the Constitution, he nevertheless acted as a head of state with absolute power. His method for assembling and dis- mantling governments provides a suitable example of this. 38. Palazzoli, 63–66; Jean-Claude Santucci, Chroniques politiques marocaines, 1971– 1982 (Paris: French National Centre for Scien- tific Research, 1985), 13– 18. 39. Pierre Vermeren, Histoire du Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Paris: Découverte, 2002), 20– 27; Michel Camau, Pouvoir et institutions au Maghreb (Tunis: Cérès Productions, 1978), 83; Monjib, 30. 40. Vermeren, 20– 21; Ignace Dalle, Les trois rois: La monarchie marocaine, de l’indépendance à nos jours (Paris: Fayard, 2004), 135– 37; Monjib, 110; Camau, 92–93; Rémy Leveau, Le Fellah marocain, défenseur du trône (Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1985), 235. 41. Violette Daguerre, “La violence dans les sociétés arabes: ses méca- nismes de formation et de reproduction,” in Violences et tortures dans le monde arabe, ed. Haytham Manna (Paris: Harmattan, 2000), 48– 49; Abdellah Hammoudi, Master and Disciple: The Cultural Founda- tions of Moroccan Authoritarianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 5, 78– 79, and 139– 40. 42. Alison Baker, Voices of Resistance: Oral Histories of Moroccan Women (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998). 43. Liat Kozma, “Moroccan Women’s Narratives of Liberation: a Passive Revolution?” Journal of North African Studies 1 (2003): 112– 30. 44. Baker, 169–81. 45. Ibid., 171. 46. Ibid., 173–75. 47. Ibid., 175. 48. Ibid., 179. 49. Ibid., 180. 50. Ibid. 51. Moumen Diouri, À qui appartient le Maroc? (Paris: Harmattan, 1992), 28; Abdessalam Yasin, “Mudhakkira liman yahummuhu al- amr” (“Memorandum for Those It May Concern”), last accessed January 29, 2012, http:// www .radioislam .org/ yassine/ arab/ memo .htm. 134 Notes

52. Abdellah Laroui, “Tradition et traditionalisation: Le cas du Maroc,” in Renaissance du monde arabe, colloque interarabe du Louvain, ed. Anouar Abdel Malek, Abdel Aziz Belal, and Hassan Hanafi (Gem- bloux: Éditions Duculot, 1972), 267. The anthropologist Paul Rabinow develops a similar argument when he argues that tradition is opposed to alienation, and not modernity, in Symbolic Domi- nation, Cultural Form and Historical Change in Morocco (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1975), 1. 53. Laroui, 267. 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid., 271. 57. Vermeren, 20– 21; Dalle, 135–37; Monjib, 110; Camau, 235. 58. John Waterbury, Le commandeur des croyants, la monarchie marocaine et son élite, trans. Catherine Aubin (Paris: PUF, 1975), 20– 21. 59. Ibid., 22. 60. Mounira Charrad, States and Women’s Rights: The Making of Post- colonial Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco (Berkeley: University of Califor- nia Press, 2001), 233– 37. 61. Ibid., 4–5. 62. Baker, 179. 63. Ibid. 64. Dalle, 44; Zakya Daoud, Féminisme et politique au Maghreb (1930– 1992) (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1993), 251. 65. Baker, 69. 66. Dalle, 730–31; Zakya Daoud and Maâti Monjib, Ben Barka (Paris: Michalon, 1996), 159; Al-Fasi, 291 and 304. 67. Code du statut personnel et des successions (Casablanca: Librairie al-Wahda Al Arabia, 1957), 29. 68. Arendt, 44–45. 69. Ibid., 42 and 56. 70. Rahma Bourqia and Susan Gilson Miller, In the Shadow of the Sul- tan, Culture, Power, and Politics in Morocco (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 2. 71. Vermeren, 24; Omar Bendourou, Le pouvoir exécutif au Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Cahors: Publisud, 1986), 68– 72. 72. Vermeren, 21; Bendourou, 69. 73. Vermeren, 25; Bendourou, 70– 71. 74. Vermeren, 24; Monjib, 352. 75. Mehdi Ben Barka, Option révolutionnaire au Maroc, suivi des Écrits politiques, 1960– 1965 (Paris: Maspero, 1966), 41– 42. Notes 135

76. Baker, 180–81. 77. Monjib, 137 and 208– 9; Vermeren, 27 and 32; Dalle, 207– 8. 78. Ibid. 79. Ahmed Boukhari, Le Secret, Ben Barka et le Maroc: Un agent des services spéciaux parle (Paris: Laffont, 2002), 19 and 22. That Moroc- can authorities accused this book of serious inaccuracies (without providing specific examples), as the journalist and historian Ignace Dalle noted, compromises the credibility of Ahmed Boukhari’s testimony. However, I cite Boukhari as an authoritative source throughout this text simply because his testimony corroborates, until proven otherwise, with the hundreds of testimonies from victims and/or their family members, as well as with the reports of national and international NGOs working within the field of fundamental rights in Morocco, as we shall see later. In Dalle, 324. 80. Ibid., 21. 81. Ibid., 24. 82. Vermeren, 25–26. 83. Majdi Majid (Serfaty), Les luttes de classes au Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Rotterdam: Éditions Hiwar, 1987), 13– 35. 84. Boukhari, 23–24. 85. Baker, 180. 86. Monjib, 201; Dalle, 162; Ben Barka, 97. 87. Monjib, 201– 3; Vermeren, 31. 88. Baker, 180. 89. Vermeren, 31. 90. UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.203 (1994), §19. 91. UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.383 (1999), §81. 92. UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.580 (2003), §3. 93. OMDH, Non à la torture, Rapport alternatif de l’OMDH dans le cadre de la Convention contre la torture et autres peines ou traitements cruels, inhumains ou dégradants, novembre 1994 (Casablanca: Édi- tions maghrébines, 1995), 33. 94. AMDH, “Rapport alternatif de l’AMDH au 2ème rapport péri- odique du Maroc présenté au Comité contre la torture de l’ONU” (paper presented to the 67th session of the Human Rights Commit- tee, Geneva, October 18– November 5, 1999), 43. 95. OMDH, “Observations et recommandations relatives au rapport gouvernemental du Maroc en vertu de la Convention contre la torture et autres peines ou traitements cruels, inhumains ou dégradants,” October 2003, http:// www .omdh .org/ newomdh/ def .asp?codelangue =23&info =718. 136 Notes

96. Instance Équité et Réconciliation, Les recommandations, last accessed January 29, 2012: http:// www .ier .ma/ article .php3?id _article =1433. 97. UN Doc. E/CN.4/NGO/213. 98. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314, Add.4, §19, 20, and 21. 99. Makau Mutua, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural Critique (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 40–42. 100. Baker, 169–81.

Chapter 3

1. Tahr Ben Jelloun, Cette aveuglante absence de lumière (Paris: Seuil, 2001), 9, 12, 47, and 13. 2. Hassan II, La mémoire d’un roi, entretiens avec Éric Laurent (Paris: Plon, 1993), 296. 3. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285 (1978). 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 4, §16. 7. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 4, §16. 8. Adamantia Pollis and Peter Schwab, eds., Human Right: Cultural and Ideological Perspectives (New York: Praeger, 1979), 1. 9. Jerome Shestack, “The Philosophic Foundations of Human Rights,” Human Rights Quarterly 20 (1998): 228. 10. John Tilley, “Cultural Relativism,” Human Rights Quarterly 22 (2000): 505. 11. Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), 23– 25. 12. Ibid., 119. 13. Abdullahi An-Naïm, “Toward a Cross-Cultural Approach to Defin- ing International Standards of Human Rights: The Meaning of Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment,” in Human Rights in Cross-cultural Perspectives: A Quest for Consensus, ed. An-Naïm (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 428; Joseph Massad speaks of the upper classes and the upper-middle classes in “Re-Orienting Desire: The Gay International and the Arab World,” Public Culture 14 (2002): 372, Makau Mutua, Human Rights: A Polit- ical and Cultural Critique (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 154– 55. 14. Sonia Harris-Short, “International Human Rights Law: Imperialist, Inept and Ineffective? Cultural Relativism and the UN Convention Notes 137

on the Rights of the Child,” Human Rights Quarterly 25 (2003): 178– 81. 15. Bayefsky.com, Morocco/Ratification History as of May 31, 2012, http:// www .bayefsky .com. 16. Ibid. 17. Salah el-Ouadie, Le marié, trans. Abdelhadi Drissi (Casablanca: Tarik Éditions, 2001), 104. 18. UN Doc. A/34/144 (1979), Annex, 1. 19. Ibid., 80. 20. Ibid., 80–81. 21. Fatna el-Bouih, Une femme nommée Rachid, trans. Francis Gouin (Casablanca: Le Fennec, 2002). 22. Ibid., 12–13. 23. Ibid., 12. 24. Maria Charaf, Être au féminin (Casablanca: Éditions La Voie démocratique, 1997), 67; Khadija Menebhi, Morceaux choisis du livre de l’oppression: témoignage (Rabat: Multicom, 2001), 133; Lat- ifa Jbabdi, in el-Bouih, 103. 25. El-Bouih, 14. 26. Ahmed Boukhari, Le Secret, Ben Barka et le Maroc: Un agent des services spéciaux parle (Paris: Laffont, 2002), 79. 27. Michel Foucault, Surveiller et punir, naissance de la prison (Paris: Gallimard, 1975), 201– 4. 28. Darius Rejali, The Birth of Modern Torture (Montreal: McGill Uni- versity Thesis, 1983), 12. 29. Hannah Arendt, On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970), 42. 30. El-Bouih, 14. 31. Ibid., 13. 32. Ibid., 51. 33. Ibid., 14–15. 34. Susan Slyomovics, The Performance of Human Rights in Morocco (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 132; Widad Bouab, “Autres témoignages,” in el-Bouih, 98; Jbabdi, in el-Bouih, 106. 35. El-Bouih, 16. 36. Ibid., 17. 37. Ibid., 20. 38. Jaouad Mdidech, La chambre noire ou Derb Moulay Chérif (Casa- blanca: Eddif, 2000), 94– 95 and 109; Khalid Jamaï, 1973: Présumés coupables (Casablanca: Tarik Éditions, 2003), 72– 73. 138 Notes

