Social Media Usage Among Elite Athletes: An exploration of athlete usage during major events Author Hayes, Michelle Published 2019-11-12 Thesis Type Thesis (PhD Doctorate) School Dept Tourism, Sport & Hot Mgmt DOI https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/3836 Copyright Statement The author owns the copyright in this thesis, unless stated otherwise. Downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/10072/389666 Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE AMONG ELITE ATHLETES: AN EXPLORATION OF ATHLETE USAGE DURING MAJOR EVENTS Michelle Hayes Bachelor of Business (Sport Management), Griffith University Bachelor of Business with Honours (First Class), Griffith University Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management Griffith Business School Griffith University Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2019 I ABSTRACT Social media platforms have proliferated the sport industry. Social media is constantly evolving, with platforms being adopted by many sport stakeholders including sport governing bodies, leagues, teams, sporting events, fans, coaches, managers, and athletes. For athletes, social media have provided new avenues to share personal and professional news, manage their personal image and brand, and develop deeper interactions with fans. However, since the rise of social media, sport stakeholders have debated the extent of athlete social media use at major sport events. The purpose of this research was threefold: (1) to investigate why athletes use social media, the gratifications they receive, and the challenges they experience during a major sport event, (2) explore the elements of social media athletes perceive to be distracting, the practices they undertake to address distractions, and the support they receive from sport organisations, and (3) to examine how national sport organisations manage athlete social media use and their perceptions of social media as a distraction. To better understand athlete social media use during major sport events, three studies were conducted sequentially. Each study gathered qualitative data, allowing the researcher to delve deeper into the perceptions of athletes and sport administrators. Study one was guided by uses and gratifications (U&G) theory. The study was designed to investigate why athletes use social media, the gratifications they receive, and the challenges they experience during a major sport event. The study consisted of an open-ended questionnaire which collected data from elite athletes who competed at major international sport events (e.g., World Championships) (N = 57). Results indicated that athletes primarily used social media to communicate with their support networks (e.g., family and friends), for promotional purposes, and to gather and share information. As a result of using social media, athletes were gratified through connectedness, positive reinforcement, and relaxation and escape. Although social media use appeared to be primarily positive, athletes experienced several challenges. II These challenges presented athletes with feelings of anxiousness, and difficulty balancing an appropriate amount of social media use during events. Study two utilised semi-structured interviews (N = 15) to explore the elements of social media athletes perceive to be distracting, the practices they undertake to address distractions, and the support they receive from sport organisations. Distraction-conflict theory (DCT) was employed in order to help build this understanding. Data highlighted several elements perceived to be distracting, including an obligation to respond to messages, pressure to build and maintain an athlete brand, and competitor content. Similar to study one, athletes reported that social media allowed them to escape the pressure associated with major sport events. Athletes addressed concerns associated with social media distractions by engaging in self-awareness and switching off the platforms or handing over control to someone they trusted to manage content while they were competing. In terms of the support they received, athletes reported a lack of distraction related guidelines and restrictions, inconsistent training and education, and receiving additional informal assistance as required. To provide an additional perspective, study three consisted of semi-structured interviews (N = 7) with sport administrators of Australian NSOs to examine how national sport organisations manage athlete social media use and their perceptions of social media as a distraction. Communication privacy management theory (CPM) guided the study. Findings indicate that a number of support and management mechanisms are used to assist athletes including policy and guidelines, training, providing suggestions and assistance, and monitoring. Further, administrators reported a number of aspects that are perceived to be distracting to athletes including negative commentary and loss of focus. Aligning with the two previous studies, administrators also suggested that social media can have a positive impact on athletes, as it allows them to escape the pressures of major sport events. Collectively, the current research contributes to the three theoretical frameworks that III guided the studies. First, the research contributed to U&G theory by revealing how and why athletes act as both consumers and producers when using social media. Further, the challenges athletes described could represent failed gratifications and lead to a change in how social media is used in future events. Second, the research extends DCT to athlete social media research and presents a conceptual model to guide future research on the impacts of social media on performance. Finally, the research contributes to CPM by examining social media as a whole, rather than focusing on one particular platform. Further, the research applies a multi-stakeholder approach (i.e., athletes and NSO administrators) and major sport event context to existing CPM research. The findings also underscore opportunities for sport organisations to bolster training and development initiatives offered to athletes. A number of suggestions are presented including strategies on how to filter competitors’ posts so they are not visible in the athlete’s social media feeds, as this was a source of anxiety for some athletes. Other suggestions focus on equipping athletes with the appropriate coping and mental skills to deal with any negative feelings related to, and beyond, social media use through improved personal development programs. IV STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. _____________________________ Michelle Hayes (September, 2019) V TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. I STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY .................................................................................... IV LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ IX LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ X LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................. XI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ XII PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS ................................................................... XIV CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research Background and Rationale ................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Purpose and Research Questions.......................................................................... 6 1.3 Research Context ................................................................................................................. 7 1.4 Research Design................................................................................................................. 11 1.5 Delimitations ...................................................................................................................... 12 1.6 Significance of the Research and Expected Contributions ................................................ 14 1.7 Structure of Thesis ............................................................................................................. 16 1.8 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 17 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 19 2.1 Defining Social Media ....................................................................................................... 19 2.2 Social Media and Sport ...................................................................................................... 20 2.3 Uses and Gratifications Theory ......................................................................................... 21 2.4 Social Media and Athletes ................................................................................................