Toward an Explanation of the UFO Abduction Phenomenon: Hypnotic Elaboration, Extraterrestrial Sadomasochism, and Spurious Memories Author(s): Leonard S. Newman and Roy F. Baumeister Source: Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1996), pp. 99-126 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1449001 . Accessed: 22/01/2011 20:22

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http://www.jstor.org PsychologicalInquiry Copyright1996 by 1996, Vol. 7, No. 2, 99-126 LawrenceErlbaum Associates, Inc.

I TARGET ARTICLE

Toward an Explanation of the UFO Abduction Phenomenon: Hypnotic Elaboration, Extraterrestrial Sadomasochism, and Spurious Memories

Leonard S. Newman Departmentof Psychology Universityof Illinois, Chicago Roy F. Baumeister Departmentof Psychology Case WesternReserve University

Autobiographical memories are often suspect. For example, a surprisingly large number of people report having been abducted by extraterrestrials. We offer a prototype of the abduction experience and an assessment of the frequency of such reports. Theseaccounts are hard to dismiss on the basis of mendacityor insanity,but there are ample reasons to doubt their literal accuracy. Weoffer a cognitive-motiva- tional explanationfor how spurious memories of unidentifiedflying object (UFO) abductionscan be created and maintained.The motivational roots lie in the desire to escape from ordinaryself-awareness, and this explanationis supportedby parallels between UFO abduction accounts and masochisticfantasies. The cognitive bases involve the integration and elaboration of hallucinations, general knowledge, and contextualcues intofull-blown accounts, usually with the aid of hypnosis.Due to the pitfalls of hypnosis,people develop a high degree of confidencein the veridicalityof spurious UFO abductionmemories.

Much of what we know about other people is based Psychologistshave been slow to devotetheir thoughts on the stories they tell us about themselves. Unfortu- and researchefforts to these phenomena. One reason nately, sometimes what they tell us is not true. Some might be a kind of defensive skepticism.According to such stories are outright fabrications.Other autobio- evidence reviewed by Bem and Honorton(1994), psy- graphical memories are simply difficult to believe, chologistsare significantlyless willing thanother scien- although the storyteller might be convinced they are tists (andeven othersocial scientists)to takeparanormal real. According to one very large set of first-person phenomenaseriously. Coon (1992) traced this state of accounts,our planet is frequentlyvisited by aliens from affairs back to the turn of the century, when many outer space. At least several hundred(and more likely psychologistsbelieved thatthe survivalof the discipline several thousand) Americans are said to be abducted as a respectablescience hingedon theirdistancing them- every day by these aliens, who take the haplessindivid- selves from then-fashionabletopics such as telepathy, uals into theirspaceships, perform painful and sexually clairvoyance,and communicationwith the dead. Yet, if tinged medical experiments on them, try with mixed these recent startlingaccounts are to be believed, they success to erasetheir memories of the incident,and then suggest a large and increasingscope of interventionby returnthem to Earthin the approximatevicinity of the extraterrestrialaliens into human affairs, which might site from which they were abducted.Needless to say, soon amountto one of the most spectacularand important manypeople are skepticalthat these events are actually developmentsin humanhistory. And, if theseaccounts are occurring,but this skepticism is quite often accompa- not to be believed,then they constitutea widespreadand nied by a sincere desire to understandwhat could risingform of fascinatingdelusion that calls for explana- possibly lead someone to constructand accept a false tion on the basis of acceptedcognitive and motivational memory of this kind. principles. NEWMAN&BAUMEISTER In eithercase, people who claim to have experienced fallibility of autobiographicalmemory (e.g., Halver- abductionby unidentifiedflying objects (UFOs) might son, 1988; Neisser & Harsch, 1992) and the processes require expert intervention to help them recover. A involved in distortedreconstructions of the past (e.g., handful of mental health professionals are therefore Baumeister& Newman, 1994;E. F. Loftus, 1993; Ross, now arguingthat psychotherapistsshould be educated 1989). aboutthe UFO abductionphenomenon so thatthey will An observation made by Jacobs (1992), another recognize the symptomsand be able to help the victims UFO investigatorsincerely worriedabout the effects of (e.g., Clamar, 1988; Mack, 1992b; Sprinkle, 1988; see extraterrestrialintrusions on abductees, foreshadows also Huyghe, 1993). Abductees,they argue,are suffer- our main argument.Jacobs noted an odd characteristic ing from posttraumaticstress disorder(or a variantof of these people. Due to the traumaticnature of their that condition, "experiencedanomalous trauma"-see experiences, he lamented, their sexuality has been af- J. P. Wilson, 1990), and so they should get the same fected; in particular,many have confessed to "fantasies treatmentas anyone else meeting the relevantdiagnos- involving masochism and bondage"(p. 253). We con- tic criteria. In other words, their problems should be cur withJacobs' s hypothesisof a link between masoch- handled like those of victims of other brutal experi- istic fantasies and UFO abduction accounts. Rather ences, such as warfare,rape, or physical abuse.A more than suggesting that the fantasies are a result of an radical approachis taken by those who argue that the actual abductionexperience, however, we believe that problems of abductees are not just similar to other bothspring from a common source-the need to escape problemsof adjustmentbut that,quite often, repressed the self. Both masochisticand UFO abductionfantasies memories of UFO abductionsmight be causing many might derive from the excessive demands and stresses of those other problems. As described by a skeptical associated with the modern construction of selfhood Klass (1988a), this "skeletonkey theory"suggests that (Baumeister,1991 a; Cushman,1990). We presentevi- recognizing the reality of UFO abductionhas the po- dence supportingthe hypothesis that UFO abduction tential to unlock the causes of many kinds of psycho- accountsexpress the goal of escaping from awareness logical abnormality, such as unexplained fears, of the self s most burdensomeaspects, such as its needs phobias, andpanic disorders.Proponents of this theory for esteem and control.In addition,we review in detail also caution thatthe vast majorityof psychologists and the many ways in which UFO abductionaccounts re- psychiatrists are not equipped to help abductees, so semble anotherset of accountshypothesized to express people who feel that they have had such experiences the desire to escape the self-the fantasies of sexual should avoid those professionals. Instead, victims masochists. As perceptivelyput by David Langford,a would be betteroff seeking help from expertsfamiliar science-fictionwriter, with the phenomenon.Some of these expertscan even provide advice on techniques one can use to resist Whyshould people fantasize such unpleasant experi- becoming an abductee(Druffel, 1993). encesas someof thosereported? Well, I am surethat We do not mean to mock the efforts of those who beingraped by thealien equivalent of a telephotolens wouldbe a nastyexperience, but if you don't seek to providecomfort to people who areunhappy and jolly actuallyhave to undergoit butonly "remember"un- confused due to what they believe is a UFO abduction. dergoingit, suddenlyit canbe seenin a new lightas a But we do believe thatthese are betterserved people by partlymasochistic-or not so masochistic-fantasy. a more complete understandingof the sources and (Hough& Randles,1991, pp. 41-42) psychological significance of their disturbingmemo- ries. In this article, we attempt to contributeto that Unlike masochistic fantasies, however, accounts of understanding.Randles and Warrington (1985) charac- UFO abductionsare typically believed (by the individ- terized UFO abductionreports as "a remarkablephe- uals involved) to have really happened.To explain this, nomenon which one feels must have a psychological we invoke what is known about the fabrication of explanation"and declared that, given how its "eerie spuriousmemories, especially underhypnosis. consistency comes through in case after case ... it is difficult to justify its continuedneglect by social scien- tists" (pp. 153-154). The purpose of this article is to The UFO Abduction Experience: offer a possible explanation of the motivational and An Overview cognitive processes that might cause people to believe that they have been abductedby aliens. It is necessary Althoughno two UFO abductionreports are exactly to admitat the outset thatwe do not believe in the literal alike, a large numberare structuredin a similarenough reality of these experiences, and so our explanatory way that it is possible to constructa general or typical efforts are devoted to explaining them as fantasies and version of the experience. What follows is a brief false memories. We hope thus to also make a more synopsis of the prototypicalabduction story, derived general contributionto the ongoing debate on both the primarilyfrom the detailedabduction reports presented 100 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON by Bullard (1987b), Fiore (1989), Hopkins (1987), even journeys to other worlds. These partsof the story Jacobs (1992), Lorenzon and Lorenzon (1977), and are far from universal, however, and the exact details Steiger (1988). (Note that we use the terms story, are very inconsistentacross cases (e.g., a wide variety narrative,and account interchangeably, as in Baumeis- of "homeplanets"; Rimmer, 1984). ter & Newman, 1994). One of the first experiencesof this kind was claimed It is importantto note thatabduction memories rarely by Betty andBarney Hill (Fuller, 1966); theirstory was emerge unaided. Those who learn that they might be latermade into a television movie airedin 1975. While abducteescommonly seek out help for any of a number driving through New Hampshire, the Hills reported, of reasons-vague anxieties, specific phobias, bad they were stoppedby a UFO. The two were then forced dreams,fragmentary and disturbingmemories, or what to boardthe aliens' ship, where they were subjectedto seems like an inexplicable episode of "missing time" painful, examination-likeprocedures like the ones al- (Hopkins, 1981). It is usually only after consultation ready described. Although subsequent research has with a psychotherapistor some sortof UFO investigator turnedup earliercases with some similarities to their that these people can articulatea specific memory of alleged experiences (see Bullard, 1987a), the Hills' being abductedby aliens. story is essentially the "Rosettastone" of UFO abduc- UFO abductionaccounts often startwith the sight of tion lore. When it first became public, the impression a flying sauceror spaceship,although abductees some- among most observers was that they had never heard times remember only being aware of a bright light. anythingquite like it before (Hough & Randles, 1991; Such details are frequentlyabsent, however, and it is Klass, 1988b). quite common for the abductionepisode to begin with The Hills are no longer alone. To emphasize this the appearanceof strangebeings, who are presumedto point and to better convey the nature of the UFO be extraterrestrialaliens. Typically, the victims are abductionexperience, we present two brief examples paralyzedor otherwiseimmobilized at this point (often from Bullard's (1987b) catalogueof abductioncases: in their cars or homes) and then taken onto the aliens' craft. Occasionally,people rememberbeing carriedon Underhypnosis, he rememberedthat two lightsde- board or otherwise transportedthere, but more com- scendedfrom the sky and landednearby. He felt a monly abductees cannot recall how they ended up forebodingthat something would happen if hestopped, inside the UFO. buthis carsuddenly veered off theroad as if pulledby a magnet,and when he got outhe saw a lightall over Once on board the UFO, abductees typically find the area.A soundlike leatherrubbing together attracted themselves in a often strange, brightly lighted room, his attentionto four or five beings who apparently filled with complicatedmachinery. What appears to be cameover a fencealong the roadside and approached a physical examinationof some sort then commences. him, at which time he was unable to move. ... A Often, abducteesare fastenedto and stretchedout on a clamplikedevice seized him by theshoulders, causing table or bed. Sometimes they are undressed,but almost himpain in theback. The beings turned him towards always they are subjected to painful proceduresof an the craft. ... He entered a white room, rounded and ostensiblymedical nature.Cuts are made, blood is often domedand seemingly without an angle,and glowing drawn,and variousorifices of the body are probedand witha mistyluminosity. Though he didnot remember even violated. Needles andphysical restraintsmight be involved. Genitalsreceive attention,and special reports 'Remarkablesimilarities in the appearance of the aliens have of sexual activities between the aliens and theirvictims also frequently been emphasized (e.g., Hopkins, 1987; Jacobs, have become increasinglycommon in recentyears. The 1992). Most frequently encountered are said to be the "grays," aliens who perform the examinations are grim and familiar to readers of Whitley Strieber's (1987) Communion:A businesslike, and others stand aroundand watch. The True Story. The complete text of the abductee story beginning on this page ("Under ...") also contains a classic examinersand other occupants of the craftalmost never hypnosis, description of this type: "The beings were hairless humanoids with heads like look quite like normal people, but they are generally invertedteardrops, large black walnut-shapedeyes, small nose, slit humanoidin appearance.'Throughout the experience, mouth and no ears. The skin was whitish and putty-like, the height abducteesfeel powerless and externallycontrolled. below his shoulder. The beings were extraordinarilyskinny, with At the end of the examination,victims' memoriesfor no muscular definition and an apparentweight of 50 lbs." How- ever, readers of the UFO literature will encounter a the entire episode are erased, or the victims are other- bewildering variety of other beings, including some with "golden, strawlike wise programmedto keep their experiences a secret. hair," others that look like "a combination of earth animals," Sometimes, abductees are explicitly asked in a "creatureswith wrinkled skin, crab-claw hands, and pointed ears," postexaminationconference with the aliens to refrain and a woman with "long red hair and violet eyes" (all from Steiger, from telling anyone what happened.This communica- 1988, pp. 59, 62, 71, 175, respectively). Mack (1994) furthernoted that "abducteesoverseas seem to have contact with a greatervariety tion more often thannot is telepathicin nature. Finally, of entities than Americans"(p. 12). Cosculluela(1993) arguedthat some accountsdescribe toursof the spaceship,discus- such differencesin appearanceare often glossed over by those seeking sions of ecological and geopoliticalcrises on earth,and to emphasizethe commonaltiesbetween differentstories. 