39. El-Bouih, 17. 40. UN Doc. A/34/144 (1979), Annex, 1. 41. Ibid., 83. 42. El-Ouadie, 19–20. 43. Évelyne Serfaty, “Tu parles ou on te tue,” Al Karama 4 (1999): 15. 44. El-Ouadie, 110. 45. Amnesty International, Maroc (Paris: Amnesty International, 1977), 8– 9. 46. Charaf, 73; Menebhi, 133. 47. Abraham Serfaty, “Face aux tortionnaires,” Les temps modernes 477 (1986): 25. 48. Mdidech, 209–10. 49. Ibid.; Abdelaziz Mouride, On affame bien les rats! (Casablanca: Tarik Éditions, 2000), 24. 50. Mdidech, 213; Mouride, 27. 51. UN Doc. A/34/144 (1979), 84. 52. Mdidech, 231–32. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid., 224. 55. UN Doc A/34/144 (1979), 87. 56. Article 7, in UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285. 57. Visit the commission’s website at http://www .ier .ma. 58. Slyomovics, 197; Christine Daure-Serfaty, Letter from Morocco, trans. Paul Raymond Côté and Constantina Mitchell (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2003), 61. 59. Ahmed Marzouki, Tazmamart, cellule 10 (Casablanca: Tarik Édi- tions, 2000), 292; Fatima Mernissi, “Fatna el-Bouih: Portrait et interview, Portraits of Synergie Civique Actors,” last accessed Febru- ary 4, 2013, http:// www .mernissi.net/ civil _society/portraits/ index .html. 60. Mdidech, 228–29. 61. Mouride, 31. 62. Mdidech, 55. 63. El-Ouadie, 44. 64. El-Bouih, 18. 65. Ibid., 16. 66. Karim Moutarrif, “Prisons politiques pour femmes et garde à vue au masculin,” June 27, 2007, last accessed February 4, 2013, http:// www .viceversamag .com/ prisons -de -femmes -et -garde -a -vue -au -masculin -%C2%AB -je -vais -t%E2%80%99effacer -%C2%BB -dit -le -commissaire. Notes 139

67. El-Bouih, 13 and 14. 68. El-Bouih was not one of the defendants during the trial of 1977. 69. El-Bouih, 51. 70. Ibid. 71. Jbabdi, in el-Bouih, 104. 72. Salah el-Ouadie, “Lettre ouverte à mon tortionnaire,” trans. Francis Gouin, Libération, April 16, 1999, 1 and 3. 73. El-Bouih, 75; Menebhi, 39; el-Ouadie, “Lettre ouverte à mon tortionnaire,” 1 and 3. 74. Fatéma Oufkir, Les jardins du roi: Oufkir, Hassan II et nous (Neuilly- sur-Seine: Lafon, 2000); Malika Oukfir and Michele Fitoussi, La prisonnière, trans. Ros Schwartz (New York: Bantam Books, 2001); Raouf Oufkir, Les invités: Vingt ans dans les prisons du roi (Paris: Flammarion, 2003); el-Ouadie, Le marié; Abraham Serfaty, Dans les prisons du roi, écrits de Kénitra sur le Maroc (Paris: Messidor, 1992); Serfaty, “Face aux tortionnaires.” 75. Refer to the bibliography for the complete list of works consulted. 76. Loubna Bernichi, “Témoignages d’outre bagne,” last accessed February 4, 2013, http:// www .maroc -hebdo .press.ma/ Site-Maroc -hebdo/ archive/ Archives _664/ html _664/ temoign .html. 77. AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat al-jasima li-huquq alinsan (The Public Listening Activities of Victims of Serious Fundamental Rights Violations) (Rabat: AMDH, 2006). I opted for these testimonies, rather that those collected by the Instance équité et réconciliation, because the Instance imposed certain restrictions. 78. Rachael Lorna Johnstone, “Feminist Influences on the United Nations Human Rights Treaty Bodies,” Human Rights Quarterly 28 (2006): 178. 79. Catharine MacKinnon, “Crimes of War, Crimes of Peace,” in On Human Rights: The Oxford Amnesty Lectures, 1993, ed. Stephen Shute and Susan Hurley (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 84– 85. 80. Catharine MacKinnon, “On Torture: A Feminist Perspective on Human Rights,” in Human Rights in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Challenge, ed. Kathleen E. Mahoney and Paul Mahoney (Banff: University of Calgary, 1990), A. 40; MacKinnon, Are Women Human? And Other International Dialogues (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), 18–27. 81. Arendt, 56. 82. Majdi Majid (Serfaty), Les luttes de classes au Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Rotterdam: Éditions Hiwar, 1987), 11. 140 Notes

83. Alison Baker, Voices of Resistance: Oral Histories of Moroccan Women (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 263; AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat aljasima li- huquq al-insan, 15–16 and 153–58; Abd Allah Radad and Ahmad Ma ninu, Min madahir al-tta dhib al-hizbi, aw dar burisha ath- thaniyya (Aspects of Partisan Torture or the Second Dar Burisha) (Sala: Matabi Sala, 1990), 44. Here, I would like to clarify that if the authors held the Istiqlal Party accountable for the torture and degrading treatment they suffered, in reality the party had no authority over the institution of national security. 84. Pierre Vermeren, Histoire du Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Paris: Découverte, 2002), 27. 85. AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat al- jasima li-huquq al-insan, 157. 86. Boukhari, 46–47. 87. Ibid., 21. 88. Maâti Monjib, La monarchie marocaine et la lutte pour le pouvoir, Has- san II face à l’opposition nationale de l’indépendance à l’état d’exception (Paris: Harmattan, 1992), 201; Ignace Dalle, Les trois rois: La monarchie marocaine, de l’indépendance à nos jours (Paris: Fayard, 2004), 162; Nour Eddine Saoudi, Mostafa Meftah, and Fatna el-Bouih, Femmes-prison, parcours-croisés (Rabat: Éditions Marsan, 2005), 17. 89. Moumen Diouri, Réquisitoire contre un despote: Pour une république au Maroc (Paris: Albatros, 1972), 87– 116; AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat aljasima li-huquq al-insan, 19– 23 and 225– 31; Boukhari, 184. 90. Arendt, 56. 91. Claude Palazzoli, Le Maroc politique, de l’indépendance à 1973 (Paris: Sinbad, 1975), 70– 71. 92. Bernard Cubertafond, Le système politique marocain (Paris: Harmat- tan, 1997), 59. 93. Arendt, 42. 94. Monjib, 35. 95. Diouri, Réquisitoire contre un despote: pour une république au Maroc, 87– 116. 96. Association de parents et amis de disparus au Maroc, Association de soutien aux comités de lutte contre la répression au Maroc, Ben Barka, vingt ans après, les droits humains au Maroc (Paris: Arcantère, 1986), 160; Moumen Diouri, Mémoire d’un peuple, chronique de la Résistance au Maroc, 1631– 1993 (Paris: Harmattan, 1993), 62– 63; Vermeren, 37–38. Notes 141

