ALAN KATTELLE Once, There Was ... Looking Back at Amateur Motion Picture Technologies

The Magazine Cine-, introduced in 1936, was the first Kodak with an instant-loading film magazine, leading amateur technologies one step closer toward automation.

In January of 2004, Eastman Kodak Co. article looks back, rather than forward, rang in the new year by announcing it would exemplifying landmark moments in the cut an additional 12,000 to 15,000 jobs, or up development of amateur motion picture to 23 per cent of its global workforce, over practice and exposing readers to motion the next three years. Such news is becoming picture technologies which are rapidly increasingly commonplace, as seemingly becoming artifacts. unassailable companies such as Eastman This article describes the major Kodak, that for nearly a century had a largely technological improvements in amateur unrivaled hold on the amateur film market, motion picture marketed in the are now scrambling to make the shift away from approximately 1900 to from film—trying to catch up with the new 1979, and how those improvements could digital trend which is changing the landscape have affected the appearance and quality of both professional and amateur practice at of the amateur film or “home movie.” The a dizzying pace. Ironically, the greatest use principal source of data for this account is the of amateur film cameras and stocks today, author’s collection of the magazines Modern is arguably in a professional realm—the use and Popular Photography. of Super 8 in music and various Almost as soon as motion pictures became Oliver Stone and Hollywood flashback a commercial reality, various entrepreneurs sequences—for its aesthetic appeal. As we sought ways of bringing this new look forward, caught up in the newness of entertainment into the home. This was most “the digital,” however, it bears remembering commonly achieved with inexpensive and that all old technologies were once new. simple projectors, designed to show short As such, in rethinking the amateur, this segments of commercially produced films. Rethinking the Amateur: Acts of Media Production in the Digital Age 53 Broderick Fox, editor, Spectator 24:1 (Spring 2004) 53-64. ONCE, THERE WAS FILM...

Figure 1—Not exactly drop and load, the pages above are from the Vitascope Movie-Maker instruction manual.

A few amateur cameras appeared in Europe less prestigious companies, still offering in the 1890’s; the first American amateur reasonable quality, also emerged, such as cameras appeared a few years later. Almost Keystone Manufacturing Co., Cincinnati all of these cameras used professional 35mm Clock & Instrument Co., Stewart Warner, and film slit to 17.5mm, which gave economy but Corp. Ranking below these were a left the hazard of using flammable nitrate film number of relatively unknown manufacturers in place. who rushed into the booming market for home As the market potential of movies in movies with very rudimentary machines, the home became apparent, a number of such as The Movie-Maker, the Filmagraph, manufacturers not heretofore manufacturers and the Moviematic. These cameras offered, of motion picture equipment, both in in addition to very low price, generally not Europe and in this country entered the field. much more than a stamped sheet-metal Established firms in the motion picture boxy body equipped with a simple lens and or photographic fields such as Eastman viewfinder, and a hand crank. The Movie- Kodak, Bell & Howell, Paillard Bolex and Maker (Figure 1) for example, introduced Pathe Freres were representative of the “top in 1931 by the Vitascope Corp., sold for just quality” manufacturers. A second tier of $10, while Eastman Kodak’s least expensive

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Figure 2—Hand cranking the Ciné Kodak Model A on its required . of that year, the Model , was priced camera was also offered. While technically at $75. successful, the cost of 28mm film was not sufficiently less than the standard 35mm film In The Beginning to make the 28mm system viable, so in 1922 Pathé introduced a still smaller gauge, the As noted above, many early machines used 9.5mm safety film system, again complete 17.5 mm film slit from professional nitrate with camera and projector. This system film. Several events in the history of amateur quickly became extremely popular in Europe were soon to shape the course of where it remains so today, with a much camera and projector design. First was the smaller constituency of users in the United 1912 introduction of the 28mm safety film States. system, including film, camera and projector, The next and arguably the most significant by the French firm, Pathé Frères. Pathé was development in the history of non-professional a well-established producer of commercial film was the 1923 introduction of 16mm direct films, and looking to expand the market for reversal safety film by Eastman Kodak. The its films to the non-theatergoer, designed new film was less than half the width of 35mm a system to release reduction prints of its film, was on safety, or non-flammable stock, commercial films on 28mm safety film stock, and was reversible, i.e. the same piece of film to be shown in the home on a hand-cranked could be developed from to positive. projector called the Pathé Kok. A 28mm This system immediately permitted much