101 NEWMAN&BAUMEISTER undressing, he next found himself seated on a table provideda similarestimate. Subsequentpublicity, and wearing only a diaper-likecloth. A large and intricate especially the publicationof Communion,triggered a device like a planetariumprojector came down from quantumleap in the apparentmagnitude of the abduc- the ceiling and rana needle-like device along his back. tion phenomenon.According to Conroy(1989), shortly Two seemed in controlof the examinationwhile beings afterCommunion came out, Strieberannounced that he others waited in the room. ... He assumed various hadreceived 700 lettersfrom people "thishas happened positions on his stomach,back, and side as the beings to" the was said to be examined him all over. After the beings applied a (p. 139). By 1988, figure 5,000, clamplikedevice to his hip region andpoked his stom- with about40 to 50 more letters arrivingeach day ("Q ach with a rod,they flexed his legs with anotherrodlike & A: Whitley Strieber,"1988). Even more recently, in device. ... He felt that they did not care that they hurt an appearanceon Larry King Live, Strieber (1993) him. (pp. 39-40) claimed to have received a total of 55,000 letters from people reportingsuch experiences,with approximately When hypnotized she remembereda light and a voice sent him. calling her out of bed. She obeyed againsther will and 200 a week still being to went to a muddy field as a saucer-shapedcraft neared Although these many tens of thousands of UFO the ground.Through the windows she saw beings and abductionexperiences might seem a remarkablylarge a piercing sound preventedher from moving. A warm number, many students of these phenomena believe beam of light then pulled her inside the craft. She that they might be merely the tip of the iceberg. Many found herself inside a white hospitalroom. Two small people would presumablybe embarrassedor afraidto beings with tiny mouths and compelling eyes, dressed admit to having been subjectedto such an ordeal (see as if in motorcyclejackets, told her without speaking Westrum, 1979), and so the actual numberof people to undress and lie down on a table. She resisted but who believe they have been abductedmight be much in. ... At last the doctor entered and eventually gave higher-not to mention the aliens' putative efforts to gave her an injection (?). He then inserted a needle erase memoriesor enjoin their victims to secrecy. For into hernavel. The beings only admittedto being from based on a confidential of studentsat far away and said she would not care who they were. example, survey One being wore a scarf and seemed to be the leader; Temple University, Jacobs (1992) estimated that 15 he remained in the room after the others departed, million people in the United States might have had undressed himself and rubbed her with a jelly. It abductionexperiences. warmedher, whereas the leader's touch was cold, his The most ambitiouseffort to specify the numberof skin grey-white. The being, who had human sexual abducteesin the United States was a survey conducted organs, then rapedher. (p. 69). by the Roper organizationand reportedby Hopkins, Jacobs, and Westrum (1992) in a booklet that was How Many Abductees? recently mailed to many members of the American PsychologicalAssociation. Hopkins et al. claimed that It seems safe to say that most people in this country directlyasking people about such experiences is pointless, now have some familiarity with the UFO abduction becausemost people will eithernot rememberthem di- phenomenon. Eberhart(1986) listed 30 books on the rectly or will not admitto having had them for fear of topic, but the more successful ones have only appeared ridicule.Therefore, the surveyquestions focused on five since he compiled his comprehensivebibliography of experiencessaid to be stronglyassociated to thephenom- the UFO literature-that is, those by Hopkins (1987), enon. Respondents(5,947 randomlysampled American Mack (1994), and Strieber(1987). Whitley Strieber's adults)were asked whether they recalled ever "wakingup (1987) Communion:A True Story, a prototypicalab- paralyzedwith a sense of a strangeperson or presenceor ductionstory, made an especially significantimpact on somethingelse in the room,""experiencing a period of the public. It was the third-best-sellingpaperback non- timeof anhour or more in whichyou wereapparently lost, fiction (sic?) book in 1988 (McDowell, 1989) and was butyou couldnot remember why or whereyou hadbeen," made into a movie the following year (a majorrelease "feeling that you were actually flying throughthe air by a large studio). althoughyou didn'tknow how or why,""seeing unusual The number of people coming forward to report lights or balls of light in a room withoutknowing what that they have fallen prey to the aliens' deeds seems was causingthem or wherethey came from,"or "finding to have grown in proportionto the numberof books, puzzlingscars on yourbody and neitheryou nor anyone movies, and sensationalistic television programsthat else rememberinghow you receivedthem or where you have been devoted to the topic. Early commentators' got them."Hopkins et al. used the workingassumption claims about the extent of the problem were quite thatpeople who reportedhaving at leastfour of these five modest. Greenberg,writing in 1979, noted "some 200 experiences-2% of all those surveyed-were probably reportedcases" (p. 106). Rimmer(1984), on the other abductees.Based on this indirectmethod, Hopkins et al. hand, claimed that about 500 episodes had been re- estimatedthat 3.7 millionAmericans have been abducted ported between 1970 and 1980, and Hopkins (1981) by UFOs. 102 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON Critiquesof this survey and of its conclusions have One kind of abduction story that would be seem- quickly appeared. Stires (1993) pointed out that no ingly impossible to accept would be an urbanabduc- adequateevidence had been presentedfor the validity tion. Clearly, if people were being snatched in the of the questions and none at all for the "four-of-five" middle of cities, millions of people would see what rule (see also methodological and psychometric cri- was going on, and there would by now be an estab- tiques by Dawes & Mulford, 1993; Goertzel, 1994; lished consensual validation that extraterrestrials Hall, Rodeghier,& D. A. Johnson, 1992). Klass (1993) visit our planet to abduct and molest American citi- calculated that if Hopkins et al.'s (1992) conclusions zens. Apparently,though, many abductees fail to see areaccurate, then, since the fall of 1961 (when the Betty any incongruityin reportingthat they were abducted and Barney Hill case usheredin the abductionera), an from crowded urban settings without attracting any average of 340 Americans have been abductedevery notice. One speaker on the topic of UFOs recently day. This high frequencyseems especially implausible stated that, in New York City "therehave even been in light of the fact that no physical evidence exists for cases where people have been taken right out of their anyUFO abduction.Baker (1992a), meanwhile,argued apartmentsby a beam of light. ... Why it goes unno- that the survey probablydoes identify a special group ticed, I don't know" ("Mysteries,"1991, p. 31). of Americans,but not abductees.Baker suggested that On strictly logical grounds, then, UFO abduction they are more likely to be people with various sleep memoriesare difficult to accept.As with everyone else, disorders(to be discussed). though, our initial reactionto the stories people tell- Although the figures reported by Hopkins et al. includingbizarre ones such as these-is to assume that (1992) strike many as incredible,the fact remainsthat they reflect some real experience and to believe them thousandsof people now count themselves among the (see Gilbert, 1991). At present, however, there is no legion of abductees. Gordon (1991) reportedthat 190 compelling evidence that extraterrestrialaliens have of them recently trekkedto Wyoming to attenda con- actually abductedAmerican citizens (for thorough,if ference held exclusively for abductees. now slightly outdatedreviews, see Klass, 1988b; Rim- mer, 1984). For example, an importantsource of sup- port for the extraterrestrialhypothesis would be the Explaining UFO Abduction Reports: testimonyof third-partywitnesses to UFO abductions. A Review of Some Parsimonious Jacobs (1992) claimed that a person can be abducted Explanations even when he or she is part of a small group engaged in some mutual activity. In such cases, the abductors Perhaps the most straightforwardaccount for UFO are said to be able to "switchoff" or somehow distract abductionswould be that they actuallyoccur. Accord- the nontargetedpeople. As a result,unfortunately, only ing to this account, alien beings do in fact visit our one person, the alleged abductee, can provide testi- planet and snatch unfortunateEarthlings at will, but, mony aboutthe incident.In othercases, more than one because the aliens possess a technology so far beyond person has been supposedly abducted at once (see ours, they always manage to evade detection. For Bullard, 1987b). But, as Baker (1992b) noted, such many reasons, we find the "extraterrestrialhypothe- "multiple"abduction reports fall shortof being the kind sis" difficult to accept. Not least among them is the of independent corroborating evidence so eagerly illogical, irrational,and internally contradictory nature sought by those believing in the objective reality of of many UFO abductionstories. For example, even if UFO abductions. Almost without exception, the al- extraterrestrialsdid land on Earth, it is unlikely that leged victims have a close relationshipof some sort they would be able to float people through solid with each otherand have had a chance to communicate walls-and yet events of that kind are commonly andinfluence each otherbefore any investigationtakes reportedby abductees. Also characteristicare jarring place. In addition,they mightbe motivatedto backeach discontinuities in the stories. As already noted, few otherup so thatneither can be accusedof being dishon- abducteesremember entering the aliens' craft (Jacobs, est or insane. 1992). Typically, the aliens appear, and then one is In sum, uninvolvedwitnesses to alien abductionsare suddenly inside the UFO. Randles (1988) called this lacking. Even Jacobs (1992), a prominentadvocate of kind of strangeness the "Oz factor." This is an apt the literal reality of these events, conceded that "no label, for only in the files of an abduction investi- abductionshave surfacedthat took place in the middle gator would one find a story like the following: of a very large groupof people, in full view at a public "Two beings stood guard while the leader and two event"(p. 50). Furthermore,in those few cases in which others examined the witness, removing his shirt and witnesses were physically present during the putative trousers and placing a skullcap on his head. He then abduction,the witnesses' accountshave tendedto con- heard a voice from inside screaming, 'I am Jimmy tradict or underminethe account of UFO abduction. Hoffa"' (Bullard, 1987b, p. 63). Randles (1988) described a case in which an alleged 103 NEWMAN & BAUMEISTER abducteewas clearly seen lying on the groundwhile the Bartholomewet al. (1991) reviewed all of the biograph- abduction was supposed to have been taking place. ical material available for 152 people who claimed Basterfield (1992b) reported that another woman contactwith alien beings, they found thattheir subjects claimed that an abductionoccurred at a time when two were "remarkablydevoid of a historyof mentalillness" otherpeople were standingnext to her and saw nothing (p. 215). Othershave directlyexamined abductees with of the kind happening. standardizedpsychological instruments(e.g., the Min- Physical evidence of some kind might also provide nesotaMultiphasic Personality Inventory [MMPI]) and convincing supportfor the extraterrestrialhypothesis. have found no evidence for psychotic disturbances No photographsor films of an abductionexist, despite (Bloecher, Clamar, & Hopkins, 1985; Mack, 1994; the concerted efforts of some abductees to document Parnell, 1988; Parnell& Sprinkle;1990; Ring & Ros- their experiences on videotape (see Jacobs, 1992, ing, 1990). Ellis (1988) concluded:"We need to admit pp. 259-260). And, althoughothers have assiduously thatsane, intelligentpeople may sincerely perceive, or searchedfor evidence of alien implants-the "smoking come to believe, that they have been attacked or ab- gun"-physical examinationsof abducteeshave never ducted by paranormalagents" (p. 269). revealed any (Basterfield, 1992a). Nor have other arti- facts turnedup. The resultsof investigationsseeking to confirm the reality of UFO abductionsthus compel us Explaining UFO Abduction Reports: to agree with Hough and Randles (1991), who sug- Two Puzzles gested that, ratherthan representinga hostile advance force from some other galaxy, "the spaceshipsemerge Assuming that UFO abductionaccounts are not lit- from our minds"and that "the 'aliens' hauntthe corri- erally true,not conscious fabrications,and not a reflec- dorsof innerspace in our heads"(p. 189). It seems most tion of obvious psychopathology, some more subtle parsimoniousto reject the literalreality of abductions. explanationwill be necessary to make sense of them. Others with a similar view have proposed a rather And, althoughcognitive andmotivational determinants simple psychological explanationfor UFO abduction of psychological phenomena are notoriously difficult reports-mendacity. Baker (1992b) suggested that to disentangle(Sorrentino & Higgins, 1986), ourexpla- many (if not most) such tales are simply lies told by nationcan roughly be divided into two components- people seeking attentionand notoriety. Undoubtedly, the cognitive factors that lead to the development of some reportsare in fact conscious fabrications(for an false memoriesand the motivationalfactors that lead to expose of one such incident, see Klass, 1988b, pp. the constructionof a specific class of false memories, 172-175). On the other hand, those actively involved those involving UFO abductions. with abductees consistently claim that the majorityof To explain why people reportUFO abductions,we "victims"do not seek publicityand insteaddesperately begin by answering a more general question: Why seek to preservetheir anonymity(e.g., Hopkins, 1987; would people claim to rememberthings that did not Jacobs, 1992; for similar observations,see also Rim- actuallyhappen to them?Much research and theorizing mer, 1984; Vallee, 1988). The majoritygo by pseud- have focused on the issue of how pseudomemoriesare onyms when they permit their stories to be made formed,particularly on the role of hypnosis. We briefly public.2 Most UFO abduction accounts cannot there- review thatliterature. As we suggest, the emergenceof fore be easily writtenoff as attention-seekinglies. spuriousmemories underhypnosis has been well doc- Anotherparsimonious psychological explanation of- umentedand might provide one potentcognitive mech- fered by Baker (1992b) is that many abducteesmight anism for the productionof UFO abductionreports. simply be insane and more generally incapableof dis- In additionto describinghow and why people might tinguishingbetween realityand fantasy.Bartholomew, constructfalse autobiographicalmemories in general, Basterfield,and Howard(1991) noted thatpeople with we try to shed light on the meaningof some of the more UFO-related experiences of all kinds, abduction-re- peculiarand shockingaspects of UFO abductionnarra- lated or otherwise, have typically been writtenoff as tives in particular.To do so, we must consider motiva- mentally disturbed.Such labels, however, are usually tional factors. We argue that the details of abduction applied simply on the basis of the bizarrenature of the stories can be understoodquite readily if one assumes stories told, not as the basis of any kind of formal thatwhat these accountsreflect is a desire to effectively psychological evaluation. In contrast, when escape awarenessof the self.