97. Karim Boukhari, “Tatouées par les années de plomb,” July 16, 2007, last accessed February 4, 2013, http:// www .ier .ma/ article .php3?id _article =902; AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al- intihakat al-jasima lihuquq al-insan, 92–94; Gilles Perrault, Notre ami le roi (Paris: Gallimard, 1990), 79. 98. Boukhari, 180. 99. Ibid., 184. 100. Vermeren, 81–86. 101. Ibid., 45– 46; Dalle, 316– 19. 102. Arendt, 63. 103. Bouaziz Mustapha, “Mouvements sociaux et mouvement national au Maroc,” in Émeutes et mouvements sociaux, ed. Didier Le Saout and Marguerite Rollinde (Paris: Karthala, 1999), 73; Larbi Sadiki, “Popular Uprisings and Arab Democratization,” International Jour- nal of Middle East Studies 32 (2000): 71– 95. 104. Arendt, 80. 105. Association internationale des juristes démocrates, Mouvement international des juristes catholiques, et Pax Romana, Rapport, Maroc, janvier et février 1984, rapport de mission sur la situation juridique et judiciaire après les événements du mois de janvier 1984 (Brussels: Association internationale des juristes démocrates, 1984), 2; Association de parents et amis de disparus au Maroc, Association de soutien aux comités de lutte contre la répression au Maroc, 162; Boukhari, 147. 106. AMDH, Majmu at murrakush, intifadat yanayir 1984 (The Mar- rakech Group, the Rebellion of January 1984) (Ar-ribat: Dar al-Qalam lit-tiba a, 2006), 39; AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat al-jasima li-huquq al-insan, 19; Diouri, Mémoire d’un peuple, chronique de la Résistance au Maroc, 1631– 1993, 102– 3. 107. Dalle, 319; Vermeren, 46. 108. Arendt, 55. 109. Ignace Dalle, Le règne de Hassan II, une espérance brisée (Paris: Mai- sonneuve et Larose, 2001), 85. 110. Arendt, 54–55. 111. Majid (pseudonyme of Serfaty), 29– 35. 112. Ibid., 38–40. 113. Vermeren, 56–60. 114. Marzouki, 49; Mohammed Raiss, De Skhirat à Tazmamart, retour du bout de l’enfer (Casablanca: Afrique Orient, 2002), 103– 5. 142 Notes

115. Jean-Claude Santucci, Chroniques politiques marocaines, 1971– 1982 (Paris: French National Centre for Scientific Research, 1985), 33. 116. Ben Jelloun, 33; Marzouki, 62–64; Rabéa Bennouna, Tazmamart côté femme, témoignage (Casablanca: Addar Al Alamia Lil Kitab, 2003), 47. 117. Arendt, 79. 118. Santucci, 54–56. 119. This episode in Moroccan history has long been overlooked. Recently, the anthropologist Mehdi Bennouna, son of the rebel leader, con- ducted interviews with hundreds of the principle actors involved in the insurrection and contributed to recovering the event’s place in the historical record. Mehdi Bennouna, Héros sans gloire, échec d’une révolution, 1963– 1973 (Casablanca: Éditions Tarik, 2002). 120. AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat al- jasima li-huquq alinsan, 92– 96; Karim Boukhari, op. cit. 121. Vermeren, 73–74. 122. AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat al- jasima li-huquq alinsan, 31– 35 and 75– 79. 123. Ibid., 75– 79; “Shahadat najin min al-mu taqal as-siri bil ayun wa qal at mkuna” (“Testimonies of Survivors of the Secret Detention Centers of Layoune and Qalât Magouna”), Al-Karama 4 (1999): 15. 124. AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat al- jasima li-huquq alinsan, 76. 125. Vermeren, 52–54. 126. Abdellatif Laâbi, Le chemin des ordalies (Paris: Denoël, 1982), 50– 55; Mdidech, 55; Abdelfettah Fakihani, Le couloir, bribes de vérité sur les années de plomb (Casablanca: Éditions Tarik, 2005), 163; Mouride, 20. 127. El-Bouih, 20; Saïd Mountasib, “Fatéma Ameziane: Oum Hafid, une mère qui a accouché sous la torture,” in Saoudi, Meftah, and el-Bouih, 139– 42. 128. According to el-Bouih, in Susan Slyomovics, “The Argument from Silence: Morocco’s Truth Commission and Women Political Prison- ers,” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 1, no. 3 (2005): 83. 129. Vermeren, 53–54. 130. Marnia Lazreg, “Islamism and Recolonization of Algeria,” in Beyond Colonialism and Nationalism in the Maghrib: History, Culture, and Politics, ed. Ali Abdullatif Ahmida (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 149. 131. Marguerite Missoffe-Rollinde, De l’unanimisme nationaliste au concept de citoyenneté, les militants marocains des droits de l’Homme (Paris: Notes 143

Université Paris VIII, 2000), 253–54; Pierre Vermeren, Maghreb, la démocratie impossible? (Paris: Fayard, 2004), 202. 132. Ibid., 296. 133. Amnesty International, Maroc: Torture, “disparitions,” emprisonnement politique (Paris: Éditions francophones d’Amnesty Inter- national, 1991), 98. 134. Jamaï, 39–42. 135. Mutua, 25. 136. AMDH, Al-anshita al- umumiyya lil istima li-dahaya al-intihakat al- jasima li-huquq alinsan, 93 and 21. 137. UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.580 (2003), 9, §29. 138. FIDH, Un procès historique en France sur les crimes contre l’humanité commis sous la dictature chilienne, December 10, 2008, http:// www .fidh .org/ spip .php?article5198. 139. Joseph Runzo, “Reply: Ethical Universality and Ethical Relativism,” in Religion and Morality, ed. D. Z. Phillips (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 186. 140. Liesbeth Lijnzaad, “Reservations to the Convention against Tor- ture,” in Reservations to UN Human Rights Treaties, Ratify and Ruin? (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995), 391. 141. Michael Perry, “Are Human Rights Universal? The Relativist Chal- lenge and Related Matters,” Human Rights Quarterly 19, no. 3 (1997): 471. 142. Amnesty International Report on Torture (London: Gerald Duck- worth, 1973), 112– 217. 143. Makau Mutua, “Standard Setting in Human Rights: Critique and Prognosis,” Human Rights Quarterly 29 (2007): 592. 144. Massad, 385.

Chapter 4

1. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285 (1978). 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 4, §11. 5. Ibid. 6. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1982/L.40, 6– 9, §19– 39; UN Doc. E/CN.4/ 1983/L.2, 5–7, §19–24; UN Doc. E/CN.4/1984/L.2, 5–7, §26– 36; Herman Burgers and Hans Danelius, The United Nations Convention against Torture: A Handbook on the Convention against 144 Notes

Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punish- ment (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988), 57– 60. 7. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1982/L.40, 6– 9, §19– 39; UN Doc. E/CN.4/ 1983/L.2, 5– 7, §19– 24; UN Doc. E/CN.4 /1984/L.2, 5– 7, §26– 36. 8. UN Doc. E/CN.4 /1984/L.2, §29; Burgers and Danelius, 58. 9. Amnesty International Report on Torture (London: Gerald Duck- worth, 1973), 109– 217. 10. Thomas G. Weiss, “The Sunset of Humanitarian Intervention? The Responsibility to Protect in a Unipolar Era,” Security Dialogue 35 (2004): 135– 53. 11. Instance Équité et Réconciliation, Les recommandations, last accessed February 4, 2013, http:// www .ier .ma/ article.php3?id _article =1433 12. Ahmed Marzouki, Tazmamart, cellule 10 (Casablanca: Tarik Édi- tions, 2000), 203– 4. 13. Rabéa Bennouna, Tazmamart côté femme, témoignage (Casablanca: Addar Al Alamia Lil Kitab, 2003), 147. 14. Marzouki, 221. 15. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314(1979), Add. 4, §14. 16. Albert Lourde, “Les juridictions consulaires dans le Maroc précolo- nial,” in La justice au Maroc: Quelques jalons de Hassan I à Hassan II, ed. François-Paul Blanc (Perpignan: Presses de l’Université de Perpignan, 1998), 13. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. 19. Stéphane Berge, La justice française au Maroc (Paris: Leroux, 1917), 149. 20. Jacques Caillé, Organisation judiciaire et procédures marocaines (Paris: Librairie de droit et de jurisprudence, 1948), 125; Lourde, 14. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid., 16. 24. Ibid., 30–31. 25. “Lettre du consul de France datée du 17 mars 1668,” in Documents d’histoire économique et sociale marocaine au XIXème siècle, ed. Jean- Louis Miège (Paris: French National Centre for Scientific Research, 1969), 108. 26. Lourde, 46–47. The historian Mohammed Kenbib studied the political and socioeconomic upheavals caused by the system of protections in Morocco in Les protégés, contribution à l’histoire contemporaine du Maroc (Rabat: Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines), 1996. Notes 145

27. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1285 (1978). 28. Ibid. 29. Charles-André Julien, Le Maroc face aux impérialistes, 1415–1956 (Paris: Éditions J. A., 1978), 117; Marguerite Missoffe-Rollinde, De l’unanimisme nationaliste au concept de citoyenneté, les militan- tEs marocainEs des droits de l’Homme (Paris: Université Paris VIII, 2000), 46; John Halstead, Rebirth of a Nation, 1912–1944 (Cam- bridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 46– 50. 30. Julien, 108– 11; Daniel Rivet, Lyautey et l’institution du protectorat français au Maroc, 1912–1925 , vol. 2 (Paris: Harmattan, 1988), 130– 53; Missoffe-Rollinde, 44. 31. Hubert Lyautey, Paroles d’action, Madagascar—Sud-Oranais, Oran— Maroc (1900– 1926) (Paris: Armand Colin, 1948), 194. 32. Abdellah Ben Mlih, Structures politiques du Maroc colonial (Paris: Harmattan, 1990), 196–98; Halstead, 50–63; Missoffe-Rollinde, 49– 56. 33. Traité de protectorat, March 30, 1912, in Protectorat de la France au Maroc, ed. E. Rouard de Card (Paris: A. Pedone et J. Gamber, 1914), last accessed July 14, 2013, http:// gallica.bnf .fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k141228r. 34. Lyautey, 64. 35. Ibid., 195; italics in original. 36. Mohamed el-Mansour, “Moroccan Historiography since Indepen- dence,” in The Maghreb in Question: Essays in History & Historiogra- phy, ed. Michel Le Gall and Kenneth Perkins (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), 109– 20. 37. Jacques Berque, Le Maghreb entre deux guerres (Paris: Seuil, 1962), 14– 15; Henri Terrasse, L’histoire du Maroc des origines à l’établissement du protectorat français (Casablanca: Éditions Atlantides, 1950), 444– 45. 38. Germain Ayache, Études d’histoire marocaine (Rabat: Société marocaine des éditeurs réunis, 1983), 21– 24 and 179– 81. 39. Mohamed Lahbabi, Le gouvernement marocain à l’aube du XXème siècle (Rabat: Éditions techniques Nord-Africaines, 1958), 65– 67; Omar Bendourou, Le pouvoir exécutif au Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Cahors: Publisud, 1986), 29; Abd al-Rahim Ibn Salama, Kifah almaghrib min ajli al-hurriyya wa ad-dimiqratiyya (Morocco’s Strug- gles for Freedom and Democracy) (Bayrut: Dar an-Najah, 1975), 24– 32. 40. Lahbabi, 69. 41. Ibid., 60–61. 146 Notes

42. Ibid., 61. 43. Mounira Charrad, States and Women’s Rights: The Making of Post- colonial Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 233–37; Abdellah Hammoudi, Master and Disciple: The Cultural Foundations of Moroccan Authoritarian- ism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 5, 78– 79, and 139– 40. 44. Marguerite Rollinde, Le mouvement marocain des droits de l’homme, entre consensus national et engagement citoyen (Paris: Éditions Kar- thala, 2002), 24 and 27; Julien, 109– 11. 45. Lyautey, 194. 46. Zakya Daoud, Féminisme et politique au Maghreb (1930–1992) (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1993), 244. 47. Julien, 118. 48. Ibid., 117; Missoffe-Rollinde, 46; Halstead, 46–50. 49. Houria Alami M’chichi, Genre et politique au Maroc (Paris: Harmat- tan, 2002), 36 and 39. 50. Alison Baker, Voices of Resistance: Oral Histories of Moroccan Women (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 119. 51. Al-Yazidi Mohamed, “Divers aspects de la politique berbère,” Maghreb 11 (1933): 8– 19, in Missoffe-Rollinde, 92. 52. Julien, 108. 53. Lyautey, 64. 54. Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colo- nialism (Virginia: University Press of Virginia, 1998), 7– 8; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995), 6 and 16. 55. Pierre Bourdieu, Masculine Domination, trans. Richard Nice (Stan- ford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 14. 56. Edward Saïd, L’Orient créé par l’Occident, trans. Catherine Mala- moud (Paris: Seuil, 1980), 18. 57. Ben Mlih, 123– 24; Julien, 98–99; Ayache, 21– 24 and 179– 81. 58. Paul Rabinow, Symbolic Domination, Cultural Form and Historical Change in Morocco (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1975), 31. 59. Ben Mlih, 196. 60. Lyautey, 66. 61. Hannah Arendt, On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970), 54– 55. 62. Ben Mlih, 205. 63. Circular no. 1957 BP/2 dated April 20, 1914, in Ben Mlih, 205. Notes 147

64. Baker, 123–24. 65. Ben Mlih, 198. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Lyautey, 469. 69. Ibid., 108–13. 70. Halstead, 58– 59; Missoffe-Rollinde, 51. 71. Halstead, 58– 59; Missoffe-Rollinde, 50– 51. 72. Ibid., 51. 73. Halstead, 54– 58; Missoffe-Rollinde, 50. 74. François-Paul Blanc, La justice au Maroc: Quelques jalons de Hassan I à Hassan II (Perpignan: Presses de l’Université de Perpignan, 1998), 107. 75. Caillé, 238. 76. Rollinde, 95. 77. Halstead, 52; Missoffe-Rollinde, 54– 55. 78. Blanc, 108; Olivier Devaux, “Les juridictions ‘modernes’ sous le protectorat,” in Blanc, 145; Mohamed Drissi Alami Machichi, Manuel de droit pénal général (Casablanca: Éditions maghrébines, 1974), 115– 20; Rollinde, 94– 95. 79. Arendt, 63. 80. Ben Mlih, 198. 81. Ahmed Boukhari, Le Secret, Ben Barka et le Maroc: Un agent des services spéciaux parle (Paris: Laffont, 2002), 50. 82. Julien, 324– 25; Pierre Vermeren, Histoire du Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Paris: Découverte, 2002), 16. 83. Rollinde, 72–76. 84. Marnia Lazreg, Torture and the Twilight of Empire: From Algiers to Baghdad (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 3. 85. Baker, 263. 86. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1347 (1979), §19– 20. 87. Article 1 of the Convention against Torture. 88. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1978), §54; UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 1, §16. 89. Sami Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh, “Muslims and Human Rights: Challenges and Perspectives,” in Human Rights and Cultural Diversity, ed. Wolf- gang Schmale (Goldbach: Keip, 1993), 240. 90. Vermeren, Histoire du Maroc depuis l’indépendance, 19; Bendourou, 60– 61; Majdi Majid (Serfaty), Les luttes de classes au Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Rotterdam: Éditions Hiwar, 1987), 10. 148 Notes

91. Mehdi Ben Barka, Option révolutionnaire au Maroc, suivi des Écrits politiques, 1960– 1965 (Paris: Maspero, 1966), 44.

Chapter 5

1. The author is referring to the activist Christine Daure-Serfaty. 2. Tahr Ben Jelloun, Cette aveuglante absence de lumière (Paris: Seuil, 2001), 232– 33. 3. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 4, §16. 4. Ibid. 5. Article 2 of the Charter of the United Nations stipulates, “The Orga- nization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members.” 6. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 4, §16. 7. Bayefsky.com, Status of Ratification on CCPR Optional Protocol as of May 31, 2012, http:// www .bayefsky .com. 8. Ibid. 9. Susan Waltz, “Universal Human Rights: The Contribution of Mus- lim States,” Human Rights Quarterly 26 (2004): 835. 10. Roland Burke, The Politics of Decolonization and the Evolution of the International Human Rights Project (Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 2007), 97. 11. UN Doc. E/CN.4/L.1567 (1981), 63– 64; UN Doc. E/CN.4/ 1982/L.40, 12– 15; UN Doc. E/CN.4/1983/L.2, 9– 13; UN Doc. E/CN.4/1984/L.2, 9–11; Herman Burgers and Hans Danelius, The United Nations Convention against Torture: A Handbook on the Conven- tion against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988), 88 and 97– 98. 12. UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.580 (2003), §3. 13. UN Doc. CAT/C/USA/CO/2 (2006), §13. 14. UN Doc. CAT/C/SR.580 (2003), 9, §29. 15. UN Doc. CAT/C/USA/CO/2 (2006), §37. 16. UN Doc. CAT/C/USA/CO/2 (2006), §14. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid., §15 and §16. 19. Ibid., §17. 20. Ibid., §18. 21. Ibid., §22. 22. Jean-François Daguzan, “Maghreb, les armées en politique: Des trajectoires divergentes,” Confluences Méditerranée 29 (1999): 21. Notes 149

23. Thierry Sarmant, Guide des sources de l’histoire du Maroc au service historique de l’armée de terre (Château de Vincennes: Service historique de l’armée de terre, 2000), 49; Daguzan, 30. 24. Zemri Benheddi, “L’armée, l’État et le pouvoir politique,” in l’État du Maghreb, ed. Camille et Yves Lacoste (Paris: La Découverte, 1991), 339 and 344. 25. Daguzan, 30. 26. “L’Association marocaine des droits humains dénonce l’intervention sauvage à l’encontre des citoyennes et des citoyens de Sidi Ifni,” June 9, 2008, last accessed February 5, 2013, http://www .le -militant.org/ laune/ LL26 .htm; OMDH, “Rapport de la commission d’enquête de l’OMDH sur les événements de Sidi Ifni,” July 1, 2008, last accessed February 5, 2013, http://www .omdh .org/ newomdh/ docs .asp?codedocs =68&codelangue =23. 27. Hannah Arendt, On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970), 56. 28. Majdi Majid (Serfaty), Les luttes de classes au Maroc depuis l’indépendance (Rotterdam: Éditions Hiwar, 1987), 53; Daguzan, 31. 29. Daniel Volman, “Foreign Arms Sales and the Military Balance in the Maghreb,” in North Africa in Transition, State, Society, and Economic Transformation in the 1990s, ed. Yahia Zoubir (Gainesville: Univer- sity Press of Florida, 1999), 212–14. 30. William Blum, Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions since World War II (Monroe: Common Courage Press, 2004), 278; Volman, 212– 14. 31. Adamantia Pollis, “A New Universalism” in Human Right: Cultural and Ideological Perspectives, ed. Pollis and Peter Schwab (New York: Praeger, 1979), 10. 32. Brahim Saïdy, “Relations civilo-militaires au Maroc: Le facteur international revisité,” Politique étrangère 3 (2007): 589. 33. Ibid., 601. 34. Ibid., 603. 35. Abdellah Ben Mlih, Structures politiques du Maroc colonial (Paris: Harmattan, 1990), 205. 36. Ahmed Boukhari, Le Secret, Ben Barka et le Maroc: Un agent des services spéciaux parle (Paris: Laffont, 2002), 50. 37. Ibid., 24. 38. Ibid., 35. 39. Ibid. 150 Notes

