International Journal of Korean History (Vol.15 No.1, Feb.2010) 1 G
Review of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
Yun Jae-woon*
Introduction
Historical materials serve as an essential tool which can be used in the field of historical education to objectively perceive historical facts and cultivate proper perceptions and attitudes towards history. Historical studies deal with human activities that happened in the past. In this regard, historical materials can be regarded as one of the most effective sources of data that can be used to perceive a past that cannot be directly experienced. Such materials also help to shed some light on the actual features of human behavior and history. Historical materials serve at once as a medium which connect historians with past facts, and as a tool which historians can use to better understand history. They are criticized and interpreted by historians seeking to create values which can contribute to explaining historical facts. In terms of historical materials whose value is accepted by historians, those used for education purposes should be regarded as including only empirical and consolidated facts which can contribute to the resolution of issues. Historical materials play the following educational roles: first, they satisfy the interest in, and intellectual curiosity for, history. They also GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG * Professor, Department of Historical Education, Daegu University 2GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks motivate students who are accustomed to being taught history in a monotonous manner to learn more about history. Second, historical materials can help overcome some of the limitations associated with the unilateral descriptions found in history textbooks. They can supplement the contents found in history textbooks, which are described in a chronological manner, and also add more flavor to the contents found in such textbooks, that more often than not feature only the most basic of descriptions.1 The materials used in history classes can be broken down into the historical materials included in textbooks, other printed and edited materials, reproduced materials that reflect the original item, and original materials.2 This study is concerned with the analysis of the historical materials used in high school history textbooks (hereinafter referred to as the ‘textbook’).3 The growing emphasis on the need for textbooks that serve as comprehensive collections of a wide range of data rather than mere description-based texts has resulted in an increasing variety of historical materials being included in textbooks. The textbooks designated under the 7th Korean National Curriculum include activities which help to develop a better awareness of historical facts through the analysis or interpretation of the historical materials introduced therein. The number of cases in which the historical materials found in textbooks have replaced the main text or played a primary role in terms of learning content has been on the rise. In other words, such materials are no longer used solely as supplementary sources.4 The analysis of the historical materials which have been cited in textbooks is of great significance in terms of the examination of the value of such textbooks, which after all constitute one of the most important tools used to learn about history in the actual field. Furthermore, it is expected that this study can contribute to the reorganization of history related textbooks. This study delves into the topics of politics, economy, society, and culture as addressed in high school history textbooks in turn. Yun Jae-woo 3
Analysis of Politics
The Prehistoric Era and Formation of Statelets
This topic is covered in Unit 2. (Formation of Statelets) of Section II. . The other subunit within this unit is 1. Kojosǂn and Bronze Culture (distribution of bronze, use of iron, lifestyle during the Bronze and Iron Ages, arts during the Bronze and Iron Ages, Tan’gun and Kojosǂn, Wiman Chosǂn, and the Society of Kojosǂn). The following four quotes are taken from this section.
1-1. The Laws of Kojosǂn (in Kojosǂn) there was a code of laws that consisted of eight articles. These included the following: He who kills another shall immediately be put to death; He who causes bodily injury to another shall pay compensation in grain; He who steals another’s possessions shall be made the slave of his victim, However, exemption from such penalty many be obtained by payment of 500,000 pieces of copper. Even though a thief was forgiven and had his status restored to that of commoner, he could not remove this stain on his record and had difficulties finding a marriage partner. As a result, the people of Kojosǂn never stole, which meant that people never had to close their gates. Women were faithful and did not commit adultery. Farmers ate their meals in containers made of bamboo. Meanwhile, much like government officials and merchants, urban residents had their meals in earthen bowls and goblets.
1-2. Legend of the Foundation of Koguryǂ The founder of Koguryǂ, whom is referred to as Tongmyǂng sǂngwang, was a man named Ko (family name) Chumong (first name). One day King Kǎmwa of Puyǂ met a woman while traveling south of 4GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
T’aebaek Mountain. When he asked who she was, she replied that she was the daughter of Habaek, and that Yuhwa was her name. … Puzzled by her story, King Kǎmwa confined her in a room. However, the blazing sunlight grasped her and cast its warm rays over her body till she conceived and gave birth to a giant egg. … Eventually, the shell cracked and a boy came out of the egg. The boy looked noble and gracious. By the time he was seven years old the child was already strong and mature. He forged a bow and arrows for himself. His marksmanship was so great that he was called Chumong, a term used to refer to a master bowman. … Chumong’s mother learned of this horrible conspiracy and said to him, “Your life is in danger. You must go away. You have been endowed with many heavenly gifts which will ensure your success.” Chumong fled with three followers and reached a river. The enemy upon his heels, Chumong found himself unable to cross the river. Chumong cried to the deep water, “I am the son of heaven and Habaek’s grandson. I fled and my enemy is following me. What shall I do?” Immediately a host of fish and turtles gathered together on the surface of the water to form a bridge so that Chumong and his party could cross. … Chumong continued his journey to Cholbonch’ǂn, a place characterized by fertile lands and harsh mountain ranges. He decided to make this place the capital of his kingdom. … He called his land Koguryǂ and adopted Ko as his family name.