20f as Strieber'scase makes not all abducteesavoid course, clear, Generating False Memories the limelight. In addition, Klass (1988b) reported that some of Hopkins's informantswho demandedsecrecy appearedshortly after- ward on nationally broadcasttelevision programsusing their real Those who have heard testimony from abductees names. often find it difficult to believe that anyone could 104 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON generatesuch detailedaccounts if the accountswere not ingly, many alleged UFO abductionsare said to have accurate reports of real experiences. And they might occurred during solitary drives at night (Bullard, find it difficult to imagine how anyone could experi- 1987b;Rimmer, 1984). ence such an astonishingfailure of "reality-monitoring" Furthermore,Baker (1992a) argued that the "seed" (M. K. Johnson,1988; M. K.Johnson & Raye, 1981)-the for a UFO abductionmemory-that is, the odd experi- processpeople use to decidewhether the information they ence that leads a person to seek help from someone recall derives from an internalor externalsource (i.e., perceivedto be a specialistin anomalousphenomena- whetherit is a memoryof an actuallyperceived event or quite often might be a hypnogogic or hypnopompic just somethingimagined or dreamt).Unfortunately, peo- hallucination(see Hufford, 1982). These frightening ple are not particularlygood at distinguishingbetween experiences, occurring either just before people fall others'real and phony memories(Schooler, Gerhard, & asleep (hypnogogic)or wake up (hypnopompic),are in E. F. Loftus, 1986),and they arenot generallyaware how no way indicative of severe psychopathology. Baker easily false memoriescan be implantedand accepted- (1987) describedthe experience as follows: particularlywhen recall takes place underhypnosis. Thelatter point is crucialbecause, although formal hyp- First,it alwaysoccurs before or afterfalling asleep. noticprocedures are not usedto uncoverevery episode of Second,one is paralyzedor hasdifficulty moving; or UFOabduction, most of thecurrently available accounts are contrarily,one mayfloat out of one's bodyand have anout-of-body experience. Third, the hallucination is in factproducts of thehypnotic state (Rimmer, 1984). Exact oftenbizarre; i.e., one sees aliens,monsters, are to come but of the 104 cases ghosts, figures impossible by, and such.Fourth, after the hallucinationis over the identified Bullard as 71%were by (1989a) "highquality," hallucinatortypically goes back to sleep.And fifth, the associatedwith hypnosis. Other estimates of thenumber of hallucinatoris unalterablyconvinced of the "reality" abductionmemories discovered with the aid of hypnosis of theentire experience. (p. 157) typicallyhave hoveredaround 80% to 90% (e.g., Cooper, 1988; Maccabee, 1985). Similarly,all 13 people whose Certainsensory features, such as musty smells and storieswere presentedin Mack's (1994) book had con- shuffling sounds, are characteristicof hypnogogic and structedtheir stories with the aid of hypnoticregressions. hypnopompicstates (Ellis, 1988) and of UFO abduc- Any discussionof the UFO abductionphenomenon would tion memories.In addition,Ellis (1988) notedthat these thusbe incompletewithout careful consideration of hypno- experiencesof hypnogogicand hypnopompic states are sis-the tool usedto revealthe abductionstories. so common thatdifferent cultures have specific names The research we review on how pseudomemories for them. In Newfoundland, for example, they are might be formed is not uniquely relevant to UFO ab- called the Old Hag in reference to a witch-like entity duction reports. For example, people might also con- that is often hallucinated. fabulate reportsof physical and sexual abuse in early As Baker (1987) noted, many of Strieber's unusual childhood (E. F. Loftus, 1993), involvementin satanic and supposedly UFO-related experiences match so cults (Bottoms, Shaver, & Goodman, in press; Ofshe, closely with those of hypnogogic and hypnopompic 1992; Wright, 1994), or "past lives" (Spanos, 1987). states that there can be no doubt as to what they were The mechanismswe discuss here can play a role in the (see, especially, Strieber, 1988, pp. 82-84, 233). Less creationof all kinds of false memories, but the discus- anecdotally, Spanos, Cross, Dickson, and DuBreuil sion is primarilyfocused on how they might engender (1993) found that "intense"UFO experiences of all UFO abductionreports. kinds (i.e., those not just involving lights or shapes in the sky) more often than not occur while people fall Why Seek Out a Hypnotist? asleep, dream,or wake up. In general, it seems highly plausiblethat a hypnogogicor hypnopompichallucina- As already noted here, abductees initially seek out tion is often the inexplicable experience that is later counseling only because they believe "something fleshed out into an abduction memory. This would strange"happened to them, and they typically are un- account for Hopkins's (1987) descriptionof a typical certain as to what that was. Often, this involves what "bedroomencounter" with aliens, which "involves the seems like an episode of "missing time" (Hopkins, appearanceof a strangefigure (or two or three)standing 1981). In these cases, a person feels that he or she nearthe bed on which the invariablyfrightened subject cannot account for a significant chunk of time. As lies physically paralyzed"(p. 314). Baker (1992a) pointed out, however, not being able to rememberwhat took place for a few hours in even the False Abduction Memories and recentpast is not at all unusual.This kindof experience Hypnosis is especiallylikely on long-distancedrives; people often reportsuddenly being unawareof anything that tran- Needless to say, people baffled and frightened by spired duringlong stretchesof their trips. Not surpris- missing time, disturbing dreams, or hypnogogic or 105 NEWMAN&BAUMEISTER hypnopompichallucinations might end up gettingpro- when Hilgard(as describedin Baker, 1987) suggested fessional help from any numberof sources. However, to a hypnotic subject that he had witnessed a bank people who are alreadyinterested in UFOs seem espe- robbery,this person not only recalled the incident but cially likely to end up with a therapisthaving similar was able to identify a photograph of the man who beliefs and inclinations(or even with a UFO investiga- committedthe fictional crime. Ganaway (1989) went tor of some sort). For example, psychotherapistFiore so far as to conclude: (1989) presented 13 abductioncases, all of whom re- called their experiences while in a hypnotic state. Of The formationof an entire belief system with its own the 13, 4 (pp. 35, 68, 99, 301) hadread or were familiar set of supportingpseudomemories can be cued by a with Strieber's Communion,1 (p. 146) had attendeda simple suggestion from the interviewer, and, if not could become of the seminaron UFOs, and 5 more (pp. 52, 133, 174, 230, extinguished, potentially part subject's permanentsense of narrativetruth. (p. 209) 277) seem to have had a generallong-standing interest in the subject. Thus, at least three fourths of Fiore's Pressureto generate specific memories can also be particularsample had clearlyexhibited some interestin found in the UFO abductionliterature. For example, UFOs before their own abductions. putative when Fiore (1989) visited a well-known abduction This particularcombination-both a therapistand a specialist, complaining about a disturbingdream, the patient with extensive knowledge of UFOs and/orbe- specialist prefaced a hypnotic induction as follows: liefs in the reality of UFOs-is particularlyvolatile, as "Dreamsare very commonly the tip of the iceberg of a becomes clear as we review some of the epistemologi- meeting with ETs [extraterrestrials]. ... Let's get cal pitfalls of hypnosis. In general, the belief that hyp- startedand we'll soon find out about yours"(pp. xvii- nosis is an effective, reliable tool for enhancing valid xviii). Also instructiveis the following dialogue from recall is currentlya minorityview, and much evidence a hypnotic session with an abductee. argues against it (M. T. Orne, 1979; Sheehan, 1988b). Althoughhypnosis increasespeople's sheer numberof Dr. Fiore: Now I'm going to ask you a few recollections, this is true for both accurateand inaccu- questions at this point. You will remember every- ratememories (Dywan & Bowers, 1983), andhypnosis thing because you want to remember. When you is as likely to increase false statementsas true state- were being poked everywhere, did they do any ments. In part, this is due to the fact that, when under kind of vaginal examination? pressureto recallevents underhypnosis, people will try Sandi:I don't think they did. to fill in memory gaps in any way possible-including Dr. Fiore:Now you're going to let yourself know if with fantasies(M. T. Orne, 1979). Recall underhypno- they put a needle in any partof your body, other than the rectum. sis is a reconstructive process subject to numerous Sandi:No. They were carryingneedles around,big biases, includingthose derivingfrom contextual factors ones, and I was scared for a while they were going to loaded and those from the (e.g., questions) stemming put one in me, but they didn't. [Body tenses.] subject's own general knowledge and beliefs about Dr. Fiore:Now just let yourself relax. At the count whatever he or she is attemptingto recollect (M. T. of three you're going to rememberwhether they did Orne, Whitehouse, Dinges, & E. C. Orne, 1988). In put one of those big needles in you. If they did, know addition,the more highly hypnotizablea person is, the that you're safe, and it's all over, isn't it. And if they more likely he or she is to fill in memory gaps with didn't, you're going to rememberthat too, at the count fantasies when requested to recall past events (M. T. of three. One ... two ... three. Orne, 1979). Sandi:They did. (Fiore, 1989, p. 26)

Beliefs and expectations of the hypnotist. It is Hypnotic subjects' recall can be distorted without well established that hints or cues can affect hypnotic resorting to cues or instructions as blatantly explicit subjects and lead them to fulfill hypnotists' expecta- as in the example just presented. Subtle and even tions (Spanos, 1986). For example, Spanos, Menary, inadvertent cues can have the same effect Gabora,DuBreuil, and Dewhirst (1991) instructedtheir (O'Connell, Shor, & M. T. Orne, 1970). In fact, the subjectsto "regressbeyond birth to a previouslife" with influence of a hypnotist or interrogator might be the aid of hypnosis. Furthermore,subjects in different more powerful when it is less overt. Powell and Boer conditions were led to believe that the hypnotist had (1994), in their discussion of recovered memories of specific expectationsabout the characteristicsof those childhood sexual abuse, noted that obvious pressures past lives (e.g., that they would be people of the oppo- to report specific scenes or images might sensitize site sex or child abuse victims). Subjects incorporated people to the possibility that related material that these expectations into their ostensible memories of comes to mind might not be self-generatedor based on past lives significantly more often than did subjects actual experience. Obvious external influences (e.g., who had been given neutral instructions. Similarly, leading questions) might serve as cues that also lead 106 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON abducteesto discountthe veridicalityof theirUFO-re- they are quite difficult to dig up makes these critics lated memories. In general, it might be the very suspicious; if people are just copying science fiction, subtlety of the processes leading to the construction why do they not mainly rely on the most well-known of false memoriesthat results in attributingimages and stories and films? As Kottmeyer argued, such argu- thoughts to actual experiences ratherthan contextual ments miss an importantpoint: It is the very obscurity cues (for decision processes involved in determining of these stories and films that allows them to seep into the source of a memory,see Jacoby& Kelley, 1987;M. abductionaccounts. For example, no one would take a K. Johnson,Hashtroudi, & Lindsay, 1993). personseriously who claimed he had been abductedby Clearly, the evidence suggests that someone with an alien with pointyears who called himself Mr. Spock. firm beliefs aboutthe reality of UFO abductionsmight Kottmeyer even described how a person at a UFO well influence the natureof any putativehidden mem- conference claiming a UFO experience was jeered by ories anotherperson dredges up with the aid of hypno- audience members who recognized similarities be- sis. In addition, research on the effects of hypnotist tween his story and a "Coneheads"sketch on the tele- expectations might well explain the frequentobserva- vision program,Saturday Night Live. Such stories are tion that some of the specific details or features of obviously never followed up on by investigators,and abductionaccounts appear to remainconsistent among they never make their way into print. In fact, it is accounts obtained by the same investigator but vary unlikely that anyone would ever report events with among investigators(as notedby, amongothers, Klass, obvious similaritiesto events from hit movies or best- 1988b; Vallee, 1990). sellers. He or she would recognize the source of these spuriousmemories. Beliefs and expectations of the hypnotized sub- At this point, abductiontales receive enough media ject. Subjects' own general knowledge and expecta- coverageand are so widely known thatthey themselves tions might also help shape what they report while probablyinfluence other people claiming to have been under hypnosis (M. T. Orne, 1979). Hypnotized sub- abducted.One psychotherapist(Cone, 1994) reported jects are prone to believing that an idea, image, or that "about80 percentof the people who have come to thought is based on personal experience even when it me for help aboutabductions have read Communion,or derives from some other source. Baker (1992b) called seen a TV show about abductions" (p. 33). Klass this phenomenoncryptomnesia (see also M. K. Johnson (1988b) discussed the most notoriouscase-the Travis et al., 1993) and likened it to unintentionalplagiarism. Walton abduction,immortalized in the movie, Fire in Cryptomnesia is most obviously in evidence when the Sky (Torme, 1993). The events Walton described people attempt "past-life regression" under hypno- were said to have occurreda scant2 weeks afterthe first sis. Typically, people's "pastlives" show remarkable airingof the television movie aboutthe Hills' abduction parallels to books they have recently read (Baker, story. 1992b). Similarly, subjects being led to believe that The influenceof priorknowledge on memories con- they have encountered extraterrestrialsmight fill in structedduring hypnosis is especially problematicin their stories with details recalled from science-fic- the case of abductees.As alreadynoted here, it is these tion books and movies to which they have been people's interestin UFOs and relatedissues that often exposed. And, despite some vigorous protests to the leads them to abductioninvestigators in the first place. contrary(see Hopkins, 1987; Jacobs, 1992), science- Randles (1988) documented Strieber's interest in the fiction precedents can indeed be found for many subjectof UFOs even before Strieber'salleged abduc- aspects of UFO abduction stories (Bullard, 1989b; tion experiencesbegan, and Baker (1992b) showed that Evans, 1991; Hough & Randles, 1991; Vallee, 1990). the same was truefor Betty Hill. Others,however, have Kottmeyer(1989) provided the most thoroughand arguedthat media saturationwith UFO lore is so exten- compelling discussion of the influence of science- sive thatspecialized knowledge is unnecessaryto flesh fiction stories and movies on the content of UFO out a UFO abductionstory. For example, in a study by abduction accounts, particularly with regard to the Lawson andMcCall (1978), volunteerswho claimed to appearanceof the aliens and their ships. For example, have little knowledgeabout UFOs were hypnotizedand Kottmeyerconvincingly argued that many aspects of asked to imagine encounteringone. They were then Betty Hill's abduction experience derived from the asked a series of specific questions about the objects movie, Invaders From Mars. Some of the features of and entities inside the UFO, and they were also asked her husbandBarney's story,on the otherhand, seem to to describethe kindsof experiencesthey might have on have had their roots in an episode of the television board. These subjects were asked a series of (pur- program,The OuterLimits. One complaintabout anal- posely) leadingquestions, so this is not a satisfying test yses such as these (e.g., Randles, 1988) has been that of how well the averageperson can spontaneouslyflesh the alleged influences on abduction stories that have out the UFO abductionscript (Randles & Warrington, been identified are almost always quite obscure. That 1985). In addition, there were only eight subjects, so 107 NEWMAN& BAUMEISTER one should generalize from this demonstrationwith have arguedfor the literal reality of abductions.Baker caution. Still, many of the details in the stories of these (1992b), however, minimized the importanceof these imaginaryabductees