40. Amnesty International, “USA—Market Leader in the Torture Trade,” June 2001, http//web.amnesty.org/web/ttt.nsf/june2001/ usa; Amnesty International, Stopping the Torture Trade (London: Amnesty International, 2001), 42– 45, http:// web.amnesty .org/ library/ Index/ engACT400022001. 41. Amnesty International, “USA—Market Leader in the Torture Trade”; Amnesty International, Stopping the Torture Trade, 42– 45. 42. Boukhari, 35. 43. Ibid., 38. 44. Ibid., 36. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid., 40. 47. Ibid., 84–85. 48. Mehdi Bennouna, Héros sans gloire, échec d’une révolution, 1963– 1973 (Casablanca: Éditions Tarik, 2002), 306. Moumen Diouri describes a similar experience in Réquisitoire contre un despote: Pour une république au Maroc (Paris: Albatros, 1972), 82; also, similar testimonies can be found in Réalités marocaines: La dynastie alaouite de l’usurpation à l’impasse (Paris: Harmattan, 1987), 221. 49. Blum, 278; Gilles Perrault, Notre ami le roi (Paris: Gallimard, 1990), 304– 5; Susan Waltz, Human Rights and Reform: Changing the Face of North African Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 205. 50. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1984/SR.32, §89– 90. 51. Abdelfettah Fakihani, Le couloir, bribes de vérité sur les années de plomb (Casablanca: Éditions Tarik, 2005), 164. 52. “Maroc Ifni: Le Samedi Noir (2) Témoignages,” last accessed April 20, 2013, http:// www .dailymotion .com/video/ x6a6pw _maroc -ifni -le -samedi -noir -2 -temoign_news# .UUY3iaWonyE. 53. Pierre Bourdieu, Masculine Domination, trans. Richard Nice (Stan- ford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 20– 22 and 55– 56. 54. Ibid., 21–22. 55. UN Doc. Cedaw/C/MAR/Q/4 (2007), §13. 56. Stephen Zunes, Tinderbox: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Roots of Ter- rorism (Monroe: Common Courage Press, 2003), 8. 57. Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Touchstone, 1997), 183– 84. 58. Edward Saïd, L’Orient créé par l’Occident, trans. Catherine Mala- moud (Paris: Seuil, 1980), 18. 59. UN Doc. A/C.3/33/SR.71 (1978), 14, §78. Notes 151

60. Talal Asad, “On Torture, or Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treat- ment,” in Social Suffering, ed. Arthur Kleinman, Veena Das, and Margaret Lock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 297. 61. UN Doc. A/C.33/SR.69 (1978), §13. 62. UN Doc. A/C.3/33/SR.71 (1978), §60. 63. Amnesty International Report on Torture (London: Gerald Duck- worth, 1973), 180. 64. Amnesty International, Torture Trade (London: Amnesty Interna- tional, 2001), 32–46; Steve Wright, “The New Trade in Technolo- gies of Restraint and Electroshock,” in A Glimpse of Hell: Reports on Torture Worldwide (New York: New York University Press, 1996), 137– 52; Carol Ackroyd, The Technology of Political Control (Lon- don: Pluto Press, 1980); Amnesty International, Repression Trade (UK) Limited: How the UK Makes Torture and Death Its Business (London: Amnesty International, 1992); Amnesty International, “USA—Market Leader in the Torture Trade”; Amnesty Interna- tional, Stopping the Torture Trade, 42– 45. 65. Amnesty International, “USA—Market Leader in the Torture Trade.” 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid. 70. Matthew Lippman, “The Development and Drafting of the United Nations Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment on Punishment,” Boston College International & Comparative Law Review 27 (1994): 327. 71. Darius Rejali, Torture and Democracy (New Jersey: Princeton Uni- versity Press, 2007), 8. 72. William Korey, “ ‘To Light a Candle’: Amnesty International and the ‘Prisoners of Conscience,’ ” in NGOs and the Universal Declara- tion of Human Rights (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 159–80; Burgers and Danelius, 14. 73. Ann Marie Clark, Diplomacy of Conscience, Amnesty International and Changing Human Rights Norms (Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press, 2001), 124– 25. 74. Jean-François Daguzon, “France and the Maghreb: The End of the Special Relationship?” in North Africa, Politics, Region, and the Limits of Transformation, ed. Yahia Zoubir and Haizam Amirah-Fernandez (New York: Routledge, 2008), 337. 152 Notes

75. Ibid. 76. Perrault, 305. 77. Daguzon, 337. 78. Waltz, Human Rights and Reform, 205. 79. Daguzon, 337–38; Waltz, Human Rights and Reform, 206. 80. Mohamed Souhaili, Le roi et la rose, Hassan II-Mitterrand, des rapports équivoques (Paris: Harmattan, 1992), 22– 23. 81. Ibid., 22. (Perrault makes a similar statement, 359.) 82. Ibid., 363. 83. Benheddi, 339. 84. Perrault, 305; Blum, 278 85. Perrault, 305; Blum, 278– 79. 86. Yahia Zoubir and Stephen Zunes, “United States Policy in the Maghreb” in Zoubir, ed., 8. 87. Ibid. 88. Zunes, 10; Zoubir and Zunes, 234. 89. Ibid., 234. 90. Waltz, Human Rights and Reform, 205. 91. Zoubir and Zunes, 234– 35; Susan Slyomovics, The Performance of Human Rights in Morocco (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 21. 92. Zoubir and Zunes, 235; Rachid el-Houdaïgui, La politique étrangère sous le règne de Hassan II, acteurs, enjeux et processus décisionnels (Paris: Harmattan, 2003), 275. 93. Missoffe-Rollinde, De l’unanimisme nationaliste au concept de citoy- enneté, les militantEs marocainEs des droits de l’Homme (Paris: Uni- versité Paris VIII, 2000), 338; el-Houdaïgui, 264. 94. El-Houdaïgui, 266. 95. Bilal Constantin, Le mouvement marocain des droits de l’Homme au Maroc, du sujet au citoyen (Rabat: Document disponible dans le Centre de documentation de l’AMDH, 1999), 85. 96. Amnesty International, Maroc (Paris: Amnesty International, 1977); Amnesty International, Rapport de mission (Paris: Éditions francophones d’Amnistie internationale, 1982); Amnesty International, Tor- ture in Morocco (New York: Amnesty International, 1986); Amnesty International, “Morocco—Torture in Jails—the Amnesty Interna- tional Report,” March 8, 1990, http://web .amnesty .org/ library/ pdf/ MDE29/ WU 08/90; Amnesty International, Maroc: Torture, “disparitions,” emprisonnement politique (Paris: Éditions francophones d’Amnesty International, 1991); Amnesty International, Morocco: Amnesty International Briefing (New York: Amnesty International, Notes 153

1991); Amnesty International, “Morocco/Western Sahara: Torture in the ‘Anti-Terrorism Campaign,’ ” http:// web .amnesty .org/ library/ pdf/ MDE290042004ENGLISH/ $File/ MDE2900404 .pdf. 97. Perrault, 305. 98. Mohammed Karam, La notion des droits de l’homme au Maghreb, essai sur une nouvelle culture politique (Marseilles: Aix-Marseilles III, 1991), 427; Slyomovics, The Performance of Human Rights in Morocco, 21. 99. Waltz, Human Rights and Reform, 211; Missoffe-Rollinde, 346. 100. Waltz, Human Rights and Reform, 346; el-Houdaïgui, 279; Mohamed Mouaqit, “Le mouvement des droits humains au Maroc,” in La société civile au Maroc, ed. Maria-Angels Roque (Paris: Pub- lisud, 2004), 96. 101. El-Houdaïgui, 278; Mouaqit, 97. 102. Karam, 427; el-Houdaïgui, 279; Mouaqit, 97. 103. El-Houdaïgui, 279. 104. Mouaqit, 97; Missoffe-Rollinde, 344. 105. Missoffe-Rollinde, 338. 106. Makau Mutua, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural Critique (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 18; Joseph Massad, “Re-Orienting Desire: The Gay International and the Arab World,” Public Culture 14 (2002): 361; Abdullahi An-Naïm, “Toward a Cross-Cultural Approach to Defining International Standards of Human Rights: The Meaning of Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment,” in Human Rights in Cross- cultural Perspectives: A Quest for Consensus, ed. An-Naïm (Philadel- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), 38. 107. Mouaqit, 87. 108. Missoffe-Rollinde, 287; Mouaqit, 88. 109. Missoffe-Rollinde, 284. 110. The AMDH’s statutes, at http://www .amdh .org; the OMDH’s objectives, at http://www .omdh .org. (The Ligue marocaine de défense des droits de l’homme’s affiliation with a political party affects its activities in the field of defending and protecting human rights.) 111. Missoffe-Rollinde, 295. 112. Code du statut personnel et des successions (Casablanca: Librairie al- Wahda Al Arabia, 1957). 113. Missoffe-Rollinde,297. 114. Ibid.; Slyomovics, The Performance of Human Rights in Morocco, 154– 64. 115. Ibid., 154. 154 Notes