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Figure 3—Bell & Howell’s Filmo 70. Figure 4—The “watch thin” Filmo 75. smaller equipment just by cutting the film startling new film and camera system, which width in half. Even at that, Eastman Kodak’s would, as the ads trumpeted: “Cut the cost of first camera, the Ciné Kodak Model A (Figure movie making by nearly 2/3.” (Figure 5) The 2) was fairly bulky at 7 1/2 lbs. To insure that heart of the system was still 16mm film, but the customer got good results, Mr. Eastman supplied to the customer on a spool holding at first required the customer to purchase, 25 feet of what was called Double 8mm. The along with the camera, a tripod, projector film was to be run through the camera once and screen. Other early amateur cameras and exposing one half of the film width, then projectors were equally bulky; the 1912 Pathé turned over and run through a second time Frères 28mm camera measured 12” front-to- to expose the other half. In processing the back and 10” high, and weighed in at 13 lbs. 8 film was slit in half and spliced to give the oz. The 1915 Barker Brothers 35mm combined customer 50 feet of exposed film. camera and projector was about the size of the Pathé Frères, and weighed 10 lbs. 4 oz. This Getting Un-Cranked kind of bulk necessitated tripod mounting if satisfactory filming were to be achieved. In an effort to eliminate the need to mount Bell & Howell’s first 16mm camera, the camera on a tripod, Eastman Kodak the Filmo 70 (Figure 3), was simply a cut- explored a battery drive system as early as down version of their well-known 35mm 1924 but the wet-cell battery technology of professional camera, the Eyemo, which the day was not well suited for installation weighed nearly 10 lbs., while the Filmo 70 in a camera, and the battery-drive option weighed 4 1/2 lbs. The Filmo 75, (Figure 4) was soon withdrawn. Another early battery- advertised in 1928 as “watch thin” weighed a driven camera was the Victor Ultra, produced mere 3 lbs. 12 oz. Kodak’s next 16mm camera, by the Victor Animatograph Corp. Again, the Model B, weighed just 4lbs 4oz. the wet-cell battery, even though in this case In July of 1932, with the country just provided by the respected Willard Battery beginning to pull itself out of the Great Company, was not satisfactory and very few Depression, Eastman Kodak announced a of these cameras were produced. It would be

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Figure 5—Kodak’s first Double 8mm camera. 16mm film was run through the camera twice, and split in processing. nearly 40 years before battery-driven cameras lens; later the lens was made removable were the norm, after advances in the method so that close-up or telephoto prime lenses of loading the camera, and the perfection of could be substituted. Interchangeable sets of small, yet powerful “dry cell” batteries. prime lenses simultaneously mounted on the Bell & Howell got the jump on Eastman camera in some fashion were introduced in Kodak by incorporating a spring-motor drive the 30’s. Bell & Howell appears to have been in its first 16mm camera, the Filmo 70. Eastman the first to offer a 3-lens turret, on their Filmo followed suit shortly with the Cine Kodak 70-C in 1927. Kodak’s first turret-equipped Model B in July 1925. It almost goes without camera was the 1933 Cine Kodak Special, a saying that mechanisms that relieved the very sophisticated camera intended for the amateur of having to hand-crank the camera advanced amateur or professional use, with greatly influenced the style and spontaneity of a list price of $375. Victor Animatograph early . This development proved Corp.’s 1935 Model 5 had a 3-lens turret, and a mixed blessing, however; relieved of the equipped with one lens sold for $200. When necessity of hand-cranking the camera, the it is recalled that $1.00 per hour was a fairly over-enthusiastic was often good factory wage at that time, it is apparent prone to the unfortunate tendency to swing that the above cameras were chiefly for the the camera all over the scene, a phenomenon well-to-do. known as “swish .” The first offered for an amateur camera appears to have been that introduced Lens Design by the Swiss firm of Paillard Bolex, in June 1952 with their Bolex Pan Cinor, a 16mm Early amateur cameras, particularly the camera with a removable f2.8 20mm to inexpensive ones, often were equipped with 60mm variable focus lens. The lens alone was a single medium , non-removable priced at $219.50 which indicates the camera