are quite similarto those found in cases. Given his definition of hypnosis as the use of the stories of people claiming to have actually been suggestionto stimulatea person'simagination and relax abducted(see Bullard's, 1989a,analysis). For example, reality constraints(see also Lynn, Rhue, & Weekes, the imaginaryreports included lying on a table while 1990),Baker argued that it is not so surprisingthat abduc- blood samples were taken and genital examinations tion memoriesmight sometimesbe constructedwithout were carriedout. the aid of hypnosis.Enacting the kind of "imaginative role-playing"characteristic of hypnosisis possible even Hypnosis and certainty. Althoughhypnosis does withoutintentional induction of a hypnoticstate. In fact, not enhance accurate memory, it does increase a E. F. Loftus (1993) reviewed numerouscases in which person's confidence in the accuracy of material re- people had been convincedby therapists,family mem- called while in that state, regardless of whether the bers,or law enforcementofficials that they had experi- memories are real or just pseudomemories. In other enced a traumaticevent in the past. People in these words, confabulations subsequently seem to be as situationsuse a variety of reconstructivestrategies to real and true as veridicalmemories (M. T. Orne, 1979; shape the putative memories that fit the experience Sheehan, 1988a). As alreadyargued, certainty might be they arepressured into looking for. The key to implant- enhanced when abduction memories are constructed ing false memories,E. F. Loftusargued, is theprotracted with what seems like minimal pressureand directive- imaginingof events in the presenceof authorityfigures ness from others. Therefore,not only might hypnosis who encouragebelief in and confirmthe authenticityof play a role in leading people to create spuriousmemo- the pseudomemories. ries of UFO abductions;hypnosis might also facilitate So profoundis the influenceof the expertor authority the process of coming to believe that these inventions in chargeof investigatingthe meaningof an anomalous reflect genuine, actualexperiences. eventor disturbingmemory that Ganaway (1989; see also Gardner,1993) arguedthat the same case could end up Summary: Hypnosis and abduction memories. being diagnosed as being due to an alien abduction, Hypnosis is not a magical tool for recoveringinacces- expressionof a multiplepersonality disorder, or repressed sible memories.Many sourcesof bias arepresent when memoriesof sataniccult involvement. The decisive factor recall is attemptedin this state.Furthermore, as Bullard might be the theoryof the investigator.This is vividly (1989a) noted, "abduction research contains almost illustratedby a descriptionof a police interviewof one every possible pitfall of hypnoticinvestigation" (p. 13). ChadIngram, as recentlyrecounted by Wright(1994): (Forcritiques of the "crudetechniques" used by abduc- tion investigators,see also Vallee, 1988, 1990.) Then,in a painfullyhalting manner, he described vivid Despite this evidence, anddespite explicit pleas from dreamshe hadas a child:"People outside my window, I knew ... within the UFO researchcommunity not to use it care- lookingin, but thatwasn't possible, because we were on two floors and I would ... I would have lessly (e.g., Schwarz, 1979), hypnosis continues to be dreamsof, uh, little people... shortpeople coming and seen by UFO abductioninvestigators as a robustpipe- walking on me ... walking on my bed ... line to the truth. Some have claimed to believe that "I couldn't talk. I couldn't move except to close the materialrevealed by hypnosis is trueby definitionand curtain,"Chad went on. "Theonly thing I couldfeel is thatthe techniquederives its effectiveness fromthe fact pressureon mychest." (pp. 62-63) that the subconscious mind acts as "a tape recorder" (see Lorenzon& Lorenzon, 1977, p. 75; also see Fiore, The law enforcementagents interviewing (or inter- 1989, p. 325; cf. E. F. Loftus & G. R. Loftus, 1980). rogating)Chad convinced him that this was no dream Others have professed more awarenessof the pitfalls but instead was a repressed memory of abuse at the but still utilize flawed procedures(Cosculluela, 1993). handsof his father.That is what they were looking for, In short,there is increasingevidence thathypnosis does insofaras they were developing a case for indicting his not simply reveal the UFO abductionphenomenon-it parentson chargesof sexual abuse. Unfortunately,the plays a majorrole in producingit (forsimilar issues in the narrativefrom Wright(1994) is quite plausibly a frag- study of multiple personalitydisorder, see Ganaway, mentary memory of some hypnogogic/hypnopompic 1989,1992; W. C. Young, 1988). hallucination.Furthermore, given some of the details (i.e., little men somehow enteringupstairs windows), it Recall Without Hypnosis is also obviously a memorythat could be interpretedas a prelude to a UFO abduction-given an investigator As noted, some UFO abduction experiences have expecting to find that. been recalled without the aid of hypnosis, and great Finally, Ganaway (1989) described how some peo- importancehas been placed on this fact by those who pie can move into and out of hypnotic trance states 108 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON without the therapistor investigatoreven being aware anyone after even a superficialreview of UFO abduc- that this is happening. These "spontaneous trance tion cases: Abducteesare typically interestedin all sorts states" can occur even without the use of hypnotic of paranormalphenomena. Some claim to possess ex- techniques. There is also evidence that the ability to trasensoryand other psychic abilities (Bullard, 1989b), enter these states is relatedto stable individual-differ- and others report that they often experience strange ence factors, and it is to one of these that we turnnext. poltergeist-like phenomena (e.g., doors opening and Some people might be more likely than others to con- closing, lights blinking on and off; Steiger, 1988). struct pseudomemories of all sorts, including UFO Subjects in Ring and Rosing's (1990) sample of UFO abductionepisodes. experiencersalso reportedother odd experiences and paranormalbeliefs. Fantasy Proneness Empiricalevidence of a link between fantasyprone- ness andabduction reports is admittedlyscant. The first Fantasy proneness is a personalityconstruct devel- formal psychological assessment of abductees, by oped by S. C. Wilson and Barber(1983) as a result of Bloecher et al. (1985), made use of the MMPI, the their researchon a group of highly hypnotizablesub- Rorschach test, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence jects. S. C. Wilson and Barberestimated that about 4% Scale but did not test for fantasy proneness. Hines of the populationcan be confidently classified as fan- (1988), however,summarized that report by noting that tasy prone. People with a fantasy-pronepersonality "these individualshave great difficulty in distinguish- have extensive and vivid fantasy lives, and they even ing reality from fantasy" (p. 201). Similarly, Parnell reporthaving troubledistinguishing between theirfan- and Sprinkle (1990) concluded that subjects who tasies and reality. Fantasy-pronesubjects are more claimed communicationwith extraterrestrialsdid not likely thanothers to reportthat they spentmuch of their show severe manifestations of psychopathology but childhood in a "make-believeworld" interactingwith "had a significantly greater tendency to endorse un- imaginaryplaymates. As adults, they still spend large usual feelings, thoughts, and attitudes"(p. 45). In a partsof their days fantasizing,and they claim to relive novel study, Bartholomewet al. (1991) used archival memories in all sensory modalities. Valid and reliable materialto determine the symptomatology of people instrumentsare now available for measuring fantasy claiming to have had extensive contacts with alien proneness(Lynn & Rhue, 1988). Althoughthis person- beings. Biographicalinformation was availablefor 152 ality profile is unusual,fantasy-prone people are more such people, and clear signs of fantasyproneness (e.g., often than not well-adjusted and are not particularly interactionwith imaginary companions, out-of-body likely to show significant signs of psychopathology experiences) were found in 132 cases (87%). (Rhue & Lynn, 1987). Effortsto establisha moredirect link, however, have Thereare severalindications that UFO abducteesare not been notably successful. Ring and Rosing (1990) relatively high in fantasy proneness. First, given how and Rodeghier, Goodpaster,and Blatterbauer(1991) many abductionmemories are uncoveredby hypnosis, found no evidence that abducteesare particularlyfan- it would appearthat people constructingthese memo- tasy prone. But, as noted by Bartholomew and ries are highly hypnotizable.Fantasy proneness is of Basterfield (1990), Ring and Rosing did not utilize course significantly associated with hypnotizability; standardizedmeasures; Baker (1991) also pointed out indeed, for S. C. Wilson and Barber (1983), this was thatRing andRosing's subjectsdid in fact seem to have the hallmark of the fantasy-pronepersonality. Other fantasy-pronepersonalities in that they were shown to recent studies have also confirmed this (e.g., Silva & be highly imaginal.Rodeghier et al., althoughstanding Kirsch, 1992), although other researchershave cau- by their findings, still acknowledged that "all studies tioned that the relation might only be moderate(Lynn have without exception found some peculiarities of & Rhue, 1988). In sum, if those reportingUFO abduc- abductees that place them somewhere apartfrom the tions tend to be fantasyprone, this would explain their mass of normalindividuals" (p. 62).4 apparenthypnotizability. Anotherpiece of indirectevidence for a link between UFO abductionreports and fantasyproneness was pro- 3Note that we are taking no position on the causal processes this relation. lead vided and who found thatUFO underlying Although fantasy proneness might by Ring Rosing (1990), people to constructpseudomemories of abuse, it is also possible that experiencersreported higher levels of abuse in child- the etiology of fantasyproneness involves childhood abuse. hood than did control subjects.Fantasy-prone subjects 4Mostrecently, Spanos et al. (1993) foundthat, among subjects who are also more likely than other subjectsto reportbeing believedthey had sighted or made contact with UFOs,fantasy proneness physically abused as children (Lynn & Rhue, 1988).3 was positivelycorrelated with the intensityand detailof theirreported It is whetherthere were abductees Irwin also that cor- experiences. unclear,however, any (1990) reported fantasy proneness (as defined in the presentarticle) in this sample. In addition,those relatedwith a wide variety of paranormalbeliefs. This reportingUFO experiencesdid not scoreas morefantasy prone overall finding sheds light on a fact that will be obvious to thansubjects in a "nonexperiencer"comparison group. 109 NEWMAN & BAUMEISTER Clearly, more researchis needed to establisha more of other people who claim to have had similar experi- direct link between fantasy proneness and the genera- ences and who thus help to confirm the reality of the tion of UFO abductionmemories (see Bartholomew& abduction.Some mentalhealth professionals who work Basterfield, 1990; Powers, 1991; Ring, 1990); much with abductees routinely refer their clients to such indirect evidence, however, suggests such a connec- groups (Mack, 1994). Anotherpsychotherapist (Cone, tion. Abductees are likely to belong to a subset of the 1994) remarked,"I know many abductees who center populationwith intense and vivid fantasylives. their life aroundthe experience"(p. 33). Another line of research pointing toward the same Interestingly,this kind of behavioris consistent with conclusion focuses on individual differences in tem- predictionsderived from Festinger's (1957, 1964) the- poral-lobe stability. People with excessive electrical ory of cognitive dissonance. According to the theory, activity within their temporal lobes (due to either psychological discomfort-or dissonance-results congenital lability or surgical stimulation) have been when two or more cognitions are in conflict. For exam- shown to report a consistent cluster of odd experi- ple, a belief such as "People don't get kidnappedby ences. Among these experiences are visual halluci- space aliens"is clearlyinconsistent with the knowledge nations; mystical experiences, often involving that one has reportedjust such an experience. And, elaborate delusions; unusual sounds, smells, and more recent analyses suggest that the discomfort voices; and a phenomenon called "the sense of pres- caused by dissonant cognitions is especially strong ence"-an intense feeling of closeness, physical or when it resultsfrom having said or done somethingthat otherwise, to a godlike or other kind of special entity is at odds with one's self-concept-that is, something (see Beyerstein, 1988; Makarec & Persinger, 1990; thatsurprises oneself or makes oneself feel ashamedor Persinger, 1989). According to Persinger (1989), one stupid (Aronson, 1992; Nel, Helmreich, & Aronson, need not be a full-blown temporal-lobe epileptic and 1969). Claiming to be an abductee, of course, poten- prone to uncontrollable seizures in order to experi- tially implies that one might be insane-an attribute ence these phenomena, which are typically felt to be that most people would be surprisedand ashamed to real-that condition represents only an extreme end possess. of a continuum of temporal-lobe instability. Dissonance might be resolved in any number of The "visitorexperience" reported by abducteesmight ways (e.g., by changing beliefs or discounting incon- be a special case of the sense of presence,and Persinger sistent cognitions), but Festinger (1964) hypothesized (1989, 1992) hypothesizedthat careful testing of those that, after making a choice, decision, or commitment, claiming to have been abducted by UFOs will reveal people will tend to favor and seek out information them to be high on the continuum of temporal-lobe supportingtheir behavior and also to avoid informa- instability. Makarec and Persinger (1990) validated tion that would call what they had done into question. a questionnaireto reliably measure temporal-lobein- Accumulationof behavior-consonantinformation (e.g., stability.Makarec and Persinger's questionnaire focuses hearingother people's abduction stories) serves to reduce on whatthey called "temporallobe signs";interestingly, dissonance,and being surroundedby people who share many of these signs would also seem to characterizea one's questionablebelief shouldaccelerate this process. fantasy-proneperson (e.g., "As a child, I played with an In fact, Festinger,Riecken, and Schachter(1956) argued imaginaryfriend," "I often feel as if things are not real," thatthe availability of socialsupport for a threatenedbelief "I have had a vision"). Futureresearch must pinpoint is a necessarycondition not only for maintenanceof the the conceptualdifferences between temporal-lobeepi- belief but for "increasedfervor" (p. 3). Frey's (1986) lepsy and fantasy proneness, which are highly corre- reviewof theliterature on selectiveexposure revealed that lated (Persinger& Desano, 1986). such effects-and to a lesser extent,selective avoidance of dissonantinformation-are most pronounced when (a) Maintaining One's Belief in a UFO the decisions or actions that cause dissonanceare per- Abduction Memory ceived to be eitherirreversible or reversibleonly at great cost, (b) dissonantinformation is not felt to be easily Needless to say, one could construct a memory of refutable,and (c) consonantinformation is not yet well a UFO abduction but subsequently decide that the integratedinto one's cognitivesystem. memory was false when faced with the inevitable The conditionsspecified by Frey(1986) arguablyhold disbelief of other people and the complete lack of for abductees.If a personannounces that he or she was hard evidence for abductions. Some abductees might mistakenabout an abductionmemory, this is tantamount indeed "recant,"but many do not. Among the factors to admittingto an inabilityto distinguishbetween fantasy thatallow abducteesto maintaintheir beliefs, one of the and reality.Hence, disavowingan abductionmemory is most importantmight be the supportgroups they often no easy thingto do. In addition,it is clearthat dissonant seek out and join (see Cooper, 1993; Geist, 1987; information(i.e., lack of objective evidence for UFO Gordon, 1991; Klass, 1990). Such groups are made up abductions)would be difficult for abducteesto refute, 110 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON especially while they are still adjustingtheir view of Spanos, Burgess, & Burgess, 1994). Most abductees reality to accommodate the possibility of alien inter- beginwith someunexplained experience, feeling, dream, ventions into their lives. In sum, cognitive dissonance or memory.The most intense and disturbingof these is theorywould predictthat abductees would tend to seek likely to be a hypnopompicor hypnogogic hallucina- out social support for the unusual and difficult-to- tion. They seek out help in orderto make sense of what defend beliefs to which they have committed them- happenedto them and