116. Missoffe-Rollinde, 481. 117. Ibid., 456. 118. Dahir no. 1-90-12 du 24 ramadan 1410 (20 avril 1990) relatif à la constitution du Conseil Consultatif des droits de l’homme, http://www .idpbarcelona .net/ docs/ recerca/ marroc/ pdf/ cons _consult .pdf. 119. Clement Henry, “Reverberations in the Central Maghreb of the ‘Global War on Terror,’ ” in Zoubir and Amirah-Fernandez, eds., 302. 120. Amnesty International, “États-Unis, hors de portée des radars: Vols secrets, torture et ‘disparitions,’ ” 2006, 2, last accessed February 4, 2013, http:// www .amnesty .org/ en/ library/ asset/ AMR51/ 051/ 2006/ fr/ dom -AMR510512006fr .html; Gordon Thomas, “Torture Flights: The Shocking Facts,” May 25, 2006, last accessed February 4, 2013, http:// www .canadafreepress .com/ 2006/ thomas052506 .htm. 121. Amnesty International, “États-Unis, hors de portée des radars,” 2; Thomas, op. cit. 122. David Wiessbrodt and Amy Bergquist, “Extraordinary Rendition: A Human Rights Analysis,” Harvard Human Rights Journal 19 (2006): 128. 123. Amnesty International, “États-Unis, hors de portée des radars,” 47. 124. Wiessbrodt and Bergquist, 127. 125. Amnesty International, “États-Unis, hors de portée des radars,” 2. 126. Ibid. 127. Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 8. 128. Wiessbrodt and Bergquist, 129; Alfred McCoy, A Question of Tor- ture, CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War of Terror (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006), 110–11; Peter Finn, “Al Qaeda Recruiter Reportedly Tortured,” Washington Post, January 31, 2003; Raymond Bonner, Don Van Natta Jr., and Amy Waldman, “Threats and Responses: Interrogations; Questioning Terror Suspects in a Dark and Surreal World,” New York Times, March 9, 2003.; Jane Mayer, “Outsourcing Torture,” The New Yorker, February 14, 2005; Mahjoub Tobji, Les officiers de sa majesté, les dérives des généraux marocains, 1956– 2006 (Paris: Fayard, 2002), 274. 129. Finn, op. cit. 130. David Rose, “M6 and CIA ‘sent student to Morocco to be tortured,’ ” The Observer, December 11, 2005. 131. Ibid. 132. Ibid. 133. Henry, 302. 134. US Department of Defense, Security Cooperation Agency, Foreign Military Sales, Foreign Military Construction Sales and Other Security Notes 155

Cooperation, Historical Facts, September 30, 2006, http://www .dsca .mil. 135. USAID, “Summary Highlights, International Affairs Function 150, Fiscal Year 2009 Budget Request,” http:// www .usaid .gov/ policy/ budget/ cbj2009/ 100014 .pdf; USAID, “Country Allocation Summary—Actual Appropriations, Fiscal Year 1999,” http:// www .usaid .gov/ pubs/ cbj2002/ cbj2002 _table02a .html. 136. Gregory White, “The ‘End of the Era of Leniency’ in Morocco,” in Zoubir and Amirah-Fernandez, eds., 102. 137. Henry, 303. 138. Amnesty International, “Maroc/Sahara occidental: Enquêter sur les allégations de torture et garantir aux détenus un procès équitable,” July 2008, AI Index: MDE29/013/2008, http:// www .amnesty .org/ fr/ library/ asset/ MDE29/ 013/ 2008/ fr. 139. White, 101. 140. Clark, 124–25. 141. An-Naïm, 38; Mutua, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural Cri- tique, 18; Massad, 361. 142. Makau Mutua, “Ideology of Human Rights,” Virginia Journal of International Law 36 (1995– 96): 609. 143. Massad, 362; Kaul Maharaj, Amnesty International and Its Neo- Colonial Mission (Meerut: Archana, 2001), 77; Mutua, “Ideology of Human Rights,” 609. 144. Jamie Mayerfeld, “Playing by Our Own Rules: How U.S. Margin- alization of International Human Rights Law Led to Torture,” Har- vard Human Rights Journal 20 (2007): 89– 140. 145. Mayer, op. cit. 146. Jennifer Van Bergen and Douglas Valentine, “The Dangerous World of Indefinite Detentions: Vietnam to Abu Ghraib,” Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 37 (2006): 503. 147. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1979), Add. 4, §11 148. Richard Falk, “The Making of Global Citizenship,” in Global Visions: Beyond the New World Order, ed. Jeremy Brecher, John Childs, and Jill Cutler (Boston: South End Press, 1993), 50.

Chapter 6

1. Gilles Perrault, Notre ami le roi (Paris: Gallimard, 1991), 367. 2. Chapouly Romain, Le “mouvement du 20 février” au Maroc, une étude de cas de la coordination locale de Rabat (Mémoire de Master) (Lyon: Université de Lyon, 2011), 9– 12. 156 Notes

3. “Le rappeur Mouad Belghouat toujours emprisonné au Maroc,” last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// monde-arabe .arte .tv/le -rappeur -mouad -belghouat -arrete -au -maroc. 4. “Pourquoi le Mouvement du 20 février?” last accessed April 13, 2013, http://www .facebook .com/ video/ video .php?v =10150104 012353701. 5. “Conférence de Presse du Mouvement du 20 février,” February 17, 2011, last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// www .youtube .com/ watch?v =-i9mEB _sWnw. 6. Ibid. 7. Cédric Baylocq and Jacopo Granci, “20 février: Discours, et portraits d’un mouvement de révolte au Maroc,” L’Année du Maghreb 8 (2012): 5. 8. Ibid. 9. “Oughniyyat rap al-maghribiyya al-lati adate ila itiqal moughraniha” (“The Moroccan Rap Song That Led to Its Singer’s Arrest”), last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// www .youtube .com/ watch?v =hkNL6XNWyJk. 10. “Youness Benkhdim,” last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// www .youtube .com/ watch?v =uHpXEzWp2JE. 11. “Morocco, the Tale of the February 20 Movement in 20 Vid- eos,” December 27, 2011, last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// globalvoicesonline .org/ 2011/ 12/ 27/ morocco -the -tale -of -the -february -20 -movement -in -20 -videos. 12. “Oughniyyat Rap al-maghribiyya al-lati adate ila itiqal moughraniha.” 13. “Aghani rap toajije thaourate 20 febrayire” (“Rap Songs Are the Rhythm of the F20M”), last accessed April 13, 2013, https:// www .facebook .com/ photo .php?v =10150104851603701&set =vb .190831074273972&type=2&theater; “Sahibe al-jalalah, oughniyya raïa min tilmide ila Mohamed VI” (“His Majesty, a Student’s Extraor- dinary Song for Mohamed VI”), last accessed April 13, 2013, https:// www .facebook .com/ photo .php?v =10150104717378701&set =vb .190831074273972&type =2&theater. 14. “Oughniyyat Rap al-maghribiyya al-lati adate ila itiqal moughraniha.” 15. Mouad al-Haqed, “Mwima, rankhraj” (“Mother, I Am Going Out”), last accessed April 13, 2012, http://www .youtube .com/ watch?v =qsgr9A2SE4o. 16. Sahar Bazzaz, Forgotten Saints: History, Power and Politics in the Making of Modern Morocco (Cambridge: Harvard Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 2010), 149– 59. Notes 157