RETHINKING THE AMATEUR 57 ONCE, THERE WAS FILM... and lens were also intended for the up-scale fully self-loading was the Simplex Pockette, filmmaker. The accompanying advertisement manufactured by the International Projector pointed out that the lens was designed with Corp. and introduced in 1931. The camera a “standard C-mount so fits almost any used a 50-ft. magazine, designed and built by 16mm camera.” While a zoom lens was thus Eastman Kodak with either Panchromatic or available in 1952, it was not until 1956 that Supersensitive film available. Bell & Howell Popular Photography could announce “Zoom introduced its Design 121 in 1934, using the Cameras are Here,” headlining an editorial Simplex magazine. In 1936, Kodak introduced pointing out that camera manufacturers had the Magazine Cine-Kodak and Bell & Howell been decidedly slow in offering cameras with quickly introduced redesigned cameras “built- in” zoom lenses. to utilize the Kodak magazines. Magazine Prompted by the success of “3D” movies loading for 8mm cameras came in June 1940 in Hollywood beginning in the early 50s, in when Kodak announced the Magazine Cine- November 1953 Paillard Bolex announced a Kodak 8, Model 40. The magazine held 25 ft of stereo lens system for its Bolex H-16 16mm double 8, so it had to be removed and turned . (Figure 6) The system consisted over after the 25 ft were exposed on one half of a special two-lens attachment that replaced of the film width. the normal lens, which produced two half- A truly novel system still using spool frame images in each 16mm frame. A similar loading of double 8mm film, but avoiding attachment was provided for the projector. the need to open the camera was the 1963 Judging by how seldom the 3-D attachment is “Dualmatic 50,” manufactured by Sekonic seen and the fact that no other manufacturer Optical Co. of Japan. In this camera, the entire offered such equipment, one may assume that film chamber could be rotated 180 degrees the resulting films were not very satisfactory. thus bringing the unexposed half of the film to the film gate. It is doubtful that the method Loading the Camera of loading the camera had much effect on the cinematic quality of the films produced, Threading the film into the early movie except the obvious one that being able to film cameras was a job for nimble fingers. Perhaps longer without having to stop to reload the the first camera to address this problem was camera probably encouraged longer (though the 1917 Movette. Film for this camera was not necessarily better) scenes. supplied by Eastman Kodak as 17.5mm nitrate stock, in a metal magazine holding 50 Control foot loads. The user had to extract a loop of film from the magazine, then thread it over the Achieving the correct exposure with the camera sprockets. After exposure the film was early cameras required considerable skill on returned to Kodak where the developed film the part of the operator. With hand-cranked was inserted in a special projection magazine cameras, the rate of cranking was of prime that could hold up to 200 feet of film. A importance, and Eastman Kodak’s first Ciné clever idea, but the projector had operational had this guiding message cast into problems and the company folded within a the camera body: “Turn crank at 2 revolutions short time. The 9.5mm Pathé of 1923 and the per second.” was adjustable on Zeiss Kinamo S-10 also featured simplified most early cameras, generally providing lens loading; the Pathé utilizing a “cassette” openings from the “fastest,” i.e. wide-open, holding 8.5 meters of film, while the Kinamo’s down to f16. A small exposure guide table “kassette” held 10 meters of film. was often applied on the camera body. All of the above cameras required the user In 1933 Eastman Kodak introduced the to extract a loop of film and thread it over the Ciné Kodak Universal Guide system. Packed camera sprockets. The first camera that was with every roll of Kodak film was a small

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Figure 6—Bolex experiments with 3-D.