might end up with a UFO expert selves. This, in fact, is what seems to occur. or a therapistinterested in such matters. In fact, they It might be instructiveto compare the behaviorof might intentionally seek out such people because abducteesto thatof Festingeret al.'s (1956) subjects- they suspect that something of a paranormalnature membersof a "doomsday"group known as "the Seek- might have happened. Because of their beliefs ers."The Seekers believed thatthey were in touchwith about the nature of their experiences, whatever wise andpowerful alien beings who were revealingthe knowledge they have about UFOs (along with sci- imminentdestruction of the world.Needless to say, the ence-fiction imagery) becomes intertwined with Seekers' message did not meet with universal accep- their actual memories during a subsequent hypnotic tance but insteadattracted ridicule. The responseof the regression. This process is reinforced by hints and Seekers was to band together more tightly as a group cues from the hypnotist, and an abduction memory is so as to mutually supportone anothers'beliefs and to constructed.If the person involved is highly fantasy shield themselves from the threatposed by nonbeliev- prone, he or she will be especially responsive to the ers. In addition, convincing themselves that their be- hypnotic induction and especially good at generating liefs were valid occasionallytook the form of identifying a UFO abductionstory. Abductees are likely to have otherpeople they encountered as beingaliens or in league this trait-given thatfantasy-prone people are less able with the aliens (including,to their dismay,members of thanothers to distinguishbetween actual experiences and Festingeret al.'s researchteam who had infiltratedthe imaginedones-and so will be more proneto "remem- group).Ultimately, the Seekers'search for belief-consis- bering"the odd experiences that might lead them to tent informationtook the form of active proselytizing. suspectthat they havebeen abducted.Finally, people feel Successful proselytizing,of course, would increasethe certainthat the events reportedin the hypnoticsituation numberof people with consonantopinions. aretrue. Not all elementsof this scenarioare necessary for As the Seekers did before them, abductees face anabduction memory to emerge,but at least some of them great skepticism in response to their beliefs. As dis- seem presentin each case. cussed, abductees commonly respond to this uncom- fortable situation in a mannersimilar to thatobserved by Festinger et al. (1956)-they band together with Escaping the Self: The Motivational like-minded people. Furthermore,it is also common Themes of UFO Abduction Narratives for abductees to report repeated encounters with mysterious people who they are convinced either are We have already framed our discussion of UFO aliens or have some connection to the aliens who abductions in terms of two questions-why people abducted them-the "men in black" phenomenon rememberthings that did not actually happen to them (see Conroy, 1989; Rojcewicz, 1987). Finally, pros- and why they might come up with UFO-abduction elytizing has also been observed among abductees, memoriesin particular.In answeringthe first question, as evidenced by Strieber's creation of a "Communion we have in partanswered the second: Abductionmem- Foundation"for the purpose of spreading the word ories are often "recovered"with hypnosis, and they aboutthe abductionphenomenon (Klass, 1990). Others reflect the biases of the hypnotistand how those biases have also been compelled to sharetheir teachings (see and demandsinteract with the hypnotic subject's own the case studiesin Mack, 1994, chaps. 8, 12). As already knowledge and beliefs. But, although the materialre- arguedhere, it is actuallymore common for abductees viewed sheds light on how false memories might de- to keep a low profile. It should be noted, though, that velop, we do not believe thatthe mechanismsdescribed the Seekers only initiatedtheir proselytizing when the are sufficient to explain the strikingconsistency across dissonanceproduced by theirbeliefs increasedin inten- most UFO abductionstories that has so baffled observ- sity due to the public disconfirmationof many of the ers. Many features of these stories hang together in a group's predictions. nonobviousbut, we believe, coherentway. The co-oc- currenceof these features becomes more meaningful False Memories: A Summary when they are viewed as elements of an escape-from- self fantasy. We can now sketch a brief outline of how people As we have arguedpreviously (Baumeister& New- might come to believe that they had an unpleasant man, 1994), the shape of almost any personalnarrative encounter with space aliens (see also Baker, 1992a; is a function not only of cognitive and contextualcon- 111 NEWMAN& BAUMEISTER straintsbut of motivational factors as well. How ab- famous of these people who claimed to have been duction stories are constructed does seem to be af- chosen to save the world, but many psychologists will fected by an individual's response to the be morefamiliar with Mrs. Keech from WhenProphecy contingencies of the immediate situation (e.g., the Fails (alreadydiscussed here;Festinger et al., 1956). demands and expectations of other people). An These early contactees are now believed to have abductee's knowledge of UFO-relatedphenomena also mostly been deliberatehoaxers, and their motives for plays an importantrole. More generally, retrieving a concocting their stories seem rather straightforward: memory is a matter of reconstruction,and schemata, Any numberof theoreticalperspectives are consistent expectations, and other cognitive factors direct and with the idea thatpeople seek to feel andappear import- constrain this process. The stories we tell about our- ant, talented,and unique (see Banaji & Prentice, 1994; selves, however, are not simply a consequenceof "dis- Baumeister,1991b; Snyder & Fromkin, 1980; Tesser, passionately applying theory to data"(Ross, 1989, p. 1986). Such self-aggrandizingpatterns are common 353); they are also a function of what we want to featuresof the accountspeople provide of experiences believe. As Erdelyi (1993) also argued, motivational in theirlives (see Baumeister& Newman, 1994). Con- and emotional as well as intellectiveconsiderations are tactee stories can be understoodto be clear (if outland- surely involved in the constructionof autobiographical ish) expressionsof needs for self-enhancement. narratives. Personal narratives and stories are inti- It is considerablymore difficult, however, to explain mately relatedto needs, goals, and wants. contemporaryreports of encounterswith space aliens At first glance, the notion that people might be in the same terms, because the reportsdo not enhance motivated to construct UFO abduction experiences self-esteem in any apparentway. Mack (1992a), in fact, might seem improbable. In the typical account, the referredto the standardabduction tale as "a self-de- person is a helpless pawn of powerful, superior be- stroyingtraumatic narrative" (p. 12). Hopkins ("Alien ings who inflict degrading and painful experiences AbductionClaims," 1988) made similar observations: on him or her. A perplexed Randles (1988), for example, wondered, "Who would wish for the One of the psychologistswho has done interviewswith trauma these involve?" (p. 200). Jacobs (1992) was the people whom I've worked with-quite a few of equally baffled by "what kind of a psychological them-said to me, "Why would anyone fantasize a like this?"It doesn't the satisfactionof mechanism" UFO abduction narrativescould possi- thing give you a paranoidimage where you struggle against over- bly reflect and asserted that these stories "would be whelming odds and evils that are following you. On if not to attributeto extremely difficult, impossible the other hand, it doesn't give you the satisfaction of internally generated psychological fantasies" (p. 26). having been chosen for some wonderful quasi-reli- Thus, from some perspectives, the unpleasantnessof gious role in the world. In fact, you have been turned these experiences apparentlydiminishes the plausibil- into a kind of neutered, powerless figure with no ity thatpeople would be motivatedto constructthem. autonomywhatever. (p. 274) The psychological function of abduction stories is especially puzzling in contrast to the seemingly If enhancementof self-worth and perceived control transparentmotives of an earlier wave of people who cannot account for the genesis of UFO abductionsto- claimed to have interacted with extraterrestrials- ries, other needs and motives might be relevant. As namely, the "contactees"from the 1950s (see Hough& already noted, we concur strongly with Langford's Randles, 1991; Westrum, Swift, & Stupple, 1984). characterizationof UFO abductionnarratives as mas- These people's alleged experiences with aliens were ochistic (Hough & Randles, 1991). It is quite plausible quite differentfrom those usually reportedtoday. Typ- that the same motivations that cause some people to ically, the wise, benevolent, and attractive "Space generate masochistic fantasies might cause others to Brothers"(often from the planet Venus) of the 1950s generate spurious memories of being abducted by would take Earthlingson voyages to distantworlds and UFOs. Baumeister (1989) proposed that masochistic discuss with them important interplanetarymatters. fantasies and desires are derived from a motivation to People so lucky to be chosen (presumablybecause of escape from self-awareness and identity. In response to theirspecial qualitiesor abilities) were given messages the threats,stresses, and other burdensof modernego- to pass along to the people of Earth,usually involving tism, some people become motivated to escape from warnings about atomic weapons and a plea for every- themselves periodically, and experiences that might one to live together in peace, brotherhood,and har- thwartself-esteem and control (two centralfeatures of mony. None of these early contactees was kidnapped selfhood) might help accomplish this. After all, that or assaulted, as today's abducteesclaim to have been, many people wish and even pay money to be tied up, andthe aliens the earliercontactees met have even been humiliated, and subjected to mild pain indicates that characterizedas "jolly fellows" (Hough & Randles, people are sometimes attractedto such experiences. 1991, p. 68). George Adamski (1955) was the most The motivationalfactors that lead some people to be- 112 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON come masochists are perhaps also being expressed in setting)aspects of the self (Baumeister,1990a, 199la). UFO abduction stories, and these motives might ex- This is accomplishedthrough the process of cognitive plain why people create spurious memories of such deconstruction,which involves mental narrowingfor experiences. the purpose of stripping away meaning. Typically, when we perceive events, we link them to one another Escaping the Self: A Review and to other aspects of our knowledge, including past events and knowledge about ourselves. It is this inter- The self may be understood as a physical body pretiveactivity that gives events meaningand connects overlaid with meanings and definitions. Although the them to who we are, what we have done, and what roots of selfhood in the physical body might be quite might happento us-that is, our personalidentities. If similar everywhere, the meanings and definitions that one can avoidconsideration of the implicationsof one's constitutepersonal identity depend on culture and so- behaviorfor oneself or others, one can escape the self. ciety and thereforevary widely across historical,eth- A process of cognitive deconstructionreplaces (in nic, and cultural boundaries(e.g., Baumeister, 1986; the person's awareness)meaningful action and experi- Markus& Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1990). ence with mere bodily movement and sensation. In- As argued by Baumeister (1991a), in order to stead of focusing on the meaningful aspects of self, achieve happiness and avoid suffering, the self must such as one's identity and its relationto standardsand accomplish two goals-maintain positive evaluations ideals, the person might focus on the physical self and (in one's own eyes and others') and attainsome level how it feels. In particular,the most problematicaspects of control over the environment.The self needs to be of selfhood-namely, the pervasive concern with self- liked andneeds to be in control.Awareness of self often esteem and efficacy-might be avoided in favor of focuses on comparisonof these meaningfulaspects of attendingto mere bodily processes and sensations. If self with importantculturally and personally relevant successful, this method of deconstructionand escape standards,and, in many cases, the comparisonis unfa- will reduceone to a biological entity experiencingonly vorable, which makes being awareof the self aversive pain and pleasure, as opposed to a wife, husband, (Duval & Wicklund, 1972). When self-awareness is mother,father, lawyer, or studentwho hasjust failed an aversive or stressful, people will seek to avoid and importanttest. escape from it (e.g., Greenberg& Musham, 1981). The essence of cognitive deconstructionis thus ac- Baumeister(199 la) identifiedseveral causes for the tive avoidance of meaningful thought. The desire to escape from self-awareness.One of these is a deconstructed state has a number of general charac- recentsetback or problemthat reflects badly on the self, teristics. One is cognitive immediacy, or the shrink- making thoughts of self highly unpleasant,such as if age of the time span to the here and now. One focuses the person feels stupid, clumsy, or unlovable. The ac- awareness exclusively on what is happening in the tual experienceof failureor some othercalamity, how- immediate present. Past and future events recede ever, is not necessary for one to seek refuge from from awareness, as do thoughts about other people. self-awareness. The self might become burdensome Related to this is a procedure orientation. Cognitive simply as a result of constantly having to maintaina deconstruction involves a focus on the techniques, positive image of the self. Even if nothingbad happens, instruments,and other detailed aspects of the activity a person could experience great stress due to his or her in which one has become immersed. One attends to fears about what might happen. Strong and persistent the means and not the end. Focusing on procedural demandsfor autonomy,responsibility, and success can details helps people to evade the broadercontext of become unbearable,and the pressureto constantly"be their actions. For example, Baumeister(1990a) noted in control"and make choices anddecisions mighteven- that those involved in the Nazis' genocidal projects tually take its toll. appearedto focus their attentionon the technical as- Unfortunately,it is particularlydifficult to escape pects of theirjobs (i.e., the proceduresand equipment from a stateof self-awareness.Self-regulation involves used to efficiently kill people) ratherthan on the moral monitoring the self to ascertain the success of the implicationsof their actions. regulatoryefforts, and so the very act of self-regulation There are various techniques for escaping from is linked to self-awareness (Carver& Scheier, 1981, self-awareness, and these differ in their potency, ease 1982). Therefore, a self-regulatory attempt to cease of use, and appealing side effects. Alcohol consump- being self-awareis a paradoxicalundertaking that con- tion appears to be a popular and effective means of tains an internalcontradiction. reducing self-awareness(Hull, 1981; Hull, Levenson, To avoid this logical paradox, efforts to escape R. D. Young, & Scher, 1983; Steele & Josephs, 1990). from self-awarenessfrequently involve shifting atten- The presuicidal mental state involves various tion away from meaningfulaspects of the self and onto deconstructive shifts, and the suicide attempt itself relatively meaningless (and hence less stressfulor up- might be a powerful means of concentratingattention 113 NEWMAN & BAUMEISTER on a narrowly circumscribed sphere (Baumeister, Otherpeople presentoften deepen the embarrassment 1990b). An eating binge appears to involve mental andhumiliation by makingderogatory comments about narrowing,cessation of self-monitoring,and otherfea- the masochist's behavioror performance.Last, consis- tures common to escapes from self (Heatherton& tentwith the pattern of deconstruction,pain undermines Baumeister, 1991). In a more positive context, many meaningfulthought and focuses attentionon immediate spiritualregimens cultivate systematic techniques for physical sensations(see Scarry, 1985). shedding egotism and other familiar aspects of self- The profile of the typical masochist is also reveal- hood, and, indeed, many meditativeexercises empha- ing. Other than their sexual activities, the average size mental narrowing and cognitive deconstruction masochist seems quite normal. In fact, Spengler's (Baumeister, 1991la). For the present purposes, how- (1977) study of Germanmasochists found them to be ever, the most relevantpattern of escaping self-aware- typically successful individuals from the upper (and ness is sexual masochism, to which