17. Jacques Robert, La monarchie marocaine (Paris: Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1963), 57– 63. 18. Mehdi Ben Barka, Option révolutionnaire au Maroc, suivi des Écrits politiques, 1960– 1965 (Paris: Maspero, 1966), 45. 19. “Aïlate ach-chourtiya al-moutahama bi-safaâ Mohamed Bouazizi totalibe bi-mohakama adila” (“The family of the policewoman accused of slapping Mohamed Bouazizi demands a fair trial”), al-Arabiya News, April 1, 2011, last accessed April 13, 2013, http://english .alarabiya .net/ articles/ 2011/ 04/ 01/ 143807 .html; Jalel Snoussi, “Tunisie: Soy- ons justes envers celle qui a giflé Mohamed Bouazizi,” Espace Man- ager, April 7, 2011, last accessed on April 13, 2013, http://www .espacemanager .com/ chroniques/ tunisie -soyons -justes -envers -celle -qui -a -gifle -mohamed -bouazizi .html. 20. “Aïlate ach-chourtiya al-moutahama bi-safaâ Mohamed Bouazizi totalibe bi-mohakama adila.” 21. “Pourquoi le Mouvement du 20 février.” 22. “Les femmes du Maghreb dans leurs luttes pour la démocratie et l’égalité des droits, Colloque CMDH, intervention d’Amina Boughalbi,” June 29, 2011, last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// www .youtube .com/ watch?v =bw0wqZCx1lA&feature =youtu .be; “A Brave Feb 20 Young Woman: Featuring Selma Maarouf,” May 16, 2011, last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// moroccansforchange .com/ 2011/ 05/ 16/ a -brave -feb20 -young -woman -featuring -selma -maarouf; “La mésaventure d’une étudiante lilloise, militante marocaine, avec la police des frontières,” May 6, 2011, last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// www .lavoixdunord .fr/ Region/ actualite/ Secteur _Region/ 2011/ 05/ 06/ article _la -mesaventure -d -une -etudiante -lilloise .shtml. 23. “Les femmes du Maghreb dans leurs luttes pour la démocratie et l’égalité des droits, Colloque CMDH, intervention d’Amina Boughalbi.” 24. Jules Crétois, “Asma Lamrabet, écrivaine,” Telquel, March 8–14, 2013, 7. 25. “Princesses de nuit de Youness Benkhdim,” last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// www .youtube .com/ watch?v =C9Dq0LkC9EM. 26. “Oughniyyat Rap al-maghribiyya al-lati adate ila itiqal moughraniha.” 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Zakia Salime, “A New Feminism? Gender Dynamics in Morocco’s February 20th Movement,” 5 Arab Women Arab Spring 13 (2012): 109. 30. Mouad al-Haqed, “Mwima, rankhraj.” 158 Notes

31. “Mouvement du 20 février, Casablanca, l’ancienne Médina, le 22 avril, 2012, Laila Nassimi,” last accessed April 13, 2013, http:// www .youtube .com/ watch?v =WRSUhsb_H5g. 32. Alison Baker, Voices of Resistance: Oral Histories of Moroccan Women (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 179. 33. “Discours du Roi Mohammed 6 du 9 mars 2011,” March 9, 2011, accessed last on April 17, 2013, http:// www .youtube .com/ watch?v =9pTJoUI3W8s. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid. 36. “Mouvement du 20 février, Casablanca, l’ancienne Médina, le 22 avril, 2012, Laila Nassimi.” 37. “Morocco: Busted for Posting Caricatures of the King on Face- book,” February 8, 2012, last accessed on 17 April, 2013, http:// globalvoicesonline .org/ 2012/ 02/ 08/ morocco -busted -for -posting -caricatures -of -the -king -on -facebook. 38. Articles 53, 54, and 56 of the amended Constitution. 39. Article 55 of the amended Constitution. 40. Irene Fernández Molina, “The Monarchy vs. the 20 February Movement: Who Holds the Reins of Political Change in Morocco?” Mediterranean Politics 16, no. 3 (2011): 437– 38. 41. Ibid. 42. Molina, 437– 38; Karine Bennafla and Haoues Seniguer, “Le Maroc à l’épreuve du Printemps arabe: une contestation désamorcée?” Outre-terre 3, no. 29 (2011): 155. 43. Molina, 437– 38; Bennafla and Seniguer, 155. 44. “Akhir ma ghanah al-Haqed, oughniyyat biladi” (“The Last Song by al-Haqed, ‘My Country’ ”), last accessed April 17, 2013, http:// www .youtube .com/ watch?v =vZ6BiMOYdUg. 45. “Youness Benkhdim.” 46. Molina, 440; Bennafla and Seniguer, 144. 47. Articles 39 to 42 of the Family Code. 48. For example, article 345 of the Family Code. 49. Juhie Bhatia, “Young Moroccans Keep Arab-Spring Spirit Alive,” April 25, 2012, last accessed April 17, 2013, http://womensenews .org/ story/ leadership/ 120424/ young -moroccans -keep -arab -spring -spirit -alive# .UT0fAqWonyE; “Les femmes du Maghreb dans leurs luttes pour la démocratie et l’égalité des droits, Colloque CMDH, intervention d’Amina Boughalbi.” 50. Molina, 437; Bennafla and Seniguer, 153. 51. Arendt, 42 and 56. Notes 159

52. Molina, 438. 53. Jean-Noël Ferrié and Baudoin Dupret, “Maroc: Réformer sans bouleverser,” in Afrique du Nord, Moyen Orient: Printemps arabes, trajectoires variées, incertitudes persistantes, ed. Frédéric Charillon and Alain Dieckhoff (Paris: La Documentation française, 2012), 15, http:// halshs .archives -ouvertes .fr/ docs/ 00/ 76/ 42/ 19/ PDF/ Charillon _Dieckhoff _RA _former _sans _bouleverser .pdf. 54. “Le rappeur Mouad Belghouat toujours emprisonné au Maroc.” 55. Bennafla and Seniguer, 155–56; “A Brave Feb 20 Young Woman: Featuring Selma Maarouf.”; “Morocco, the Tale of the February 20 Movement in 20 Videos.” 56. Human Rights Watch, “Morocco: Police Violence a Test for Revised Constitution,” July 11, 2011, last accessed April 21, 2013, http:// www .hrw .org/ news/ 2011/ 07/ 11/ morocco -police -violence -test -revised -constitution. 57. Human Rights Watch, “Morocco: Prison for Rapper Who Criticized Police,” May 12, 2012, last accessed April 21, 2013, http:// www .hrw .org/ news/ 2012/ 05/ 12/ morocco -prison -rapper -who -criticized -police. 58. “Arrestation à Casablanca d’un individu pour coups et blessures contre des éléments de la sûreté nationale,” March 30, 2012, last accessed April 21, 2013, http:// www .lemag.ma/ Arrestation -a -Casablanca -d -un -individu -pour -coups -et -blessures -contre -des -elements -de -la -surete -nationale _a60618 .html. 59. “Au Maroc, des grèves de la faim contre les conditions de déten- tion,” January 2, 2013, last accessed April 21, 2013, https://www .mamfakinch .com/ au -maroc -des -greves -de -la -faim -contre -les -conditions -de -detention. 60. Human Rights Watch, “Morocco: Contested Confessions Used to Imprison Protesters,” September 17, 2012, last accessed April 21, 2013, http:// www .hrw .org/ news/ 2012/ 09/ 17/ morocco -contested -confessions -used -imprison -protesters. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid. 63. Ibid.

Conclusion

1. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1314 (1978), §27. 2. Brian Simpson, Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 6 and 1072– 85. 160 Notes

3. Roland Burke, “ ‘The Compelling Dialogue of Freedom’: Human Rights at the Bandung Conference,” Human Rights Quarterly 28 (2006): 962. 4. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1984/L.2, §29; Herman Burgers and Hans Danelius, The United Nations Convention against Torture: A Hand- book on the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1988), 58. 5. Talal Asad, “On Torture, or Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading Treat- ment,” in Social Suffering, ed. Arthur Kleinman, Veena Das, and Margaret Lock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 297. 6. David Fidler, “The Return of the Standard of Civilization,” Chicago Journal of International Law 2 (2001): 146; among others, article 7 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms still employs the term “civilized nations” to designate European states. 7. Hannah Arendt, On Violence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970). Selected Bibliography

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Administration territoriale (Territorial Black Saturday, 85 Administration), 82 Bouareqat brothers, 90– 91 Advisory Commission to Revise the Bouazizi, Mohamed, 83, 99–100, 105 Constitution (CCRC), 108, 110 el- Bouih, Fatna, (1955– ), 45– 47, 52 Alternative Movement for Individual Boukhari, Ahmed, 34, 46, 72 Freedoms (MALI), 101 Bush, George, 118 Amnesty International, 14– 16, 19, 21, 60, 64, 88, 91, 96 Caïds and Pashas, 69 Arab Lawyers Union, 20 Canada, 19, 94 Arab League, 5, 20 Cassin, René, 116 Arendt, Hannah, 9, 28, 32, 46, 54, 56, Chambre d’accusation, 50 72 Asad, Talal, 4– 5, 87, 118 Chaoui, Touria, 32 Association des parents et amis des disparus Charter of the United Nations, 63 au Maroc, 91 Chlihat, 82, 95 Association marocaine des droits humains Clinton, Hilary, 110 au Maroc (Moroccan Association Code of Criminal Procedure, 44 of Human Rights; AMDH), 10, Article 42 of, 48 36, 54, 91– 92, 101 Article 51 of, 48 Association nationale des diplômés sans Articles 244– 49 of, 50 emploi (National Association of Colonialism, 1, 5, 10, 61, 66, 71, 73– Unemployed Graduates), 82, 100, 74, 96, 118 109 Colonialist, 12, 71 At- Tahrir (Journal Liberation), 35 Continuum of, 4, 12 and Convention against Torture, 66 Baker, Alison, 29 European, 5 Belghouat, Mouad, (al- Haqed), 102– 4, and Human rights, 61– 75 106– 7, 109, 112– 13. See also and Inequalities, 71– 72 F20M activists Ben Ali, Zine al- Abidine, 105, 109 Struggle against, 34 Ben Barka, Mehdi, 33, 56– 57, 64, 74, and Western women, 4 89, 104 Comité de la lutte contre la repression au Ben Jelloun, Tahr, 41, 77 Maroc, 91 Benkhdim, Younès, 102. See also F20M Commission de la vérité et réconciliation activists (Commission for Truth and Binyam, Mohammed, 94 Reconciliation), 91 182 Index

