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Reforming Austria-Hungary: Beyond His Control Or Beyond His Capacity? the Domestic Policies of Emperor Karl I November 1916 – May 1917

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Reforming Austria-Hungary: Beyond His Control Or Beyond His Capacity? the Domestic Policies of Emperor Karl I November 1916 – May 1917 View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by LSE Theses Online Reforming Austria-Hungary: Beyond his control or beyond his capacity? The domestic policies of Emperor Karl I November 1916 – May 1917 Christopher Brennan A thesis submitted to the Department of International History of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy London, July 2012 DECLARATION I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party I declare that my thesis consists of 124,796 words. 2 ABSTRACT This work aims to provide an objective portrait of Emperor Karl I and an analysis of his early reign in order to help determine his responsibility in the collapse of Austria- Hungary and to fill the gap in a historiography distorted by both hagiography and underestimation. This thesis examines Karl’s character, education, ability, outlook and ambitions prior to his enthronement in November 1916, and his attempts in the following six months to revive political life, implement administrative and constitutional reform and bring about national reconciliation in Cisleithania. The Bohemian lands, and in particular the Czech-German conflict, constitute the main focus of this study, although developments among Poles, Ukrainians and South Slavs are also considered. Since Karl’s chief concern was nevertheless the conclusion of peace, foreign policy – in any case inextricably bound to domestic issues in the Habsburg Monarchy – is also given due attention. The examination of Karl’s pre-war years reveals a not unpromising young man. His short heirship, however, involved only a perfunctory introduction to statecraft, leaving him lacking in preparation and experience. Yet, contrary to popular belief, Karl was not a blank slate; nor was he without his prejudices. Upon his accession to the throne, although he enjoyed a remarkably free hand, he threw in his lot with the German nationalists. After four months, however, he – or rather his foreign minister – retreated under the influence of the Russian Revolution and of the American entry into the war. Karl then recalled parliament but did not have the resolve, courage, skill or support to build on this initiative. Offered no prospects, the political representatives of the Slav nationalities radicalized behind the scenes. With the reopening of the House, the irreversible extent of their disenchantment and estrangement burst to the fore. Although Karl finally sought to embark on a new course, his resolve again faltered and his half-hearted efforts bore no fruit. Largely as a result of his earlier mistakes and vacillation, the chance had, in any case, already passed. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt thanks go to Professor Alan Sked, my doctoral supervisor, for his unfailing backing and encouragement during the writing of this thesis. I am most fortunate to have been able to count on his excellent advice and friendship during these last few years. I must also thank Professor David Stevenson, my adviser, for his availability, his keen interest in my work, and his constructive feedback. I am, likewise, indebted to Professor Anita Prażmowska, the head of the research programme in the International History Department, for her continual support and understanding. In addition, my colleague Dr Marvin Fried provided indispensable assistance during my hesitant first steps in the Austrian archives. Several friends were kind enough to read through draft copies, correcting mistakes and imparting their suggestions, for which I am very grateful. They are Richie Murby, I. C. Turner, David Broder, Celine McDaid, Claire Morelon, Laura Mangan, Mark Burrett, Aubrey Peiffer and William Orr-Ewing. Logistical help was repeatedly provided by Caroline Audouin, Eva Fernández Díez and Laurent Lefebvre. My linguistic skills were sorely tested during my research and I would like the thank the following native speakers for helping me with the trickier aspects of their mother tongues: Ali Teker and Denise Neuhauser for German, David Petrák and Tomáš Habermann for Czech, Joanna Madej for Polish, Mojca Fajfar for Slovene, and Marko Suto and Ivana Marijanović for the pencilled scribbles we gathered to be Croatian. I must extend my warm regards to Professors Lothar Höbelt at the University of Vienna and John W. Boyer at the University of Chicago for generously allowing me to use sources in their possession. I also wish to thank Dr Georg Hohenberg, Dr Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck and Ursula Spitzmüller for granting me access to their ancestors’ papers. Furthermore, I am much beholden for the help I received during my archival work, most notably from Vlasta Měšťánková at the Národní archiv in Prague, from everybody at the Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amts in Berlin and from the staff of the Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv in Vienna, who took the time to assist me with particularly trying handwriting. Last, but not least, I want to thank my long-suffering parents, James and Bridget, without whom I could not have completed – or, indeed, started – this work. 4 Their interest in Central Europe and its languages and culture set me on track to study this captivating part of the world and period of history. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 7 I ARCHDUKE CARL FRANZ JOSEPH 16 II THE INHERITANCE 49 The struggle for power in wartime Austria 49 Internal war aims 68 Political revival 77 War-weariness, poverty and hunger 87 III THE EMPEROR IS DEAD – LONG LIVE THE EMPEROR! 94 IV KARL’S PRECARIOUS FIRST STEPS 106 Koerber’s fall 110 The Spitzmüller interlude 125 The Clam-Martinic Cabinet 129 Czernin and Hohenlohe 137 Karl’s preoccupations 143 V THE GERMAN COURSE: HALF-STEAM AHEAD 146 VI VOLTE-FACE 158 Revolution in Russia 158 The American declaration of war 184 The liquidation of the octroi 200 VII PAVED WITH BAD INTENTIONS: THE ROAD TO PARLIAMENT 230 Domestic unrest 230 The quest for peace 244 Reform? 252 Czech radicalization 264 Domestic unrest (2) 280 VIII THE END OF THE BEGINNING 289 The final push 289 Parliament recalled 299 CONCLUSION 303 ABBREVIATIONS 311 BIBLIOGRAPHY 314 6 INTRODUCTION In the foreword to his 1925 work on the foreign policy of Emperor Karl I, the German historian Richard Fester admitted that he had been unable to pass judgement sine ira.1 Nor, when writing about the last Habsburg ruler, had several of the protagonists he interviewed, such as August von Cramon,2 Alfred Krauß,3 Erich von Ludendorff4 and Botho von Wedel5. However, post-war denigration of Karl was not the exclusive preserve of disaffected German nationalists. A few bereft servants of the Dual Monarchy, grieving for their lost empire, also expressed their frustration, anger and contempt towards him. In 1919, Josef Schneider published the anonymous,6 and controversial, memoirs of a former court official, who painted an unsparingly and unremittingly negative portrait of Karl.7 Two years later, the recollections of Baron Albert von Margutti, previously attached to Franz Joseph’s aide-de-camp Count Eduard Paar, caused a scandal upon publication, likewise due to the candour of his (often spurious) revelations and the bitterness of his attacks on his former imperial master.8 No longer bound by etiquette or devoir de réserve, the authors made 1 Richard Fester, Die Politik Kaiser Karls und der Wendepunkt des Weltkrieges (Munich, 1925), vi. 2 August von Cramon, Unser österreichisch-ungarischer Bundesgenosse im Weltkriege. Erinnerungen aus meiner vierjährigen Tätigkeit als bevollmächtigter deutscher General beim k.u.k. Armeeoberkommando (Berlin, 1920). Cramon had been the German Plenipotentiary to Austro- Hungarian army headquarters. The Austrian general and military historian Edmund Glaise-Horstenau later confessed to having written half of Cramon’s book, but complained that the latter had added the malevolent remarks on Karl. Cramon later regretted this and, sobered by the Third Reich, told Glaise in 1936: “I did Emperor Karl an injustice – he was in fact a very noble prince, who wanted the best”, in: Peter Broucek (ed.), Ein General im Zwielicht. Die Erinnerungen Edmund Glaises von Horstenau (Vienna/Cologne/Graz, 1980), volume I, p.328. 3 Alfred Krauß, Die Ursachen unserer Niederlage. Erinnerungen und Urteile aus dem Weltkrieg (Munich, 1921). Krauß was a general in the Austro-Hungarian army. 4 Erich von Ludendorff, My War Memories 1914-1918, 2 vols (London, 1919). 5 Wedel, the German ambassador to Vienna from late 1916, published no memoirs, but wrote many articles in periodicals in the years after the war, for instance: “Zur Wiener Hofpolitik”, in: Preußische Jahrbücher, CLXXXI: 3 (Berlin, 1920). Several others are listed in: Fester, xv. His criticism of Karl was, however, comparatively restrained. 6 Kriegsarchiv, Vienna, Nachlass Wilhelm Möller, B/180, 1, II, pp.305-324. Wilhelm Möller, a telegraph operator at court and amateur historian, tried to establish the identity of the author. Most believed it was the Czech privy councillor Ottokar Mikeš, a chief of section in the emperor’s private office (Kabinettskanzlei), who had committed suicide as a result of the Empire’s collapse. Schneider himself refused to reveal the secret. According to Glaise, despite the untruths, the account contained new elements which only seven or eight people in Franz Joseph’s environment could have known.
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