we now turn. uppermiddle) classes, and other studies have reached similar conclusions (see Baumeister, 1989, for a re- view). Overall, masochism is more common among Masochism As Escape From Self upper socioeconomic classes than lower ones and more common among Whites than Blacks, and (con- Althoughthe termmasochism has had multiple,com- traryto stereotypes) it may be more common among plex, and inconsistentusages, the originalmeaning re- men than women (Baumeister, 1988b). The distribu- ferredto a patternof sexualactivity, and other usages are tion of masochism in the population supports its based on putativeanalogies to sexual masochism(see conception as an escape-from-self phenomenon; Baumeister,1989). This originaland prototypicalmas- those with the most inflated selves seem to be most ochism involves submissionto anotherperson through drawn to it. People with higher paying and more loss of control, humiliationand embarrassment,and/or prominentjobs, with more responsibility, and, hence, pain. The masochisticactivities often serve as a prelude with bigger burdens on their egos seem to be most to some formof sex, but,in some cases,sex remainsat the likely to engage in masochistic activity. level of fantasyand arousal.Contrary to popularbelief, The culturaland historicalrelativity of masochism most masochistsare very carefulto avoidinjury or genu- supportsthe hypothesis that it is linkedto modemWestern ine danger, and they tend to prefer limited, carefully problemsof selfhood. During the early modem period measureddoses of pain ratherthan extremeones (Bau- (1500 to 1800), Westernculture changed to renderindi- meister,1989; Scott, 1983). vidualselfhood much more problematic, and masochism The removal of self-awarenesshas been depicted as seemsto havespread through Western culture at aboutthe the essentialpart of the appealof masochism(Baumeis- same time (Baumeister,1986, 1987, 1988b, 1989). That ter, 1988b, 1989, 1991a). Masochism can be under- is, when the culturesubjected people to increasingpres- stood as a set of techniquesthat systematically make it suresto be independent,autonomous, self-creating, and impossible for the person to continue being aware of individuallysuccessful, masochism spread, presumably himself or herself in conventional,familiar terms. First, as an appealingform of escapefrom those very pressures. bondageand other aspects of submissionundermine the The historicalrecord is thusconsistent with the notionof self s persistent efforts to seek control and efficacy. masochismas escapefrom self. Masochists are frequentlytied up andrendered incapa- To sum up, masochism is a particularlyeffective ble of activity and initiative. Among other devices, means to deconstructmeaning and escape the self. It ropes, scarves,neckties, stockings, handcuffs, and gags temporarilyundermines key aspects of the self-par- are typically utilized as restraints(Baumeister, 1988b). ticularlythe active, controlling,agentic aspect and the In addition, he or she typically must submit to other esteem-maximizingaspect. Ironically, then, the expe- people and follow their commands. The self as a re- riences of being tied up, treatedlike a slave, whipped sponsible decision-makeris in this way renderedirrel- or spanked,dressed in demeaning costumes, verbally evant, so, for those who find those requirementsof the abused, and subjectedto various other indignities can self to be burdensome,masochistic activity will serve have a widespreadand potent appeal to manypeople- as an effective escape. at least as an escape fromeveryday life andthe ongoing Humiliation and embarrassmentfurther thwart the pressuresof modernselfhood. self s concernwith maximizingesteem and might even leave too littledignity to maintainany normaladult iden- tity.Men aredressed as babiesor in women'sunderwear; Similarities Between Masochism and women are tied nakedto a tablewith theirlegs spreadin UFO Abduction Accounts a roomfulof strangers;people aretreated like dogs, com- plete with a leash; and people are forced to engage in a As just detailed, the main features of masochism- varietyof submissiveand/or degrading sexual activities. both actual activities and fantasies-are pain, loss of 114 THEUFO ABDUCTION PHENOMENON control, and humiliation. All three of these themes Straightforwardphysical restraintssometimes appear dominateUFO abductionaccounts. in UFO abduction stories as well. Some abductees report wearing collars (Hopkins, 1987, p. 98), and Pain. Painis a centralfeature of manyUFO abduc- others describe being pinned down by armbands tion narratives.What abductees are subjected to is often (Lorenzon& Lorenzon, 1977, p. 26) or tied down with quite unpleasantand sadistic.Vallee (1988) even stated rubbertubing (Mack, 1994, p. 74). Metal and Velcro- that, if aliens are actuallycarrying out physical exami- like strapsalso appear(Lorenzon & Lorenzon, 1977, p. nations, "the UFOnauts should go back to medical 59; Jacobs, 1992, pp. 83, 90). Many narratives,how- school" (p. 240). In fact, althoughsometimes the pain ever, simply indicate that the aliens, in some mysteri- that is recalled is intense-some abductees have re- ous, unexplained way, deprived the person of all portedfeeling as if they were being rippedapart-often control. In fact, a sense of being externally controlled the pain is administeredin quite manageable doses. was identified by Hopkins (1987, p. 12) as the most Bullard (1987a) noted that some describe their limbs common attributeof UFO abductiontales. As Strieber being roughly flexed. Also typical is a story by one of (1987) reported: Fiore's (1989) subjects,who said thatthe aliens hurther when "they ... poked, poked, poked, poked ... and ... I felt thatI was underthe exact and detailed controlof just poked everywhere ... every little rib and bone and whomeverhad me. I could not move my head, or my muscle" (p. 25; see also Jacobs, 1992, p. 58). hands, or any part of my body save for my eyes. this, I was not tied. The hypothesized parallel between the painful pro- Despite (p. 15) cedures described in both masochistic fantasies and Later,discussing an alien he had identified as female, UFO abduction accounts also more fully explains a Strieber(1987) noted: "In her presence, I had no per- fascinating discovery by Disch (1987), who reviewed sonal freedomat all. I could not speak, could not move Strieber's (1987) Communionfor the weekly maga- as I wished" (p. 100). Similarly, anotherabductee re- zine, The Nation. In his book, Strieberparenthetically portedthat "a force ... it wouldn't quit holding me. It mentioned having written a short story called "Pain" wouldn't let me move. ... I'm just stuck there ... just (1986). Disch trackeddown the book in which the story an invisibleforce" (Lorenzon & Lorenzon,1977, p. 56). had appearedand observed that it had an "acornto oak" Over and above and other kinds of re- relationto the later Communion."Pain" is abouta man physical straints,abductees and their narrativesmore generally who does research on prostitutes in New York and issues of control and the ability to who allows himself to be drawn into some of their emphasize personal exercise it. This is vividly illustratedin the following activities. More specifically, the protagonist(who, as cases investigatedby Fiore (1989): described, bears a remarkablesimilarity to Strieber) in classic masochistic rituals: He is tied participates I'm inside some sort of roomlike area, on a table, spread-eagle to a bed, beaten ("I felt a thrill of pain"), undressed,nude, and I don't like this at all. I'm totally and locked in a small steel closet that is heated with a out of control. One of the things I really hate about it blowtorch ("Thank you," he says, like a masochist is the feeling of being out of control,completely in their responding to a spanking). The protagonist's experi- power, the feeling of being probed. I don't have any ences cause great enlightenment-there are even nu- recollection of severe pain, but definitely discomfort meroushints that the pain inflicters in the story are not and fear. Apprehension.They could do anythingthey quite of our world-and he learns that pain "lifts the wanted to do with me, and I have no choice in the burdenof self from your shoulders"(p. 276) andcauses matter.(p. 70) one' s "identificationas a separateself' to ebb away (pp. That's when I realizedthat what I said didn't make any 279-280). Both phrasesarticulate the notion of escape difference.That's really hard to deal with, when you're from self in explicit terms. Disch concludedthat Strie- a personwho likes to sense thatyou have control over ber had made "the imaginative equation between the your life, and you've spent thirty-eightyears of your 'archetypalabduction experience' and the ritualproto- life making decisions in relative freedom, practicing some But it on cols of bondage and domination"(p. 332). Whetherthe self-government. you're practicing yourself, self-discipline. To have someone else say to "imaginativeequation" was deliberatelymade or not, you, "You haven't got the choice. We have to do this." we agree that the connection is not coincidental. The There is no choice. That's the hardestthing, Edie, to framework a escape-from-self provides parsimonious experience.You have no choice. (p. 299) way of explaining why someone attractedto or fasci- nated by the painful rituals of masochism would also Similar comments abound in other accounts. In a a generate UFO abductionnarrative. case presentedby Steiger (1988), an abductee said of the aliens that "it was necessary to show me that they Loss of control. In the case of masochism, loss had control. I must never doubt that they have control of control is generallyaccomplished through bondage. over me or anyoneelse" (p. 93). One of Jacobs's (1992) 115 NEWMAN & BAUMEISTER subjects,reliving her experience, reportedthat "I have Sometimes, anal humiliation is involved. Strieber no will. I have no will. I'm being absorbed and I'm (1987), for example, claimed thathis captorsinserted a not fighting it" (p. 99). And, in 10 of the 13 cases large object into his rectum, as did a female abductee presented by Mack (1994), surrenderingand losing hypnotizedby Fiore (1989, p. 16; see also Jacobs, 1992, control are explicitly discussed as either a central p. 93; Mack, 1994, p. 283). Anothermeans of humilia- feature of the UFO abduction experience or as some- tion was described in a case presented by Bullard thing the experience teaches people they must learn (1987b, p. 40): A man reportedthat his alien captors to do.5 Mack's own treatmentof this theme is quite dressed him up in a diaper (a portion of the transcript consistent with our hypothesis that it representsan from this case is presented earlier in this article). As implicit desire for deconstruction of the self. Mack discussed by Baumeister (1989), such treatmentas a (1994) remarked: helpless, subservient infant is one popular form of masochisticfantasy and activity. Thehelplessness and loss or surrender of controlwhich Oddly enough, accordingto Bullard(1987a), "in the are,at leastinitially, forced upon the abductees by the end the witness often leaves the companyof his captors aliens-one of themost traumatic aspects of theexpe- with a sense of affection for them and a sadness at their riences-seem to be in someway "designed" to bring departure, paradoxical impressions considering the abouta kindof ego death.(p. 399) treatmenthe received" (p. 14). Strieber,for example, reportedpositive feelings for one of his "female"tor- Not only do "loss of control"themes appearin UFO mentors, that he "would like to take her abduction accounts, but there is some indication that exclaiming away, for my own self." However, Strieberwas abducteesare often people with strongneeds for control quick to qualifythat statement: "If I had thatsort of sentiment in theireveryday lives. Such people mightoccasionally I thinkshe would be extremelyannoyed. She's already yearn to relax their vigilance. Strieber (1987, 1988) nearly always extremely annoyed with me, which is noted several times in his writings that he always per- fine. I don't mind that"(Conroy, 1989, 363). Simi- ceived a need to maintain control as being a central p. larly, after discussing the "feelings of humiliationand issue in his life. For example, he confessed to disliking violation"that the rectal air travel because flying in airplanesmeans giving up accompanied probes given by the aliens, one abductee for 'the control to others (Strieber,1988, p. 165). And Gordon "expressedgratitude wonderful (Mack, 1994, 300). (1991), summarizinghis experiences at a conference opening experience"' p. Such happy endings and feelings of affection for the for abductees, observed that they seemed in general aliens seem quite incongruous,given the humiliations very concernedwith maintaining"control in theirpro- abductees have suffered at their hands. fessional lives" but that their abduction experiences supposedly Such sentiments,however, make sense from a have taughtthem lessons "abouttheir own vulnerabil- perspec- tive that views abductionnarratives as about the ity, and the Earth's, that allow them to give up the being fulfillment of an intense desire to the self. As illusion of personalcontrol" (p. 92). escape discussedby Baumeisterand Newman (1994), masoch- istic narrativesalso end with of Humiliation. As discussed, humiliation-espe- frequently expressions and an to cially sexual humiliation-is centralto masochism.The gratitude,positive feelings, eagerness repeat the same seems to be true for the UFO abduction expe- experience. the incidents of sexual a rience. For example, male abductees often make note Despite many humiliation, review of one of the most collections of of vacuum-like devices being attached to their geni- complete abduction accounts reveals at least tals (see Hopkins, 1987, pp. 200-201; Jacobs, 1992, (Bullard, 1987b) one in which abductionnarratives p. 124). Mack (1994) noted that the aliens "delight importantway long differed from masochistic accounts-actual in watching humans in all sorts of acts of love, which explicitly sexual intercourse was rare. Baumeister they may even stage as they stand watching and extremely (1988b), contrast,found that intercoursewas men- chattering as the abductees perform them" (p. 416). by tioned in almosthalf of the lettersfrom masochiststhat In an especially revealing incident in Communion, he sexual between extra- Strieber(1987) told of an alien impatientlyasking him analyzed. Recently, activity terrestrialsand their human has become a more if he could "be harder"(p. 77). In addition,according captives common featureof UFO abduction (see Mack, to Conroy (1989, p. 159) the original manuscriptof reports Jacobs even observedthat sexual Strieber's book includedan incidentin which aliens led 1994). (1992) activity and the collection of are now a feature him away by his penis. Editorsinsisted the incidentbe sperm defining removed from the final draft. of the UFO abductionphenomenon. As has been noted by others (e.g., Klass, 1988b), this latest fashion in abductionlore-along with elaboratepresentations of For example, see pages 67, 80, 86, 92, 97, 108, 126, 128, 156, human-alien hybrid babies to female abductees who 167, 175, 192, 226, 251,275,281,296-297, and 325. are said to have borne them-seems to be largely 116 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON traceableto a small handfulof investigatorsfor whom to escape from self-awareness,because the calamity's sex is centralto understanding"what the aliens are up implicationsabout the self might be aversive and up- to." In all probability,then, this trendis an example of setting. Such people also aboundin the UFO abduction how easily the biases and expectations of hypnotists literature.One reviewer of the history of UFO abduc- can shape what is apparentlyrecalled during hypnosis. tions (Rimmer, 1984) noted that calamaties are often precededby "some sort of personalcrisis," such as the Who gets abducted? Contrary to some popular breakupof a marriage.For example, Hopkins's (1987) stereotypes,abductees cannot fairly be characterizedas book, Intruders:The Incredible Visitationsat Copley unsophisticatedhillbillies. Although reliable data are Woods, focuses for the most part on a female unavailable,current evidence tentatively suggests that abductee whose pregnancy had recently been myste- the typical abductee resembles the typical masochist. riously terminated. This would supportthe view thatmasochistic fantasies Althoughburdensome egos and personalcalamities and UFO abduction memories have similar motiva- are apparentlyprominent among the common features tional roots. of UFO abductees, other features seemingly reflect As already noted here, masochists tend to be from direct escapist activity. Strieber(1987) described the the highersocioeconomic classes (Baumeister,1988b). many abducteeshe has met as typically being "people The same appearsto be true for abductees. Note, for on the run, constantlymaking changes, moving, leav- example, the professionsof the subjectsin the Bloecher ing, escaping" (p. 274). Gordon (1991) also observed et al. (1985) study, the first reported psychological that-when abductees would hear about "the sudden testingof abductees-college professor,electronics ex- desire to change jobs or leave