1-3. Growth of Chieftains and Social Change In the ancient record known as the it is written, “In ancient times Hwanin (Heavenly King) and his son Hwanung descended from heaven and appeared under a sandalwood tree on T’aebaek Mountain. Along with three heavenly treasures and three thousand of his loyal subjects, Hwanin established the city of Sinsi (city of god). He led his ministers of wind, rain and clouds in teaching the people more than 360 useful arts. These included Yun Jae-woo 5
agriculture, life, medicine, moral principles and the imposition of a code of law. He brought happiness to human beings. A bear and a tiger prayed to be reincarnated as human beings. Hwanung gave each mugwort and garlic, saying that if they ate this holy food and did not see the sunlight for one hundred days they would become human beings. The bear, who had faithfully observed the king’s instructions, became a woman after twenty-one days. Hwanung married her and bore a son who was called Tan’gun Wanggǂm.
1-4. Record of the Eastern Barbarians in the Book of Wei of the Dongyi (Eastern barbarians) as well as numerous lakes. Although its land was good enough to grow grain on, it did not produce any fruits. The people of Puyǂ were of strong stature, honest, courageous, moral and generous, and never plundered the goods of other states. c) Okchǂ, which had long been invaded by its bigger neighbors, was eventually subjugated by Koguryǂ. Koguryǂ appointed an Okchǂ national to serve as their representative, and the latter ruled over Okchǂ with the help of the indigenous ruling class. Tongye did not have a chieftain system. However, it introduced a bureaucratic hierarchy structure that featured such elements as hu (越, feudal lord), ǎpkun (蜲糗, leader of local district unit), and samro (芓罨, three 6GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
leaders) during the Han era. In terms of the customs and traditions of Tongye, the people regarded mountains and rivers as being of great importance. As the lands of the various tribes of Tongye were divided by mountains and rivers, it was very difficult for one tribe to inadvertently wander into another’s territory.
First, the historical material entitled “1-1. The Law of Kojosǂn” has been included in the Society of Kojosǂn portion of Subunit 2. (Formation of Statelets) in Section II . This material was originally taken from the geography section (8. 谨蕋 ) of the (Vol. 28). Subunit 1 “Kojosǂn and Bronze Culture” only quotes from this particular historical material. In this regard, while this textbook includes more pictures and maps than the one designated under the 6th Korean National Curriculum, it also features significantly less quotes from historical materials. Given the obvious educational value which such historical materials have, the authors of this new textbook should have included on page 32, the page on which Tan’gun’s foundation of Kojosǂn is addressed, passages from the Korea)>, and Geography of Korea)>. More to the point, this need for additional historical materials is further highlighted by the fact that one of the three established objectives for this section is that of exploring the significance of the legend of Tan’gun in terms of Korean history, and surveying Tan’gun related relics and remains. The historical material used in 1-2 Legend of the Foundation of Koguryǂ can be found in Unit 2. (Formation of Statelets) of Section II. . This historical material was taken from the section of the (Vol. 13) dealing with the Tongmyǂng sǂngwang. However, this particular subject takes up too much room in this Subunit. As the title of this Subunit is “Growth of many statelets,” other statelets such as Puyǂ, Okchǂ, Tongye, and Samhan should Yun Jae-woo 7 also have been dealt with in a more in-depth fashion. For instance, summaries of these other statelets’ founding legends should also have been included. The historical materials used in 1-3 and 1-4 can be found at the end of Unit 2. (Formation of Statelets) of Section II. . Entry 1-4 includes quotes taken from the Record of the Eastern Barbarians section of the ’s Book of Wei. These records only include entries related to Koguryǂ, Puyǂ, and Okchǂ. In this regard, the Tongye and Samhan related articles found in the should also have been inserted.
The Three Kingdoms and the Era of the Northern and Southern States
This Subunit is addressed in Unit 1 (Ancient Politics) of Section III. . The other Subunits included in this unit consist of 2. Establishment of Ancient States (Characteristics of Ancient States; Establishment of the Three Kingdoms), 3. Development of the Three Kingdoms and their Ruling Structures (Political Development of the Three Kingdoms; Struggles Between the Three Kingdoms; Ruling Structure of the Three Kingdoms), 4. International Conflict and Silla’s Unification of the Three Kingdoms (Wars with Koguryǂ, Sui, and Tang; Collapse of Paekche and Koguryǂ; Silla’s Unification of the Three Kingdoms), 5. Political Change during the Northern and Southern States Era (Development of Unified Silla; Foundation and Development of Parhae; Ruling Structures of the Northern and Southern States; Hojok power during Late Silla and the Establishment of the Post-Three Kingdoms). There are six historical materials included in this unit.
