11/4/2015 Korea -- Britannica School Reading Level [+] Expand All RELATED RESOURCES FOR THIS ARTICLE View search results for: Korea Alternate titles: Chosŏn, Hanguk, Taehan Introduction Korea, history of the Korean peninsula from prehistoric times to the 1953 armistice ending the Korean War (1950–53). For later developments, see North Korea: History; and South Korea: History. Korea to c. 1400 The dawn of history Archaeological, linguistic, and legendary sources support the view that the Korean peninsula was settled by Tungusic- speaking peoples who migrated in waves from Manchuria and Siberia. They settled along the coasts and moved up the river valleys. These peoples formed the dominant ethnic foundation of the Korean people and developed the Korean language. There was a close relationship between Korean culture and that of neighbouring peoples during the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) and the Bronze Age. For example, Korean comb pottery, widely used in the Neolithic Period, is commonly found in northeastern Asia; Korean bronze daggers, belt hooks, and knobbed mirrors also display the traits of bronze tools unearthed elsewhere in the region. THE STONE AGE Stone artifacts of the Paleolithic Period have been unearthed at Kulp’o-ri in North Hamgyŏng province (North Korea) and at Sŏkch’ang in South Ch’ungch’ŏng province (South Korea). Of 13 stratified Paleolithic sites, each cultural stratum produced chipped-stone tools of different shapes. Dwelling sites with round fireplaces were discovered there along http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/108454 1/29 11/4/2015 Korea -- Britannica School with carved pebbles. The Neolithic Period was well established by 3000 BCE. A major characteristic was the use of comb pottery, chiefly found at seashore and river-basin sites, where inhabited places and shell mounds also have been discovered. In addition, stone spears and flint arrowheads have been found, as well as bone hooks and stone weights used for fishing. Remains of the Late Neolithic Period include stone plows and sickles, which indicate the beginning of farming. People lived in dugouts, mostly shallow round or rectangular hollows with fireplaces in the centre that may have been covered with thatched roofs. These shelters were huddled together in groups. The size of such villages is yet to be determined, but legends indicate the family members lived together, forming clan communities. THE USE OF METALS AND THE EMERGENCE OF TRIBAL STATES Bronze ware was probably first used about the 8th century BCE, though some scholars surmise that it predates the 10th century. As the Bronze Age started, the design of pottery changed to undecorated earthenware. The uncovering of such pottery indicates that Bronze Age Korean people lived on hillsides, in dugouts built slightly aboveground. Half- moon-shaped stone reaping knives and grooved stone axes used for hoeing show that rice farming was practiced, and bronze daggers and bronze arrowheads indicate participation in wars of conquest. Dolmens, used as tombs, which were discovered in southern Manchuria and the Korean peninsula, show the boundary of ancient Korean culture. Since only prominent persons were buried in dolmens, their number and location indicate the existence of many small Bronze Age tribal states that were probably established by powerful people. The most advanced state was Old Chosŏn, established in the Taedong River basin, in the northern part of the peninsula. According to legend, the son of heaven, Hwanung, descended to earth and married a bear-turned-woman, who bore a son, Tan’gun, the founder of Chosŏn. Perhaps Tan’gun and his descendants ruled a tribal state in which rituals and politics were not separated. Chosŏn developed into a league of tribes in the area of the Taedong and Liao rivers (c. 4th century BCE). About this time ironware came to be used. Iron plows and sickles indicate the use of animals in farming and more efficient harvesting methods. Wooden houses were built on the ground, and ondol, a floor-heating device, was developed. The appearance of iron weapons, horse equipment, and coaches indicates that horses and chariots were employed in wars. Wiman (Wei Man in Chinese), said to have defected from China, became ruler of Chosŏn about 194 BCE. More likely, he was http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/108454 2/29 11/4/2015 Korea -- Britannica School indigenous to Chosŏn. Wiman’s Chosŏn was overthrown by the Han empire of China and replaced by four Chinese colonies in 108 BCE. The development of ancient states THE THREE KINGDOMS Apart from Chosŏn, the region of Korea developed into tribal states. To the north, Puyŏ rose in the Sungari River basin of Manchuria (now northeastern China). Qin, which had emerged south of the Han River in the 2nd century BCE, was split into three tribal states—Mahan, Chinhan, and Pyŏnhan. These states formed leagues, or tribal federations, centred on a leading state. The tribal leagues stretched across a wide area from the Sungari basin to the southern Korean peninsula. They evolved into