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To request permissions please use the Feedback form on our webpage. http://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/feedback General copyright and disclaimer In addition to the above conditions, authors give their consent for the digital copy of their work to be used subject to the conditions specified on the Library Thesis Consent Form and Deposit Licence. THE IMPACT OF TONGAN CULTURAL PRACTICES ON TONGANS’ ECONOMIC BEHAVIOUR by ‘Ofa Ki Funga’amangono Ketu’u A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Doctoral of Philosophy in Development Studies The University of Auckland, 2014 ABSTRACT The purpose of this thesis was to find ways in which the current practices of Tongan culture and of the church could be modified so that any economic adverse impact they have on Tongans could be alleviated. This research is particularly significant when contextualised in the current unfavourable economic environment surrounding Tongans in Tonga and overseas. The findings from this research are original contributions on the subject of cultural modification in the context of Tonga. This study has used North’s Institutional Path Dependency Theory to investigate the impact of current cultural practices in Tonga on Tongans’ economic performance. North’s argument that institutions and institutional change do matter in defining a society’s economic performance underpins this thesis. In this context, Tongan culture is considered an informal institution. This research has used both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies, relying largely on tālanoa or dialogue to collect the data. One of key findings of this research is that cultural and church obligations place undue financial burdens on Tongans, especially at the nuclear family level. Many Tongan families have gone into debt through borrowing to finance these obligations. The research also identifies the social impact, such as tension among the extended family’s members. Seventy per cent of the participants pointed out that while the culture of fetokoni’aki (makafetoli’aki) or reciprocity, fevahevahe’aki or sharing, faka’apa’apa or respect and tauhi vā or maintaining good relationships i with others should be upheld, some of their practices, such as elaborate birthday, wedding and funeral ceremonies and church donations, need to be modified by scaling them down. The study also identified that there could be resistance toward this proposed change. I have introduced the Makafetoli’aki modification model, a culturally sensitive approach, to guide this proposed modification. This model adopts a communal approach where the King and the royal family, nobles, chiefs, church leaders, ‘ulumotu’a or head of the extended families and their members are asked to fetokoni’aki in making this change happen in a culturally appropriate manner. I have used the Tongan phrase makafetoli’aki or reciprocity to develop the Makafetoli’aki theoretical framework, Makafetoli’aki research methodology and Makafetoli’aki modification model. These are original contributions of this thesis at the levels of theory, research and practice. ii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my beloved parents The late Sione Talikavili Fatafehi Afuha’amango of Okoa & Neiafu, Vava’u and Pea & Tokomololo, Tongatapu and The late ‘Alilia Lakai Fine Afuha’amango of Noapapu & Ovaka, Vava’u and Houma, Tongatapu iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to begin by acknowledging the Almighty God for his unfailing love in providing the energy and determination to keep me going until this thesis was completed. Many times I wanted to give up because I work full time, am a mother to five children with family and church commitments, and on top of that have studied part-time for my doctorate. God’s grace has brought me through this long journey and I hope that by fulfilling this work I glorify Him. I would like to thank my Supervisor, Associate Professor Kenneth Jackson, Centre for Development Studies at the Faculty of Arts for giving me the flexibility to articulate my thinking and manage the whole process of this thesis. He gave his advice as to what was important and left me to sort out the details, and that worked well for me. I also would like to thank Dr. Manuka Henare, of the Management and International Business Department at the Business School, for being willing to be my secondary supervisor. The joint supervision of this research between the Faculty of Arts and Business School reflects the inter- disciplinary nature of the research topic. I would also like to thank the Honourable Minister of Education of Tonga, Dr. Ana Taufe’ulungaki, for her willingness to coach and facilitate this research, especially in positioning the thesis within the Tongan cultural, social and economic environments. I also would like to thank Dr. ‘Amelia Afuha’amango- Tu’ipulotu of the Ministry of Health of Tonga, Dr. Melenaite Taumoefolau and Dr. Emma Wolfgramm-Foliaki of the University of Auckland for their continuous iv and most helpful feedback on this research. I also would like to extend my sincere thanks to Dr. Susan Carter of the Student Learning Centre for reviewing and editing all my chapters throughout the entire writing. I also want to thank Dr. John Kingsbury of Wellington for being willing to edit my whole thesis during the Christmas break of 2012 and into 2013. Thank you so much Susan and John. I would like to make a special acknowledgement of the 50 participants that shared with me their life stories, experiences and knowledge. These are the foundation of this thesis. There were also numerous Tongans both in Tonga and overseas who have contributed to this tālanoa, through personal communications, focus group discussions, extended family reunions, church groups and even faikava Tonga groups. Many Tongan families have allowed me to observe freely their own cultural ceremonies as part of their willingness to share their own stories. I hope this thesis will benefit them in some way. I would like to thank my parents-in-law, the late Rev. ‘Ofisi and Lea Ketu’u, my sisters-in-law, Fane Ketu’u and Foulata Heem and my brother-in-law, Samisoni Ketu’u, for their unfailing support in providing care for my children while I pursued this study. Many nights I would stay in the library until it closed and I relied on my in-laws to pick up my youngest son, Afu Jr., from school and take care of him. I can’t thank them enough for their continuous support. v I would also like to thank many members of my family who have supported me throughout this journey. I thank my elder sister and her family, Mr. and Mrs. Salamasina Vuna and their six children who reside in the United States. Thank you, Fotu’aehau, for your continued support throughout my busy life. You always tell me, “’Ofa you can make it.” I would like to thank my younger sister and her family, Mr. and Mrs. ‘Alilia Lakai Nansen and their five children who reside in Fiji. Thank you, ‘Alilia Lakai Si’i, for always staying up late at night for a long phone conversation when I got tired of studying. I would like to thank my two special cousins, Rev. Lavingi Fine Tupou and her family in Melbourne and the late Mrs. Taumafa Fine Bernie and her family in Wollongong, Australia. I was brought up together with Lavingi and Taumafa and we were like real sisters. They always took time to call or email and check how things were going. They were always there for me. In New Zealand, I would like to acknowledge Polealisi Finau, Nunia Fuavao, Latu Naeata, Soane Moa and Vili Kaufusi Helu and their families for providing me with a big extended family. This means a lot to me. I also would like to acknowledge many cousins with whom we lived for many years but who are now living in Germany, the United States, Australia and Tonga. It would be remiss if I did not acknowledge my parental aunt, Mrs. Katea ‘Ahau and her husband, Takai ‘Ahau, and their family who gave us their residence in Kapeta, Kolomotu’a, Tongatapu to live there for ten years when we first moved from Vava’u to Tongatapu. I would like to extend my gratefulness to vi the children of Katea and Takai ‘Ahau; Silia Fifita, Fotolina Kioa, the late Soane ‘Ahau and Temaleti ‘Ahau. I would also like to thank my youngest paternal aunt, Mrs. Mileti Helu and her husband, Salesi Kaufusi Helu, and their family for providing financial support to my parents when we first moved to Tongatapu. The reciprocities of these two aunties, Katea and Mileti, helped make my parents’ dream of a better education for their children come true. I sincerely want to thank both of them and their family. I would like to acknowledge my church community who have continuously prayed and encouraged me to continue with this study. I wanted to thank Kilisi Finau for her being a prayer partner throughout my ten years of study. I wanted to thank Reverend Lopeti and Tae Samisoni, Deacon Matini and Kani Tu’ipulotu and all the members of the Sihova Siaila Fellowship Group for their prayers and fellowship.