1-5. Paekche’s External Expansion a) Paekche was originally located 1000-ri to the east of the Liaodong area, alongside Koryǂ (Koguryǂ). Later, when Koryǂ grasped Liaodong, Paekche took control of the Liaoshi area. The territory of Paekche was called Jinping County (覧诐糜) or Jinping Prefecture. 8GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
b) As people of a hundred different surnames (paekka, 腆竖) crossed the sea, their kingdom came to be called Paekche. When Kuryǂ (粤缧, Koguryǂ) conquered the Liaodong area during the Jin (覦) era, Paekche conquered Liaoshi and Jinping County.
1-6. Koguryǂ’s Repulse of Wae (蘍) In the year 399 (9th year of Yǂngnak) in which Paekche reneged on its pledge and reestablished diplomatic relations with Wae (蘍), the king made a tour of inspection of P’yǂngyang. Silla sent its royal envoy to Koguryǂ, and said, “Wae nationals are spilling over our border. This situation is causing us serious problems. Your humble envoy from Silla, who belong to the nation of Koguryǂ, requests your assistance.” … sent fifty thousands soldiers and cavalrymen in the year 400 to save Silla. … As soon as the Koguryǂ military force made contact, the Wae immediately broke into retreat. The Koguryǂ force chased after them until they reached Chongbal Fortress in Imnagara. Chongbal Fortress fell under Koguryǂ’s control and the latter left behind a defensive force (sullabyǂng). The Wae force was completely destroyed when a Koguryǂ force attacked Silla’s ̱nong Fortress.
1-7. Paekche’s Meetings at the Chǂngsaam There is a rock called Chǂngsaam in Hoam Temple. Whenever the state selected a prime minister, the names of three or four candidates were written and sealed in a box, which was left on this rock. Some time later, the box was opened and the person whose name was inscribed therein was appointed as prime minister. It is for this reason that this rock was called Chǂngsaam (袚艃蒓).
1-8. Kyǂnhwǂn and Kungye a) Kyǂnhwǂn was from Kaǎn Prefecture in Sangju (Kaǎn, Mun’gyǂng in Yun Jae-woo 9
Kyǂngbuk Province). While his family name was originally Yi, he later adopted Kyǂn as his new family clan. His father, Ajagae, was a farmer who eventually became a general. … He declared himself the king of Later Paekche, established a bureaucratic structure, and appointed officials. b) Kungye was a Silla national whose family name was Kim. His father was King Hǂnan, the 47th king of Silla, and his mother was a concubine of King Hǂnan. … He became a monk and took the name Sǂnjong. … Sǂnjong called himself a king and said to the people, “The capital of Koguryǂ, P’yǂngyang was abandoned after Silla requested that Tang send a military force to destroy Koguryǂ. I will avenge this affront.”
1-9. Contradictions of the Bone-Rank (kolp’um) System Sǂlgyedu was a descendant of the Silla aristocracy. One day while he was drinking with four friends and exchanging opinions on different matters, Sǂlgyedu said, “Silla’s appointment system has always been based on the bone-rank (kolp’um) system. Even though a person possesses great talents and achieves meritorious deeds, he cannot overcome his social status. I intend to go to China so that I can express my skills and achieve great things. I want to hold a high position and be seated next to the emperor (son of heaven).” He snuck into Tang in 621.
1-10. Understanding Parhae History The Parhae Malgal leader Taejoyǂng originally belonged to a unique Koguryǂ clan. When Koguryǂ collapsed, Taejoyǂng led his followers to Yǂngju. … Taejoyǂng finally led his followers to the old territory of Kyeru. He adopted Tongmo Mountain (纫聬芄) as his base, and 10GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
built a fortress there. Taejoyǂng was a courageous man who was well skilled in the art of handling his soldiers. Many Malgal (Mohe) and displaced Koguryǂ nationals gradually joined him.