a spouse or move from pert, actor/tennisinstructor, corporation lawyer, com- one's house and community-there is nervous laugh- mercialartist, business executive, directorof chemistry ter: if they haven't done it, they've been tempted, or laboratory,salesman/audio technician, and secretary. know someone who has" (p. 88). These characteriza- Obviously, not all were in high-payingprofessions, but tions yield a pictureof abducteesas people dissatisfied white-collarjobs predominated.Rodeghieretal. (1991) with aspects of theiridentities and looking for avenues also noted that these subjects had "greatereducational for escape. Moving to a new life is one extreme version attainment"and "highereducational status" than aver- of escapingone's identity,and such fantasieshave been age. Rodeghieret al. found this especially notabledue documented as common among masochists, suicidal to the fact that the same was true of their own sample individuals, and other people who exhibit patternsof of 27 abductees.In anotherrecent studyof UFO claim- escaping the self (Baumeister,1991a). ants(Parnell & Sprinkle,1990), subjects'mean amount In sum, abducteesoverall seem to fit the profile of education was 14 years. Finally, the letters describing people who would be expected to be drawnto fantasies abductionssent to Striebertend to come, he said, from of escaping from self. These people would thus be people who are "often in the professions, often very especially likely to constructa classic UFO abduction highly educated"(Conroy, 1989, p. 139). narrativewhen hypnotized.6 Studiesof sexual behavioralso indicatethat masoch- ism is more common among Whites than Blacks, and The international picture. UFO abduction re- the same seems to be trueof UFO abductions(Randles, ports are most frequent in "Western countries or 1988). In this connection, Gordon's (1991) comment countries dominated by Western culture and values" thatthose attendinga meetingof abducteeswere almost (Mack, 1994, p. 11). More than that, UFO abduction all White is more thanjust a casual observation. reportsseem to be primarilyan American and British Some evidence thus seems to indicate that UFO phenomenon (Bullard, 1989b, Rimmer, 1984). Esti- abducteesare more often than not those who are likely mates of the proportionof abductionsreported in the to have "inflatedselves"-White, middle-classAmeri- United States alone have varied from greaterthan half cans-just like masochists. For example, although (Randles, 1988) to 80% (Rimmer, 1984). Although Strieberis a successful authorof best-selling books, he some reportshave surfaced in Australia (Basterfield, reported a long-standing problem with performance Godic, Godic, & Rodeghier, 1990), as of 1984, none anxiety (1987, p. 274). He reportedliving with the fear hadarisen in China(Hynek, 1984), andBullard (1987a) that failure is just aroundthe corner. Such anxiety is typical of those with "overinflated selves"-people who, like politicians and executives, are constantly 6Althoughchildren are also said to be abducted (Hopkins et al., called upon to perform and make decisions and who, 1992), these reportsmost often seem to be retrospective reportsby perhapsas a result, show relativelyhigh frequenciesof adults (e.g., Fiore, 1989, pp. 78, 135; Hopkins, 1987, p. 204). themselves are different from the activities such as masochism. Reportsby children usually quite escapist standardUFO abduction story and seem more like familiar child- As we noted, people who have recently suffered hood "bogey man in the closet" nightmares (see Hopkins, 1987; personalcalamities constitute another group motivated Mack, 1994, p. 77). 117 NEWMAN & BAUMEISTER noted that "Asia and most of Africa remainblanks on ishment of misdeeds in an ongoing relationship."In the abductionmap" (p. 4). Randles (1988) concluded addition,as notedearlier, genital intercoursewas infre- that the evidence is consistent with the possibility that quent in UFO abductionaccounts as of 1987. Clearly, "abductionis a productof the mind of Western white an exact conceptualreplication of the Baumeisterstudy people." Either that, Randles said, or "some intelli- was not possible, so our more modest goal was to gence behind the abductions prefers to contact such comparemales' and females' narrativesin terms of the people" (p. 158). Either way, abductions seem to be frequency of two important(and codable) features- reported primarily in individualistic societies (see display humiliationand the mention of pain. Triandis,1990), where the burdenof selfhood is great- Bullard(1987b) presented270 cases, but most were est. This too parallelsmasochism, which appearsto be not appropriatefor coding and were excluded a priori confined almost entirely to modern,Western societies from furtheranalysis. Fifty-eightinvolved only "miss- (Baumeister,1988b, 1989). ing time" or fragmentarymemories suggesting an ab- ductiontook place; 18, classified as "simple abduction Analyses of Sex Differences in cases," contained no details other than the fact that Abduction Stories contact was made with aliens; 17 cases were stories aboutpeople who were supposedlykidnapped by aliens Both males and females can be masochists,and their and never seen again; 5 were sample "contactee"sto- masochistic practices and fantasies include the same ries, which tended to be qualitatively different from main elements (i.e., pain, loss of control, and humilia- moremodem abductiontales (see previousdiscussion); tion). There are, however, importantsex differencesin and 3 were acknowledgedhoaxes. Finally,the "abduc- masochistic "scripts."Baumeister (1988a) collected a tioncomplex" category was also excluded.These 11cases series of lettersdescribing masochistic experiences and were for the most part summariesof multipleincidents fantasies and compared those written by males and involvingmany people over long periodsof time, and it females. Overall, the most significant difference was was not alwayspossible to disentanglethe storiesso as to the greateroverall "feminization"of men (e.g., through pinpointseparate accounts by individualpeople. transvestitism)and the higherincidence of otherforms One hundredfifty-eight stories remainedafter these of status-loss humiliationsin men's letters (e.g., being categories were excluded. Many of these remaining treated as an animal or baby). Numerous other sex storiesinvolved alien contactbut were quite discrepant differences in the letters' details were also found. Spe- from the classic abductionstory. Clearly, there was no cifically, the males' letters included more severe pain, way of distinguishingthe "real"abduction stories from oral humiliation,partner infidelity, and active partici- those reflectingsome otherphenomenon (e.g., lying or pation by third persons, whereas the females' letters psychopathology),but, in order to be certain that we more frequently reported pain of any kind and also were focusing on prototypical abduction stories, we included more humiliation involving display, genital furtherselected only those involving the central ele- intercourse,and the presence of nonparticipatingspec- ment of a physical examination.Overall, 84 cases in- tators. Finally, females' letters were more likely to cluded some incident that could be construed as a contextualizepain as punishmentoccurring in an ongo- physical examinationor medical procedure(e.g., "The ing relationship. beings laid the witness on a tableand examined her with If attractionto masochism and the constructionof variousdevices," "Duringan examinationhe felt pain UFO abductionstories do in fact springfrom the same and had difficulty breathing,""The beings took blood intrapsychicsources, some of the sex differences re- samples from the witnesses' left hands").7These were vealed in masochisticfantasies and experiences should then divided by sex of abductee, which was usually a also be detected in abduction accounts. To test this simple matter. Most of the stories described alleged hypothesis, we made use of the file of UFO abduction incidents that involved only one person, and Bullard cases catalogued by Bullard (1987b). According to clearly identified all abductees as male or female. In Bullard(1987a), these cases comprisethe complete set some cases, morethan one personwas said to have been of abduction cases known to researchersas of 1987. abducted,but only one of them served as an informant, Although most are not actual transcriptsof abductee and the sex of that person was clear. Other cases in- recollections,these summariesinclude all of the details volved more than one witness or "victim," but they known about each case as reportedby the abductees. Many of the featuresof masochisticscripts coded by Baumeister (1988a) could not be reliably coded from 71tis importantto note that our criteria for deciding whether a the Bullard (1987b) stories, including severity of pain physical examination took place were different from Bullard's who a of 133 examinations For and the division of charactersin the stories into partic- (1987a), reported figure (p. 5). example, in Bullard's scheme, an event such as "light or light beam ipantsversus spectators. Other factors were notrelevant shines on witness" would be classified as an examination,based on to abduction stories, such as transvestitismand "pun- his inferenceabout the meaningof those events. 118 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON were of the same sex. Four others (includingthe Betty Note that Table 1 reveals that 59% of the abductees and Barney Hill case) described events in which two reportingexaminations were men. Similarly,more than people of different sexes were involved, but their sto- half (55%) of the letters gathered by Baumeister ries could be clearly distinguished.In these cases, the (1988a) were by men. In neithercase, though, was this separatenarratives were both coded. Unfortunately,4 proportionsignificantly greater than chance (in this other stories of the lattertype were based on composite study,p >. 1).Baumeister, discussing his andother studies testimony, and it was not possible to identify the sex of suggestingthat there might be more male than female the people who had reportedthe individual details of masochists,cautioned against reachingthis conclusion these narratives. Therefore, these 4 cases were ex- due to an importantconfounding factor-men might be cluded. The final sample of distinct abductionnarra- morelikely than women to reportany deviant behavior or tives including examinationsby aliens thus consisted experience.This caveat arguablyapplies to the present of 84 separatestories. dataon UFO abductionsas well. In fact,of the74 remain- ing accountsof abduction-relatedexperiences not involv- Display. As noted, the masochistic experiences ing an examination,53 were by males and only 13 were describedby females in the Baumeister(1988a) study by females(8 couldnot be put in eithercategory because more often involved display humiliationthan did the bothmale and female informants were involved, and their masochistic experiences describedby males. A classic narrativescould not be disentangled).On the otherhand, fantasyof this kindwas describedby Reik (1941/1957), amongpeople willing to reportexperiences with UFOs, who discussed a young girl who women are more likely than men to reportthe classic abduction with an examination experience (72% vs. derivesher pleasure mainly from the idea thatshe is 48%).This sex differenceis significant,X2(1, N = 150) = lying nakedand at full lengthon a longtable ... with 7.42, p < .01. It must be emphasized,though, that past herlegs spreadwide so thather vaginais distinctly reviewshave not yieldedany consistentevidence that the visible. A man, whose face is only dimly distin- UFO abductionphenomenon is in any way sex-linked. guishable, stands at her feet and scrutinizesher genitals.(p. 236) Pain. Nineteen abductees overall (23%) explic- mentioned or discomfort. In addi- This kind of scenario serves to humiliate a woman by itly pain physical the with which was mentioned turningher into a caricatureof an unflatteringstereo- tion, frequency pain varied sex-32% of the women = versus type of femininity-the woman as passive sex object by (n 11) 16% of the men = mentioned (Baumeister, 1988a). Abduction narrativeswere also only (n 8) explicitly This difference codedfor the presenceor absenceof display.For the large pain.8 approachedsignificance, X2(1, = = = majorityof cases,display took the form of beingstretched N 84) 3.09, p .078. Although this marginal difference be an artifact of the sex differences out on a tableby one's captors,although there were a few might in examinations be im- exceptionalcases that seemed to involve other display display imagery (table might to be more it is to note that procedures(e.g., in one story,the abducteewas displayed agined painful), important the direction of the difference a similar one prone against a wall). replicates revealed Baumeister's of mas- Table 1 reveals the results,broken down by sex. Only by (1988a) analysis ochistic letters. the 50% of the males' stories involved display, but the Although appropriateinterpreta- tion of this is not it comparableproportion for females approached80%. A finding immediately obvious, another between the kinds of sto- chi-squareanalysis showed this to be a significantdif- represents parallel ries men and women tell when are ference, X2(1, N = 84) = 7.42, p < .01. This aspectof the they elaborating on masochistic and the kind tell UFO abductionaccounts paralleled the lettersfrom the experiences they when UFO abductions.9 masochists in Baumeister's(1988a) study. Sex differ- describing alleged ences in certainimaginative details broughtto bear on masochisticactivities were thus also found for descrip- tions of abductions. 8Thesenumbers appear to be inconsistentwith our assertionthat experiencingpain is a standardpart of UFO abductions,but it should Table 1. Display Imageryin AbductionAccounts,by Sex of Abductee be noted that, in other cases, the details make it all but certain that Sex pain was experienced,even though it was not explicitly mentioned. Forexample, in one case involving a male abductee,the aliens "drew a blood samplefrom the witness's fingerwith a device like an electric Male Female razor,and afterwardthe witness lost consciousness."In some cases, though,pain was explicitly denied-one womansaid hercaptors took Display 25 27 blood samples and burnedholes throughher skin "painlessly." No Display 25 7 9A second coder examined stories for pain and the presence of displayimagery. Collapsing across both features, agreement was high Note: Includesonly abductionstories with physical examinations. (87%), and so the first coder's numberswere retainedfor analysis. 119 NEWMAN& BAUMEISTER Oral humiliation. Baumeister(1988a) also found Clearly, the issue of the self as independent and that oral humiliation was more frequently a part of unique is one that preoccupies people who claim to males' thanfemales' masochisticscripts. Such humili- have been victims of UFO abductions."If I could give ation included being requiredto kiss the feet or anus, up my autonomyto another,"Strieber (1987) mused, "I having panties stuffed in one's mouth, being required might experiencenot only fear but also a deep sense of to orally consume sexual fluids, and other unpleasant rest. It would be a little like dying to really give oneself or degradinguses of the mouth.Kissing feet andhaving up in that way" (p. 101). panties stuffed in one's mouth did not correspondto anything that is reported as occurring during UFO Cognitive immediacy. As Baumeister (1990a) abductions.Seven reportedabduction cases, however, discussed, one of the most importantaspects of the involved unpleasantoral experiencesof otherkinds: In deconstructedstate is cognitive immediacy-past and one case, the aliens smeareda "graysubstance" on the futureevents recede from awareness, and one's focus male abductee's mouth; in a second case, a man was is exclusively on the present.Frequently, UFO abduc- given a "a bad-tastingliquid" to drink;in a thirdcase, tion accountsdescribe someone who has achieved that the aliens "placeda wire"in the man's mouth;a fourth state. Jacobs (1992) best capturedthis aspect of the man complainedof a "metallictaste" in his mouth;the experiencein his synopses of typical UFO abductions: aliens tried to make a fifth man eat transparentfood; a sixth man found himself swallowing capsules given to She has no concernfor what she was doing before the him by an alien, althoughhe "normallyresisted taking abduction.If she is abductedwith her son and daughter even aspirin";and, finally, a woman had an "instru- and they are no longerin sight, she may quickly forget abouttheir Brothersand sisters about ment"placed in her mouth. Oral humiliationwas thus plight. may forget each other. ... Almost everythingthat is happeningto a low-frequencycategory. Still, it might be noteworthy her duringthe abductionis forgottenas her attentionis that six of the seven cases but the came from (all last) continuallyfixed on the present.Some abducteeshave male abductionnarratives. Thus, again, there is some more of a continuity of memory, but it is severely resemblance between the apparentsex differences in restrictedat best. JanetDemarest explained it: "When masochistic scripts and the sex differences in UFO I'm thereit's like one thing happens,then the next thing abductionaccounts. happens.I completely forget about the first thing that happens.I have no sense of who I am."