three rival kingdoms—Koguryŏ (Goguryeo), Paekche (Baekje), and Silla. According to legends, Koguryŏ was founded by Chu-mong in 37 BCE, Paekche by Onjo in 18 BCE, and Silla by Pak Hyŏkkŏse in 57 BCE. The actual task of state building, however, was begun for Koguryŏ by King T’aejo (reigned 53–146 CE), for Paekche by King Koi (reigned 234– 286), and for Silla by King Naemul (reigned 356–402). Grafica Co., Inc. The Three Kingdoms shared several common characteristics. They evolved into statehood through frequent wars of expansion, centralized military systems were organized, and training institutions (kyŏngdang in Koguryŏ, hwarangdo in Silla) were developed. The power of the king in each state was strengthened, and hereditary monarchies evolved. Another common characteristic was the appearance of powerful aristocracies composed of tribal chiefs who moved to the capital. The aristocrats were divided into several social classes with certain privileges as they advanced socially and politically. © Lorraine Murray Silla’s kolp’um (“bone-rank”) system, in which the families of rulers customarily monopolized political power, was typical. Silla had a state deliberative body, the Council of Nobles (Hwabaek), which made important decisions. The council’s membership consisted of men of chin’gol (“true-bone”) class, who were of the http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/108454 3/29 11/4/2015 Korea -- Britannica School high aristocracy. The kingdoms all achieved a centralization of power. Each one was divided into administrative units—the largest called pu in Koguryŏ, pang in Paekche, chu in Silla—that controlled many castles. To these provincial units the central government sent officials who made sure that the people, as royal subjects, provided taxes and corvée labour. The Three Kingdoms developed highly sophisticated cultures. Each compiled its own history, apparently to consolidate the authority of the state. Also noteworthy was the introduction of Buddhism, which was regarded at the time as the state religion for the protection and welfare of the state. UNIFIED SILLA With the support of China, Silla conquered and subjugated Paekche in 660 and Koguryŏ in 668. Not until 676 did Silla drive out the Chinese and gain complete control of the Korean peninsula. The surviving Koguryŏ people in northern Manchuria established Parhae (or Palhae; Bohai in Chinese), under the leadership of Tae Cho- yŏng (Dae Jo-yeong). The state soon came into direct confrontation with Silla. This period may be called an age of separate southern and northern states; it is customary, however, for historians to place the primary focus on Silla because little is known about Parhae, though it grew into a highly civilized state that the Chinese called the “Prosperous Country of the East.” After Parhae’s demise its territory fell under the control of the northern nomadic peoples and has not since been a part of Korean history. Korean Information Office, Washington Unified Silla saw the maturing of an absolute monarchy, which effectively eliminated D.C. the influence of the Council of Nobles. A central administrative body called the Chancellery (Chipsabu) was established to enforce royal decrees. Aristocrats were now granted salaries and land, but the latter was to revert to the state when the aristocrats left office. Thus, the aristocracy’s direct control over land and the populace was reduced. Monarchs built extravagant palaces and royal tombs at Kŭmsŏng (modern Kyŏngju [Gyeongju], South Korea), the Silla capital. The state was divided into administrative units by province (chu), prefecture (kun), and county (hyŏn). Five http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/108454 4/29 11/4/2015 Korea -- Britannica School provincial capitals prospered as cultural centres. Theravada Buddhism provided the ideological backing for autocratic monarchy and the aristocracy. The underprivileged populace was attracted to Pure Land Buddhism (one of the Mahayana schools), which promised bliss in the next world. The legacy of Silla Buddhism can be seen in many beautiful temples and great works of art, the Janet Wishnetsky/Comstock, Inc. most remarkable of which—Pulguk Temple, Sŏkkuram (a grotto shrine), and the bell at Pongdŏk Temple—are in the Kyŏngju area and have been designated UNESCO World Heritage sites. Confucianism prospered among the low-echelon aristocrats, who used it as a foothold for bureaucratic advancement. The National Academy (Kukhak) was established, and a proto-civil service examination system, called toksŏ samp’um kwa (“examination in the reading of texts in three gradations”), was installed. eimoberg THE EMERGENCE OF PROVINCIAL MAGNATES Frequent succession struggles and rebellions took place among the Silla aristocrats in the late 8th century, and they eventually restored the authority of the Council of Nobles and overthrew royal despotism. Low-ranking aristocrats demanded the abolition of restrictions imposed by the strict status system. New powerful families appeared in the provinces, and their power grew with the weakening of central control.