1-5 is a historical material related to Paekche’s foreign expansion. The textbook uses entries from the and as its sources for this particular topic. However, details of Paekche’s expansion into Liaoshi were in fact recorded in the compiled during the 5th century, the Yang Dynasty)> produced during the 6th century, and the compiled during the 7th century. These three sources have been used to fuel the debate over Paekche’s foreign expansion.5 To this end, questions can be raised as to why the textbook used the as one of its sources. In terms of historical value and content the and would have been more appropriate choices. 1-7 is taken from an explanation of the ruling structure of the Three Kingdoms included in the South Puyǂ, Early Paekche and North Puyǂ part of II. Wonder 2 of the . This particular quote was used by the textbook compilers to explain the consensus system that was employed in ancient aristocratic societies. However, examples related to Koguryǂ and Silla should also have been included so as to create a better balance. 1-10 can be found at the end of Unit 1. Ancient Politics. In this case, an entry from the (Vol. 199, Beidi liezhuan (臦蠽缽衑); Vol. 149, Bohai Mohe zhuan (脈豸耚笕)) was selected to illustrate the compilers’ point. One of the tasks introduced as part of this unit is that of analyzing the evidence contained in historical materials proving that Parhae was founded by members of the Korean nation. To this end, the stresses that Taejoyǂng belonged to “a unique Koguryǂ clan.” This assertion has raised hackles in some quarters because it contradicts the ’s claims Yun Jae-woo 11 that Taejoyǂng was a member of the Sumo Mohe (荵耖耚笕).6 As such, given the task assigned to students, the compilers would have been better advised to also introduce the content of the , as this differs from what is written in the , or other historical materials proving that Parhae succeeded Koguryǂ such as Yu Tǎkkong’s and the Message from King Mu of Parhae to Japan included in the (Vol. 10). G
Historical Materials Related to Ancient Politics
Subjects Covered and Type Section Unit Subunit Historical Materials Quoted 1. Kojosǂn and Bronze Reading The Laws of Kojosǂn . Prehistoric Culture material () ้ 2. Formation Culture and the of Statelets Reading Legend of the Foundation of Koguryǂ Formation of 2. Growth of many material () Statelets Statelets Advanced Record of the Eastern Barbarians in the Book curriculum of Wei of the 1. The Ancient World None 2. Establishment of None Ancient States Paekche’s External Expansion ( and ) 3. Development of the Reading Kogury ’s Repulse of Wae Three Kingdoms and ǂ material () III. Ruling the Ruling Structure Structure and 1. Ancient Paekche’s Meetings at the Chǂngsaam Political Politics () Activities 4. International Conflict and Silla’s Unification None of the Three Kingdoms Reading Kyǂnhwǂn and Kungye 5. Political Change during material () the Northern and Contradictions of the Bone-Rank (kolp’um) Advanced Southern States Era System (), Understanding curriculum Parhae History ()
Analysis of Economy
This topic is covered in Unit 1 (Ancient Economy) of Section IV . The subunits within this unit 12GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks consist of 1. Economic Life of the Three Kingdoms (economic policy of the Three Kingdoms, economic life of aristocrats, economic life of farmers); and 2. Economic Changes during the Northern and Southern States Era (economic policy of unified Silla, economic activity of unified Silla, economic life of aristocrats, economic life of farmers, economic development of Parhae). Historical materials are used in conjunction with four themes.
2-1. Taxation System of the Three Kingdoms a) Koguryǂ : A poll tax of 5 p’il of cotton cloth and 5 sǂm of grain shall be levied. A tenant tax (裴) of 1 sǂm of grain for high class households, of 7 mal of grain for middle class households, and 5 mal of grain for lower class households shall also be levied.
b) Paekche : A poll tax involving cotton cloth, silk thread, ginseng, and rice was levied. Different ratios were applied depending on the results of the harvest.
c) Paekche : Men over the age of 15 living north of Hansu were conscripted in February to maintain Wirye Fortress.
2-2. Aristocrats and Commoners of Koguryǂ a) The population of Koguryǂ amounted to some 30,000 households, … Of these, some 10,000 people belonged to large households (繗竖) not engaged in agriculture. Those who belonged to the lower classes were expected to provide the members of the higher classes with such items as rice, grain, fish, and salt.
b) While those in the upper echelons of society were not engaged in Yun Jae-woo 13
agriculture, those belonging to the lower rung of society had to pay various taxes and were treated like slaves.
2-3. Conflicts between King and Aristocrats over Such Matters as Land and Farmers a) Aristocrats were continuously provided with stipends (緫). They were allowed to possess 3000 slaves (線鈽) as well as similar numbers of armor, weapons, cows, horses and swine. They raised the cattle on an island, shooting them with a bow and arrow whenever they needed. When a man failed to repay grains, he became a slave. b) ̾ In May of the 7th year of King Sinmun (687), official land (kwallyojǂn) was provided to civil and military officials, with the exact amount determined based on their ranks. ̾ In January of the 9th year of King Sinmun (689), the stipend land (nokǎp) system was reformed. Officials were imposed annual taxes (裴), with the exact amount based on their ranks. ̾ In August of the 21st year of King Sǂngdǂk (722), able-bodied land (chǂngjǂn) was first provided to commoners. ̾ In March of the 16th year of King Kyǂngdǂk (757), the monthly salary (wǂlbong) system was abolished and the stipend land (nokǎp) system reemerged. ̾ In March of the 1st year of King Sosǂng (799), the Kǂnohyǂn area of Ch’ǂngju was transformed into stipend land (nokǎp) for students from the National Confucian College (kukhak).