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Figure 7—the Kodaguide offered exposure calculation assistance. Automatic exposure would take another decade. square of silvered cardboard printed with a required the operator to read the light meter scale of light conditions, from “clear sun” to then consult a table or calculator to determine “cloudy dark.” The customer inserted this slip the proper lens opening. into a device on the side of the camera, which The next significant exposure advance came carried a movable arrow, one end of which with the Bauer 88B 8mm camera, introduced was set at the light conditions as shown on in May1956, manufactured by Bauer GMBH the silvered card, the other end of the arrow of Germany. In this camera the exposure would then point at the correct lens opening. meter needle appeared in the viewfinder, as First applied to the Cine Kodak 8mm Models did a pointer showing the aperture setting. 25 and 60, it was used well into the 50s, and The operator simply kept the two pointers even appeared on the elegant 16mm Ciné coincident, thus maintaining the proper Special camera. exposure. The Bauer system still required the Small hand-held exposure calculators were operator to set the aperture as “instructed” also made available, such as the 1947 Movie by the camera’s light meter, however. It Kodaguide (Figure 7) from Eastman Kodak. remained for Bell & Howell to take the final About the size of a 3 x 5 file card, one side had step: coupling the exposure meter to the a calculator for outdoor moviemaking while aperture mechanism, making the exposure the other covered movies indoors, all for a meter automatically set the aperture, with no variety of film and subject conditions. Which attention to manual adjustment required by manufacturer first took the next step, albeit a the operator. The year was 1956, the camera modest one, of simply attaching a light meter was the Bell & Howell 200EE, (Figure 8) a to the camera is a matter of debate, but several 16mm magazine loading camera, described ultimately did. The early incarnations still as the “world’s first fully automatic exposure

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Figure 8—The Bell & Howell 200EE (electric eye) was the first to purport itself a fully automatic exposure camera.

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Figure 9—The RCA Victor 16mm Sound Camera constituted the first attempt at in-camera sound recording. camera.” Popular Photography editorialized Victor 16mm Sound Camera. (Figure 9) This “The 200EE is one of the most exciting curious camera utilized film with an optical additions to come along in amateur motion sound track which recorded the voice of the picture photography in a long time.” Bell & camera operator, the only possible sound Howell devoted an entire page of its 1956 input. Such limited utility undoubtedly annual report to an illustration of the camera. contributed to the system’s early demise. Magnetic sound recording permitted a much Sound for the Amateur simpler camera and projector design, and in 1949 Eastman Kodak announced that it Sound as an accompaniment to films shown would begin producing pre-striped negative in the home first came in the 30s, in the form film. Kodak would also offer magnetic of 16mm reduction prints of commercial striping of customers’ silent films, allowing films with the accompanying sound on the customer to add post-filming sound. conventional 78 rpm records. In 1931 Bell & Bell & Howell shortly followed suit, in 1952 Howell advertised a rental library of over 230 offering not only a magnetic stripe on silent such prints and records. Some enterprising films but the addition of a magnetic stripe to and talented amateurs found it possible to customers’ films. cut their own sound records, generally just for background music, special effects sound Super 8 or other uses that did not demand perfect synchronization. Users of standard 8mm, introduced in 1932, The first amateur camera capable of had long hoped for a brighter and larger recording sound-on-film was the 1935 RCA projected image, and better quality sound than