Conseil consultative des droits de l’homme Belghouat, Mouad, (al- Haqed), 102– (Consultative Council on Human 4, 106– 7, 109, 112– 13 Rights), 91 Belmkeddem, Zineb, 103 Constitutional monarchy, 28, 29, 104 Boughalbi, Amina, 107, 111 Constitution of Morocco, 11, 27, 29, Bradelly, Samir, 113 35, 52, 55, 101– 2, 107– 14 Kartachi, Nour Essalam, 113 Article 10 of, 44 Nassimi, Laila, 107– 8, 113 Articles 19 and 23 of, 102 Madmad, Tahni, 101 Article 55 of, 28 Oubella, Youssef, 113 Reforms, 11, 27, 36, 99, 101– 14 Rouchdi, Tarek, 113 See also Constitutional monarchy; el- Fajeri, Mohammed Allal, 112 Parliamentary monarchy Fakihani, Abdelfattah, 85 Convention against Torture, 1, 5– 9, 21, Falaqa, 47– 48 27, 36– 37, 42, 51, 61– 63, 74– 75, Family code, 32, 93, 111, 119 78– 80, 85– 89, 95– 96, 115– 17, el- Fassi, Malika, 32 123 February 20 Movement (F20M), 83, Articles 8, 11, and 14 of, 61, 63– 66 95, 99, 117 Article 17 of, 42, 79 Forum marocain de vérité et justice Article 20 of, 42, 78 (Moroccan Forum for Truth and Convention on the Prevention and Equity), 64 Suppression of Torture, 17, 37 Foucault, Michel, 9, 46 Convention on the Rights of Persons with France, 1, 6, 11– 12, 19, 21, 24– 25, 34, Disabilities, 27 63– 65, 73, 81, 83– 86, 88– 91, 96, Council of Europe, 19 115– 16 Cultural relativism, 1, 9– 10, 42– 60, 64, François I, 64 78, 83, 110– 11, 116, 119 Front armé pour la république du Maroc Dahir, 44 (Armed Front for a Moroccan Dawla ilmaniyya, 104 Republic), 55 Delegitimize, 7, 10, 60 Democratic Christians, 19 de Gaulle, Charles, 89 Derb Mulay Sherif, 45 Gender inequality, 31 Diouri, Moumen, 30 Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry, 89 Dlimi, General, 85, 90 Gouraud, Joseph, 70 Great Britain, 19, 21, 24– 25, 73, 84, 88 Economic torture, 117 Green March (la Marche verte), 57 Embarek Warzazi, Halima, 19 Guantanamo Bay, 81, 94 Equity and Reconciliation Commission Gulf War, 83 (Instance équité et reconciliation), 37, 51, 64, 92 al- Hafiz, Abd, 104 European commissions, 115 Hamdi, Fadia, 105 Hammoudi, Abdellah, 7, 9 F20M activists Harem, 47 Assal, Abderrahman, 113 Human Rights Commission, 5, 14, Bahomane, Walid, 108 16– 21 Index 183

Human Rights Law (HRL), 1, 3, 6, 8, Laghazoui, Mohamed, 33 10, 11, 26, 38, 42, 54, 58, 61, 66, Lamrabet, Asma, 106 71– 74, 88, 92, 111, 116 Laroui, Abdellah, 31 Huntington, Samuel, 86 Lazreg, Marnia, 58 Hassan II, 33, 41, 54, 55, 57, 90, 92 Ligue marocaine des droits de l’homme Hussein, Saddam, 118 (Moroccan League for the Defense of Human Rights), 92 Ibrahim, Abdallah, 34 Lyautey, Hubert, 67, 69– 71 Imperialism, 96 Cultural, 1, 4 Makhzen, 67 Instance équité et réconciliation (Equity Mansar, Fatna, 29– 31, 33, 35, 38, 107 and Reconciliation Commission), Marxist- Leninist activists, 90 37, 51, 64, 92 Medkhouri, Khadija, 55 Insurrection in the Rif, 54, 82 Messaâdi, Abbès, 34 International Association of Penal Law, Ministère des droits de l’homme (Ministry 17, 37 of Human Rights), 91 International Commission of Jurists, 19 Mitterrand, François, 90 International Committee of the Red Mohamed V, 27– 29, 32, 34, 54– 55, 74, Cross, 19 92– 93, 108 International Convention for the Mohamed VI, 93, 108 Protection of All Persons from Moroccan criminal code, 36– 37 Enforced Disappearance, 27 Moroccan Organization of Human International Convention on the Rights (OMDH), 36, 92 Elimination of All Forms of Moroccan Spring, 27, 105 Discrimination against Women, 27 Moudouana (Islamic family law), 36 International Convention on the Mulay Abdel Aziz, 68 Elimination of All Forms of Racial “Mwima” (“Mother”), al- Haqed’s song, Discrimination, 27 107 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 17, 27, 73, 78, 79 Neocolonialism, 74, 89, 96, 118 Articles 21 and 22 of, 74 Nongovernmental organization (NGO), International Covenant on Social and 1, 14, 19, 91, 116 Cultural Rights, 27, 73 Non- Western, 5, 91 International Criminal Tribunal, 96, 118 Western, 5, 14, 18, 96 International Federation for Human Norms Rights, 19 Human rights, 61– 75 International Human Rights Charter, Protecting the state’s citizens, 77– 97 2, 3 of Protection against torture, 23– 39 Istiqlal Party, 28–29, 33 el- Ouadie, Salah, 23, 44, 53 Jajs (pilgrims), 52 Oufkir, Mohamed, 33, 57, 90– 91

Kattani, Sharif Mohamed, 104 Parallel state, 34, 45– 46, 57, 71, 93, el- Khatib, Oum Kalthoum, 69, 71 108, 111– 12, 114 el- Khlifi, Oussama, 112 Parliamentary monarchy, 104– 5, 107 184 Index

Perrault, Gilles, 64, 91, 99 Torture. See Convention against Torture; Policies, 11, 36, 38, 55, 59, 89, 91, 112, United Nations Committee against 116, 118 Torture Pollis, Adamantia, 43 Polygamy, 31, 111 Ulamas, 68 Protectorate, 5, 11, 29, 66– 69, 71– 72, Union nationale des étudiants marocains 74 (UNEM), 45 Union nationale des forces populaires Radio France Internationale, 64 (National Union of Popular Rajagopal, Balakrishnan, 26 Forces), 55 Ramaël, Patrick, 63 Union nationale du front populaire Raouyane, Kamilia, 111 (UNFP), 35 Rejali, Darius, 88 United Nations Rights. See Human Rights Commission; Economic and Social Council, 14, 19 Human Rights Law; International High Commissioner for Refugees, 19 Human Rights Charter; Universal See also United Nations Committee Declaration of Human Rights against Torture United Nations Committee against Schwab, Peter, 43 Torture, 7, 36, 37, 42, 53, 59 Self- determination, 2, 11, 57, 73, 99, United Nations General Assembly 101, 102, 105, 107– 8, 111, 114, (UNGA), 5, 9, 16– 21, 44, 48, 50 119 United States, 1, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14, 19, Serfaty, Abraham, 34, 49 24– 25, 65, 80– 96, 110, 115 Serfaty, Evelyn, 49 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Le Service des renseignements (The 2, 3, 13, 14, 27, 43, 71 Intelligence Agency), 70 Sidi Ifni, 82, 85, 95 Van Boven, 87 Social status quo, 55– 56 Violations, 8, 11, 35, 43, 50, 53, 54, Soliman the Magnificent, 64 57, 61, 66, 73, 77, 89, 92, 95– 96 Spain, 16, 21, 24– 25, 34, 65, 68 Sûreté nationale (Moroccan national Waltz, Susan, 2– 3, 27 police force), 33 War on Terror, 89, 93– 95, 118 Swedish Convention against Torture Waterbury, John, 31 project, 17, 20, 24 Western Sahara, 57, 83 World Conference on Human Rights, Taibi, Rabia, 72 27 Tansikiyates (Coordinations), 100 Tazmamart, 15, 41, 57, 64, 77, 90– 91 Yassine, Abdessalam, 30 Terrorist attacks al- Yazidi, Mohamed, 69 May 16, 2003, in Casablanca, 58 September 11, 2001, in New York, 58 “Zahra” (student group), 95