2-4. Growth of Maritime Power a) After returning to Silla, Chang Pogo visited King Hǎngdǂk and said, “China has taken our people as their slaves. I would like to build Ch’ǂnghaejin in order to prevent the enemy from taking our people.” 14GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
Ch’ǂnghae refers to Wando Island, which was an important waypoint for Silla. The King accepted Chang’s suggestion and ordered him to protect the coastal area along with a naval force of some 10,000 men. After that, no one was caught and turned into slaves.
b) Resentful of the king because the latter refused to marry his daughter, the General of Ch’ǂnghaejin (Chang Pogo) raised a rebellion from his base in Ch’ǂnghaejin. … Ch’ǂnghaejin was abolished in February of the 13th year of King Munsǂng (851) and the people of Ch’ǂnghaejin were relocated to Pyǂkkolgun.
The historical materials used in 2-1 and 2-2 deal with the taxation system of the Three Kingdoms and the characteristics of aristocrats and commoners in Koguryǂ. Here, the quotes introduced can be regarded as having been appropriately used. The historical material used in 2-3 reflects the conflicts between the king and aristocrats over issues such as land and farmers. While the quote from the is used to highlight the economic basis of aristocrats, those from the are introduced to showcase elements of the economic basis of aristocrats such as the stipend land (nokǎp) and tax villages (sikǎp) systems. These quotes are also regarded as being appropriately employed. The historical material used in 2-4 consists of two entries related to Chang Pogo which were taken from the . They are used in the textbook as part of the theme “Growth of Maritime Power.” The textbook highlights two tasks for the students in this regards: ‘Chang Pogo’s activities from the Ch’ǂnghaejin’ and ‘the background of Chang Pogo’s power and influence.’ Chang Pogo is of course a representative example of someone who made good use of maritime power during the late Unified Silla period. However, the students could have learned more about the ‘Growth of Maritime Power’ if other historical materials dealing with other figures who made use of maritime power, such as the Yun Jae-woo 15
Wang Kǂn family clan, Naju O clan, Pak Yunung, and Yi ǁnmo, had been included.7 Furthermore, the only place where the descriptions found on page 139 of the textbook and the terms sillabang, sillagwan, and sillach’on employed on the map entitled are mentioned is in the four-volume diary written by the Japanese Buddhist monk Ennin. Therefore, it is necessary to either add the relevant historical materials or change the source employed in this portion of the textbook altogether.
Historical Materials Related to Ancient EconomiesG
Subjects Covered and Type Section Unit Subunit Historical Materials Quoted Reading Taxation System of the Three Kingdoms 1. Economic Life of material (, and ) the Three Kingdoms Reading Aristocrats and Commoners of Koguryǂ material ( and < Weilue>) IV. Economic 1. Ancient Reading Commoners during the Unified Silla Era Structure and Economy material () Economic Life 2. Economic Changes during the Northern Conflicts between the King and Aristocrats over Matters Such as Land and Farmers and Southern Advanced ( and ), States Era curriculum Growth of Maritime Power ()
Analysis of Society and Culture
Historical Materials Related to Society
This topic is covered in Unit 1. (Ancient Society) of Section V. . The subunits in this unit are: 1. Establishment of the Social Status System (social class and social status system; aristocrat, commoner, and lowborn class); 2. Society of the Three Kingdoms (Koguryǂ society, Paekche society, Silla’s bone-rank system 16GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks and hwarangdo); 3. Society of the Northern and Southern States (changes in Silla society after unification, social structure of Parhae, social contradictions of the late Unified Silla period). The following five quotes are taken from this unit.
3-1. Sǂokche (苌藘裃, Koguryǂ’s marriage custom) In terms of the marriage custom, when a verbal promise is made, the bride’s family builds a small separate house called sǂok. Once the sun sets, the bridegroom comes to the bride’s house and kneels down to request the right to sleep with the bride. After two or three requests, the bride’s parents allow the bride to sleep in the sǂok. … Once the couple have children and grow up, the bridegroom can take his bride and children to his own house.
3-2. Regulations Associated with the Bone-Rank (kolp’um) System Those who belong to tup’um 4 (Bone Rank 4) or lower cannot possess a house over 15 ch’ǂk in length and width. They are not allowed to use elm trees, to make a well, to have roof tiles, to adorn the house with animal-shaped decorations or high eaves, … and to use gold, silver, or copper, … They are not allowed to use stones from mountains when making a stairway. Their fences should not be higher than 6 ch’ǂk. They cannot install any irrigation system and cannot use lime. They are not allowed to build gates. They are allowed to have two horses in their horse stable.
3-3. Rebellions during the Final Period of Unified Silla During the 3rd year of Queen Chinsǂng (889), many provinces and counties did not provide tributes and taxes. This resulted in the royal treasury being empty and the government bordering on Yun Jae-woo 17
bankruptcy. Although the queen dispatched royal envoys to these areas, this did not stem the emergence of more robbers and burglars nationwide. Taking advantage of this situation, Wǂnjong and Aeno raised a rebellion centering on Sabǂlju (Sangju). The queen ordered Yǂnggi to suppress the rebellion. However, Yǂnggi was afraid of the rebel forces and could not step forward to confront the enemy.