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Figure 10—8mm frame width, compared with that of Super 8. was possible with the geometry of the 8mm brought more people into amateur movies frame. To address these demands, Eastman than any other advance after the introduction Kodak engineers began a radical make-over of of 16mm. the format. By sharply reducing the width of the sprocket holes and transferring the gained Existing Light Photography space to the opposite margin, this area could accommodate a satisfactory sound stripe, and The next significant advance in small gauge coupled with a reduced frame line, the image technology was the 1971 arrival of “XL” films area was increased by nearly 50%. (Figure and cameras, the XL standing for “existing 10) The resulting film was called “Super 8” light.” Thanks to a team of Kodak scientists and a complete system of the new film and who developed a film with roughly three appropriate new cameras was announced times the speed of any previous amateur film, in June 1965. The new film was supplied in and an entirely new camera design to make 50 ft lengths, in molded cartridges the most of that film, the filmmaker could now providing “drop in” loading; gone was the old take movies in situations that had previously nuisance of turning over the double 8 film. In required those blinding floodlights. As the addition, the new cartridge “told” the camera Kodak ads put it: “Now you can make what the was, and whether a Type movies by the light you live with.” A filter was needed or not. The new cameras The cameras featured a 230 degree , were battery driven, and not surprisingly a non-reflex view finder and exposure control were called “Instamatics.” system that did not steal any light from the It is a common misconception that it was film. Add to all this a fine f/1.2 lens the emergence of Super 8 technologies that on a camera costing less than $200, and the really democratized the amateur film practice, XL systems constituted one of Kodak’s finest making it affordable to a broad base of achievements. American society. Though Super 8’s ease and did make for increased popularity, The End of Technical Advancement and though the Super 8 system was a great boon technically, the equipment was really The last great advance in Super 8 technology not any cheaper. In fact it was generally more came in 1973, when Eastman Kodak expensive than comparable standard 8mm introduced magnetic sound-on-film in pre- equipment. The 1932 introduction of standard striped 50 foot cartridges. As the separation 8mm with its great economies, probably between sound and corresponding image

RETHINKING THE AMATEUR 63 ONCE, THERE WAS FILM... frame, at 18 frames per second, was just As we perhaps mourn the passing of film one second, editing the film was greatly as a medium for the amateur, it is interesting simplified. Finally, in June 1975, Eastman to speculate on how 50 years from now, Kodak introduced its last and most advanced someone will write the “Evolution of Digital amateur camera, the Supermatic 200, a Movie Making, 2000 to 2050.” It strikes this camera taking either the 50 foot or a new 200 writer that it may be far less convoluted than foot cartridge, allowing over 13 minutes of the multi-step process that has been described continuous filming. above. It took about 80 years for the amateur The handwriting was on the wall however; camera to progress from a simple box to the recorders for home use were modern sophisticated camera featuring power introduced by in 1965, who in 1966 operation, zoom lenses, sound capability, announced that it would soon market a auto focus, auto exposure control, etc. During 3-piece outfit, consisting of camera, that period of evolution, talented filmmakers recorder and battery pack. Manufacturers of worked with the technology available to motion picture equipmenthad long used the them to produce remarkable, worthy films. December issues of photography magazines Consider also the delightful effects that have for heavy advertising of their wares as being been achieved by daring innovators who have ideal Christmas presents, often taking a resorted to such things as painting on film, two-page spread, sometimes in color. The smearing it with solvents, overlaying two December, 1971 issue of Popular Photography films, etc. It will be interesting to see if today’s still carried ads by 10 manufacturers for a filmmaker, given a digital with total of 8 ad pages. But the December, 1978 all its high technology will find ways to break issue had just one advertisement for an the mold and be creative, despite having all amateur motion picture camera. The day of the technology solved for him/her. the amateur film camera was essentially over.

Alan Kattelle is a retired engineer who has been studying and collecting amateur motion picture equipment for over 30 years. His collection now numbers over 700 items dating from 1890 to the present day. He is the author of numerous articles on the history of amateur motion picture technology, and his 2000 book Home Movies - A History of the American Industry 1897 - 1979 is in many libraries in the U. S. and abroad.

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