(pp. 90-91) Abduction Narratives As Escape From The Beings express absolutely no interestin anything Self: More Parallels aboutthe abductee's daily life apartfrom physiology. They express no interest in her personal, social, or General concerns about selfhood. Above and family relationships. ... They express no interest in beyond the other specific featuresof abductionnarra- politics, culture,economics, or the rich and extraordi- tives discussed here, an obvious concernwith indepen- narilycomplex tapestrythat makes up humanrelation- dence and individuality is often apparent. More ships andsocieties. They do not ask even idle questions specifically, the aliens seem not to have any. Strieber aboutthis. (pp. 232-233) (1987), in particular,was struckby his sense that"there Strieber's narrativesalso involved a state of is very little sense of self associated with individual (1987) as the indi- members of their species. ... They are not afraid of cognitive immediacy, following excerpts cate: ceased to exist. What was left was a man's savagery or his greed, but of his capacity for "Whitley in a state of raw fear. ... I was reduced to raw independentaction" (pp. 142, 231). Anotherabductee, body speaking for those in her support group, complained biological response"(pp. 16, 18). that "we feel that when we were abducted,that indi- vidual freedom has been taken away, and they don't Procedure orientation. As previously noted, es- understand that. They don't really understandour caping the self by achieving a deconstructedstate is sense of freedom and being allowed our own will" (p. often accompaniedby adopting a "procedureorienta- 265). Similarly, another abductee marveled at how tion."If one focuses on the minutiaeof one's actions- "theydon't seem to have any understandingof the fact instruments,techniques, and so forth-one will more thatwe have a sense of free will here on this planetand easily escape becoming aware of broader meanings. that we think and act as individuals"(Steiger, 1988, p. Safecrackers,for example, might focus attention on 14), and still another concluded that "what has hap- their tools so as to avoid considering the moral im- pened to them is they lost their identity, their individ- plications of theirbehavior (Baumeister, 199 la); mas- uality and uniqueness. Maybe they have lost their ochists might preoccupythemselves with and fetishize sense of destiny and of individual achievement, all the paraphernaliathey use (whips, chains, etc.). these individual things that we take for granted" Considerableportions of abductionaccounts are de- (Fiore, 1989, pp. 303-304). voted to detailed descriptions of the instrumentsand 120 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON machineryused by aliens, as well as the layout of the accounts,other explanationsmore subtle than insanity crafts and the clothing they wear (see Jacobs, 1992, or mendacity have been put forward as well. In this chaps. 4, 5). Travis Walton, for example, described a section, we review them very briefly. "hospital-likeroom lightedby a rectangularfluorescent One increasinglypopular method for studyingUFO panel, shapedlike a piece of pie with the tip bittenoff, abductionstories and relatedphenomena is the folkloric and constructed of seamless metal," and a "plastic, approach.Researchers taking this perspective focus on the rocker-shaped device curved around his rib cage" similaritiesbetween modem abductionstories and older (Bullard, 1987b, p. 125). Strieber's (1987) story in- folktales(Bullard, 1989b, 1991), especially medieval leg- cluded an alien "wearingan inept cardboardimitation ends (Vallee, 1988). As discussedat length by Bullard of a double-breastedsuit, complete with a white trian- (1989b),the aliensin abductionstories can be understood gle of handkerchiefsticking out of the pocket"(p. 171). to be updatedversions of the fairies,leprechauns, ghosts, Many stories devote particularattention to the devices trolls,and witchesof traditionalmyths and legends, who used by the aliens to humiliateabductees sexually. For were also knownto kidnapordinary people and subject example, one abductee described both a "faucetlike themto stressfuland surrealordeals. Although the crea- device" that was placed on his penis and "wires"or tures in traditionallegends practicedmagic and witch- "leads" attachedto his testicles (Mack, 1994, p. 96). craft, those in abductionnarratives instead possess an Anothergave a detaileddescription of a stainless steel, advancedscience and technology.Instead of emerging aluminum,or chromium"comb-shaped gimmick" with from the "otherworld,"aliens visit from outer space. a "roundedlower section thatfits up over the testicles" Bullard(1991) succinctlysummarized the themesof this (Jacobs, 1992, p. 124). (This intervieweeadded that this work with his observationthat "substitutionof a super- device "looks like a piece of machinerythat no mistress scientifictechnology for magic restores the credibility of the of dominationwould be without"-a comment that is fantasticin a secularage withlittle faith in thingsmagical" quite consistent with the masochistic analysis of these (p. 5; see also Bynum, 1993; Ellis, 1988; Ring, 1989; accounts.)Generally, such attentionto detail is consis- Rojcewicz,1987). tent with the typical mentality of low-level, As Jacobs (1992) noted, however, the parallels re- deconstructed mental states (Baumeister, 1991a; vealed by folklorists often consist of not much more Vallacher& Wegner, 1985, 1987). than the fact that the central charactersin abduction Interestingly, this wealth of detail might play an reports,like those in old legends and myths, tend to be importantrole in making abduction narrativessound small and to have supernaturalpowers. Furthermore,it like descriptions of real experiences. M. K. Johnson is doubtful that this kind of analysis will be able to and Suengas (1989; see also M. K. Johnson, 1988) providean explanationof the UFO abductionphenom- found that, when people try to distinguish between enon that will be satisfying to most psychologists or real and fabricated memories, they rely heavily on laypeople. As Bullard(1991) was careful to point out, the presence or absence of concrete perceptual as- examinationof UFO abductionstories from a folklore pects of the described events. When many such de- perspectivewill not provide answersabout the authen- tails are mentioned, people use this as a cue to infer ticity or even the sourceof such stories.Most important, that the memory is real. folkloric accounts cannot tell us why people would believe they personally experienced the events de- Conclusion scribed by the "UFO abduction myth," which is not typically true in the case of other populartraditional Thus, accounts of being abductedby UFOs are not legends-or even contemporary ones (e.g., see entirely unique and incomprehensible.They exhibit Brunvand,1986, on "urbanlegends"). many features common to patterns of deconstructed Lawson's (1982, 1984) "birthtrauma" hypothesis mental states in the service of escaping the self. In was yet anotherattempt to make sense of the abduction particular,stories and fantasies about sexual masoch- phenomenon.Lawson emphasized the obvious "foetal" ism have many featuresin common with UFO abduc- appearanceof many of the UFO occupants-outsized tion stories. If UFO abductionaccounts are indeed not heads and eyes, small limbs, and sometimes even genuine, literal renditions of actual events, then they webbed hands. Also telling, Lawson claimed, are the might be understoodas fabricationsthat arise from the medicalatmosphere and imagery of manyaccounts and familiarmotivation to escape from the self. the fact that abductionnarratives often involve move- ment throughnarrow tubes or halls into rounded(and arguably"womblike") interior rooms. Lawson's con- Rival Hypotheses clusion was thatthose reportingalien abductionmem- ories are in fact recalling and reexperiencingtheir own Although we have offered one possible cognitive- births.The birth-traumaexplanation has received quite motivationalaccount of the origins of UFO abduction a bit of attention,perhaps due to its novelty. Unfortu- 121 NEWMAN & BAUMEISTER nately, it requires the implausible assumption that a they have been abductedby UFOs, however, there are fetus in the womb can see itself and store this image in ample reasons to doubt the accuracy of these ac- memory (for a discussion of this and other objections, counts-such as the inherentimplausibility that alien see Bullard, 1987a; Rimmer, 1984). spaceships are visiting Earth and abductinghundreds One final alternativehypothesis about the underlying or even thousands of unwitting human beings every motives of people claiming to have been abductedand day; the complete lack of corroboratingphysical evi- mistreatedby UFO occupantsis thatthey seek to depict dence; and the dubious distributionof accounts and its themselves as victims for the sake of the benefits that implication that aliens prefer to continue abducting might accrue to that role. According to this account, White middle-class Americans while largely ignoring people claim UFO abductionexperiences in order to the rest of the world. In sum, the UFO abduction provide an excuse for any flaws and inadequaciesthey phenomenonconstitutes a spectacularexample of the fear they might possess. In other words, they claim to unreliabilityand creative capacity of autobiographical be victims and demandto be so treated.Being a victim memory. has its advantages-a person cannot reasonably be The project of this article has been to take UFO blamed for any of his or her faults if the faults are abductionaccounts seriously but not literally. Simple, traceableto the depredationsthe person sufferedat the dismissive interpretationsof these accountsdo not pro- hands of sadistic aliens. In fact, people are usually vide satisfactoryexplanations. That is, the majorityof evaluated less harshly by others when their failures or accountscannot be writtenoff as lies, attention-getting other negative qualities are traceable to external and ploys, or symptoms of mental illness. By the same uncontrollablecauses (Weiner, 1986). token, explanations based on folklore, memories of Unfortunately,at least as a public excuse, an abduc- traumaticbirth experiences, or a desire to claim victim tion confession would not be particularlyeffective. statusfall shortof explaining the phenomena. First,it would have the unwantedside effect of leading We have attemptedto offer a cognitive-motivational others to believe that one is deluded or insane. People explanationof how spuriousmemories of UFO abduc- are quite sympatheticto survivorswho claim that they tions could be created.A clusterof cognitive processes were victims of early childhood sexual abuse or even providesa plausibleaccount of how the pseudomemor- ritual satanism, but this is because most of us accept ies can be generated and why people believe them. that childrenare often abused, and because many peo- Most UFO abductionaccounts have been obtainedwith ple also believe thatcults arewidespread. Fewer people hypnosis, and hypnosis has been shown to be a potent believe UFO abductionsoccur. According to a recent source of spuriousmemories that can be influenced by poll (Gallup & Newport, 1991), only about 27% of the expectations, beliefs, and motivations of both the the people in this country believe that extraterrestrial hypnotistand the subject.In many cases, the belief that beings have ever visited Earth. Presumably, even one might have experienced something strange might fewer believe that aliens are currently visiting our originatewith a hypnopompicor hypnogogic halluci- planet and abducting its inhabitants.Also, if it is true nation, which, with the aid of the hypnotist, might that most abductees prefer to keep their stories secret become elaboratedinto a spurious memory of UFO (Hopkins, 1987; Jacobs, 1992), such an "excuse" abduction.Fantasy proneness and other factors might would not help them save face in otherpeople's eyes. predispose certain individuals to accept the eventual belief thatpuzzling memoryfragments reflect a buried memoryof UFO abduction. Conclusion With regardto the more dauntingquestion of why people would constructand elaboratesuch seemingly Several facts are clear. First, many people claim to unpleasant experiences for themselves, Hall (1994) have had experiences that explicitly involve abduc- exclaimed: tion by aliens into UFOs. Unlike the "contactees"of the 1950s, those who reportbeing capturedno longer I haven'tthe foggiestidea of whatis goingon. From claim to have been treated like esteemed ambassa- theempirical standpoint (without invoking any expla- dors from Earth. Instead, their experiences tend to be nation)the evidence overwhelmingly supports the in- that the victims suffer unpleasant and degrading. Thousands of American terpretation great pain, disorientation,fear, embarrassment, etc. Theirentire citizens have furnished accounts of such abductions, conceptof realityis badlyshaken. Only a masochist and researchers survey using indirect markers have couldfind something positive in that!(p. 16) concluded that millions of Americans fit the criteria of abduction victims. Although the stories vary, there We haveproposed that an explanatory key mightin fact are many common features, and we were able to offer lie with sexualmasochism and its underlyingmotivation a prototype based on a large number of accounts. to escape from ordinaryself-awareness. Many parallels Despite the sincere conviction of many people that and even some explicit links can be found to associate 122 THE UFO ABDUCTIONPHENOMENON UFO abductionaccounts with masochisticfantasies- not so unusualpersonal experiences.Unpublished manuscript. including passivity and helplessness, pain, bondage, Baker, R. A. (1992b). Hidden memories: Voices and visions from within. NY: Prometheus. of Buffalo, degradingexperiences, patterns genderdifferences, Banaji, M. R., & Prentice,D. A. (1994). The self in social contexts. and an often subtle eroticizationof the entire experi- AnnualReview of Psychology, 45, 297-332. ence. Like masochistic rituals,UFO abductionexperi- Bartholomew,R. E., & Basterfield, K. (1990). Fantasy-proneand ences could remove the personfrom his or herordinary UFO contact percipients:Still an untested hypothesis. Journal network of concerns, relationships,and strivings and of UFO Studies,2, 184-185. R. & G. S. UFO then of the features Bartholomew, E., Basterfield,K., Howard, (1991). strip away many centrallydefining abductees and contactees: Psychopathologyor fantasy-prone- of the person's identity,deconstruct the person's famil- ness? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 22, iar structuresof self and world, enforce cognitive im- 215-222. mediacy through a mixture of pain, pleasure, and Basterfield, K. (1992a). Implants. International UFO Reporter, suspense,and then finally returnthe personto his or her 17(1), 18-20. K. Presentat the abduction.International UFO life with a sense of had an extraordi- Basterfield, (1992b). ordinary having Reporter,17(2), 13-14, 23. nary, transformingexperience duringthe timeout. Al- Basterfield, K., Godic, V., Godic, P., & Rodeghier, M. (1990). though such experiences are not among the most AustralianUFOlogy: A review. Journal of UFO Studies, 2, fundamentalhuman desires, they are widespreadand 19-44. understandable,and the desire for them appears to Baumeister,R. F. (1986). Identity:Cultural change and the struggle New York:Oxford Press. conform to cultural and historical that have for self University patterns Baumeister,R. F. (1987). How the self became a problem:A psycho- placed a heavy emphasis on a particular,inflated, and logical review of historicalresearch. Journal of Personalityand potentiallyburdensome conception of selfhood. Social Psychology, 52, 163-176. People are sometimesmistaken in theirbeliefs about Baumeister,R. F. (1988a). Genderdifferences in masochisticscripts. whatthey have experienced.Those mistakesusually do Journal of Sex Research,25, 478-499. R. F. Masochism as from self. Journal not involve and abuse at the handsof extrater- Baumeister, (1988b). escape capture of Sex Research, 25, 28-59. restrial tormentors. Still, a wide variety of Baumeister, R. F. (1989). Masochism and the self. Hillsdale, NJ: pseudomemoriesmight be constructedthrough similar LawrenceErlbaum Associates, Inc. processes, and they might be to a great extent shaped Baumeister,R. F. (1990a). Anxiety and deconstruction:On escaping by our needs, motives, and desires. the self. In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Self-inference processes: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 6, pp. 259-261). Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates, Inc. Baumeister,R. F. (1990b). Suicideas escape fromself. Psychological Notes Review, 97, 90-113. Baumeister,R. F. (1991a). Escaping the self. New York: Basic. Thanks to Bette Bottoms, Robert Josephs, Larry Baumeister,R. F. (1991b). Meanings of life. New York: Guilford. Baumeister,R. F., & Newman, L. S. (1994). 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