3-4. Consensus Systems in Ancient Aristocratic Societies a) Koguryǂ : does not have prisons. When there are criminals, the ministers gather together to deliberate and to execute the offenders whenever necessary. The family members of criminals are turned into slaves. b) Paekche : There is a rock called Chǂngsaam in Hoam Temple. Whenever the state selected a prime minister, the names of three or four candidates were written and sealed in a box, which was left on this rock. Some time later, the box was opened and the person whose name was inscribed therein was appointed as prime minister. It is for this reason that this rock was called Chǂngsaam. c) Silla : Whenever an important matter emerged, the Council of Nobles, which was called Hwabaek, was convoked. No decision was passed until every member of the Council of Nobles agreed to its contents.
3-5. Background of the Bone-Rank System Silla, … Using the paternal side as the standard when appointing 18GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
government officials, has a bone rank system that is divided into Bone Rank 1, Bone Rank 2. … Marriage is carried out with the daughter of a brother, of a cousin, or of a maternal aunt. The royal family belongs to the highest bone rank class (sacred bone). The descendants of the royal family also belong to the highest bone rank class. They do not marry any women from the second highest bone rank class (true bone). If a member of the royal family marries a woman from the second highest bone rank class, she is automatically designated as a concubine.
The historical material used in 3-1 is related to Koguryǂ’s marriage custom known as Sǂokche. As there are not many records related to the ancient marriage customs of Korea, it is not easy to introduce related materials. However, as materials related to the custom of Hyǂngsa such’wije (資艠諸莖裃, when the older brother dies, younger brother takes his wife) are mentioned on page 197 of the textbook, the latter should also have been included. The historical materials used in 3-2 and 3-3 are regarded as providing good insight into the actual features of the bone-rank system and the causes of the chaotic situation that prevailed during the final period of Silla. The historical material used in 3-4 deals with the theme of the consensus systems of ancient aristocratic societies, and introduces examples from Koguryǂ, Paekche, and Silla. However, this part should have been included in the section dealing with politics. The fact that the educational goals for the Ancient Society unit are those of learning more about the background to the emergence of the militarism-based ethos and comparing the lifestyle of owners and slaves only serves to reinforce the fact that this should have been included in the politics section. In this regard, it is necessary to replace these materials with others which can show the differences between the ruling and ruled classes and the actual circumstances in which both lived. Yun Jae-woo 19
Historical Materials Related to Ancient Society
Subjects Covered and Type Section Unit Subunit Historical Materials Quoted 1. Establishment of the None Social Status System Reading Sǂokche material () 2. Society of the Three Regulations Associated with the Bone- Kingdoms Reading Rank (kolp’um) System material () V. Social Structure 1. Ancient Rebellions during the Final Period of Reading and Social Life Society Unified Silla material () 3. Society of the Consensus Systems Northern and in Ancient Aristocratic Societies Southern States Advanced (, and curriculum ), Background of the Bone-Rank System ()
Historical Materials Related to Culture
This topic is addressed in Unit 1. (Ancient Culture) of Section VI. . The subunits in this unit include: 1. Schools of Thoughts and Religions (spread of Chinese characters and the education thereof, compilation of history and introduction of Confucianism, introduction of Buddhism, development of Buddhist thought, Zen Buddhism (Sǂnjong) and Fengshui Theory); 2. Development of Science & Technology (astronomy and mathematics, development of wood block printing and papermaking technology, development of metal printing technology); 3. Vestiges and Splendor of Korea’s Ancient People (ancient tombs and mural paintings, architecture and pagodas, Buddhist statues, arts and crafts, calligraphy, paintings and music); 4. Korean Culture Conveyed to Japan (conveyance of the culture of the Three Kingdoms to Japan, The culture of Unified Silla introduced in Japan). 20GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
3-6. Mirǎk (Maitreya) Belief and Hwarang During the reign of King Chinji, the monk Chinja of Hǎngryun Temple prayed in front of a Maitreya statue, “When our Buddha comes to this world as a hwarang, I will always stand by his side and worship him.” He prayed for the same thing day after day, until a monk appeared in his dream and said, “You will see the Maitreya if you go to Suwǂn Temple in Ungch’ǂn.” Chinja woke up and went to the temple. A boy kindly greeted him, saying that he was also from Seoul. … Chinja came back to Seoul to look for the boy. He saw a boy wearing make-up on his face and adornments playing on the road to the northeast of Yǂngmyo Temple. Thinking that the boy was the Maitreya, Chinja took him away in a palanquin. He took the boy to the king. The king revered and accepted him as national immortal (kuksǂn). He created a harmonious relationship with his disciples, his courtesy and teachings were exceptional, and his p’ungnyu (aesthetic enjoyment of nature) brought great glory to the world.
3-7. Activities of Sixth-Rank Silla Students in Tang a) Ch’oe Ch’iwǂn was able to achieve many great things in Tang and to enlighten his mind. When he returned to Silla, he intended to disseminate his insight to the people. However, there were many who were suspicious of him and who refused to accept his word. He eventually agreed to be dispatched to Taesan’gun (T’aein, Chǂnbuk) as a governor. Silla was in the midst of great turbulence when he returned from Tang, and things were not moving in the direction he intended them to go in. He deplored his unfortunate luck and gave up his official position. … He spent the rest of his days in a natural setting engaging in poems and music.
b) In September of the 5th year of King Wǂnsǂng, Chaok was appointed as the governor of Yanggǎnhyǂn (Yangp’yǂng). Moch’o of the Yun Jae-woo 21
Chancellery Office opposed this action on the grounds that, “As Chaok did not enter the bureaucracy via the Toksǂ samp’umkwa (纘苗芓谎籄, examination in the reading of texts in three gradations), he cannot be appointed to the position of governor.” The Chief Minister (Sijung) responded, “Although Chaok did not pass the Toksǂ samp’umkwa, he went to Tang at an early stage to study. What are the reasons why he should not be appointed to such a position?” The King sided with the Chief Minister.
The historical material used in 3-6, which was taken from the , deals with Mirǎk (Maitreya) Belief and the Hwarang. The Sakyamuni had the enlightened insight that both human life and death were filled with suffering. He called on humans to overcome this suffering by freeing their spirits through self-meditation. However, rather than making efforts to obtain self-enlightenment, the majority of people sought to get away from the suffering of everyday life by placing their faith in the Buddha who had already achieved enlightenment and the bodhisattvas striving to obtain enlightenment. It is generally accepted that Maitreya belief during the mid-ancient Silla period was in fact combined with the notion of Cakkavatti Kings, and the belief that the Maitreya was to be reincarnated as a hwarang.8 To this end, the selection of this particular historical material can be regarded as having been appropriate. However, given the importance of Buddhism in ancient Korean history, the introduction of only one entry dealing with this topic should be regarded as a significant oversight. The historical material used in 3-7 is concerned with the activities of sixth-rank Silla students who studied in Tang. The textbook introduces the examples of Ch’oe Ch’iwǂn and Chaok. Displeasure with the Bone Rank (kolp’um) system was especially stringent amongst sixth-rank individuals at the end of Silla. During this period, three great scholars, Ch’oe Ch’iwǂn, Ch’oe Sǎngu and Ch’oe Sinji (Ch’oe ǁnwi), left Silla. Ch’oe Ch’iwǂn submitted 10 articles of reform that were based on 22GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
Confucianism to the king. However, when his suggestion was not accepted, he decided to seclude himself at Haein Temple. Ch’oe Sǎngu and Ch’oe Sinji respectively pledged their loyalties to Kyǂnhwǂn of Later Paekche and Wanggǂn of Koryǂ.9 In this regard, in addition to Ch’oe Ch’iwǂn, the textbook should also have introduced the examples of Ch’oe Sǎngu and Ch’oe Sinji.
Historical Materials Related to Ancient Culture
Subjects Covered and Type Section Unit Subunit Historical Materials Quoted Reading Mirǎk (Maitreya) Belief and Hwarang material () 1. Schools of Thoughts Activities of Sixth-Rank Silla Students and Religions Advanced in Tang curriculum () ฏ.Development of 1. Ancient 2. Development of National Culture Culture None Science Technology 3. Traces and Zest of None Ancient People 4. Korean Culture None Conveyed to Japan
Conclusion
This study reviewed the historical materials which were quoted in the high school history textbook, materials which have played an important role in teaching history in schools. To this end, several suggestions can be made with regards to the historical materials used in the high school textbook; such recommendations being especially pertinent given the reorganization of textbooks that is currently under way. First, it is necessary to achieve a balance between quantity and quality when it comes to the historical materials employed. There are a total of sixteen subunits in the portions of the history textbook dealing with ancient history (refer to ). Historical materials are not introduced in seven of these subunits. Furthermore, as pointed out in the Yun Jae-woo 23 analysis of the historical materials dealing with the subjects of politics, economy, society, and culture, there are many topics which are barely mentioned or omitted altogether. For example, while the textbook deals with the Three Kingdoms, the historical materials selected either only addresses Koguryǂ, or Silla. There are few historical materials related to Puyǂ, Kaya, and Parhae, kingdoms that have always existed on the periphery of Korean ancient history. Second, it is necessary to introduce various forms of historical materials. The lack of historical materials directly related to the field of ancient history has created a trend towards the inclusion of the results of adjacent fields such as archeology and anthropology. Historical materials can be divided into bibliographical and non-bibliographical materials.10 The recent discovery nationwide of wooden tablets and epigraphs has helped to greatly advance the field of ancient historical studies. In this regards, such materials should not only be shown in pictures. Rather, the contents of the epigraphs and wooden tablets should be included as is. Lastly, it is necessary to make better use of the appendix. Various materials related to Korean history can be found at the end of the textbook. Should the inclusion of these historical materials in the main text be made impossible for various reasons such as volume or description styles, then such materials should be included in the appendix. It is hoped that these suggestions will help to produce better history textbooks that can be used to improve students’ perceptions of history.
Keywords : textbooks, ancient era, historical materials, learning based on historical materials 24GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks
G
Notes :
1 Ch’oe Wan’gi, Yǂksa kyoyukkwa haksǎp naeyongǎi sǂnjǂng (History Education and the Selection of Learning Contents) (Nǎt’i namu Publishing, 2002), 66-67. 2 Kim Hanjong, “Yǂksa kyoyukǎi kyojae” (Textbooks used in history education) in Yǂksa kyoyukǎi naeyonggwa pangbǂp (History Education: Contents and Methods) (Ch’aekkwa Hamkke Publishing, 2007), 141-42. 3 National Institute of Korean History and National Library Compilation Committee, Kodǎng hakkyo kuksa (High School History Textbooks) (Ministry of Education & Human Resource Development, 2007). 4 Kim Hanjong, “Yǂksa kyoyukǎi kyojae” (Textbooks used in history education) in Yǂksa kyoyukǎi naeyonggwapangbǂp (History Education: Contents and Methods) (Ch’aekkwa Hamkke Publishing, 2007), 142. 5 Cho Pǂpchong, “Paekche” in Han’guk kodaesa yǂn’guǎi sae tonghyang (New Trends in the Study of Ancient Korean History) (Sǂgyǂng munhwasa, 2007), 61. 6 Han Kyuch’ǂl, “Parhaeǎi chumin kusǂnggwa kwisok munje” (The ethnic makeup of Parhae people and the issue of their identity), Han’guk kodaesa yǂn’guǎi sae tonghyang (New Trends in the Study of Ancient Korean History) (Sǂgyǂng munhwasa, 2007). 7 Yun Jaewoon, Han’guk kodae muyǂksa yǂn’gu (History of Trade in Ancient Korea) (Kyǂngin munhwasa, 2006). 8 Kim Yǂngmi, “Pulgyo sinanggwa kyǂlsa” (Buddhism and the Buddhist community), Han’guk kodaesa yǂn’guǎi sae tonghyang (New Trends in the Study of Ancient Korean History) (Sǂgyǂng munhwasa, 2007), 582-83. 9 Kim Hansik et al., Yǂksa kyoyuk charyojip (Collection of History Education Materials) (Sinsǂwǂn, 1999), 81. 10 Ch’oe Wan’gi, Yǂksa kyoyukkwa haksǎp naeyongǎi sǂnjǂng (History Education and the Selection of Learning Contents) (Nǎt’i namu Publishing, 2002), 67.†
GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG Submission Date: 2009. 10. 4 Completion Date of Review: 2010. 1. 10 Yun Jae-woo 25
In historical education, historical materials represent an essential tool used to objectively perceive historical facts and to cultivate an awareness and understanding of history. This study reviewed the historical materials which were quoted in the high school history textbook, materials which have played an important role in teaching history in schools. In this regard, several suggestions can be made with regards to the historical materials used in the high school textbook; such recommendations being especially pertinent given the reorganization of textbooks that is currently under way. First, it is necessary to achieve a balance between quantity and quality when it comes to the historical materials employed. There are a total of sixteen subunits in the portions of the history textbook dealing with ancient history. Historical materials are not introduced in seven of these subunits. Furthermore, as pointed out in the analysis of the historical materials dealing with the subjects of politics, economy, society, and culture, there are many topics which are barely mentioned or omitted altogether. For example, while the textbook deals with the Three Kingdoms, the historical materials selected either only addresses Koguryǂ or Silla. There are few historical materials related to Puyǂ, Kaya, and Parhae, kingdoms that have always existed on the periphery of Korean ancient history. Second, it is necessary to introduce various forms of historical materials. The lack of historical materials directly related to the field of ancient history has created a trend towards the inclusion of the results of adjacent fields such as archeology and anthropology. Historical materials can be divided into bibliographical and non-bibliographical materials. The recent discovery nationwide of wooden 26GGGReview of Ancient History as Described in High School History Textbooks tablets and epigraphs has helped to greatly advance the field of ancient historical studies. In this regards, such materials should not only be shown in pictures. Rather, the contents of the epigraphs and wooden tablets should be included as is. Lastly, it is necessary to make better use of the appendix. Various materials related to Korean history can be found at the end of the textbook. Should the inclusion of these historical materials in the main text be made impossible for various reasons such as volume or description styles, then such materials should be included in the appendix. It is hoped that these suggestions will help to produce better history textbooks that can be used to improve students’ perceptions of history. Yun Jae-woo 27