CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Professor Jasmina Luki Supervisor: Professor Balázs Trencsényi AS COUNTERDISCOURSE IN In partialIn fulfilmentof the requirements for the degree of IN TWO DIFFERENT CONTEXTS IN TWODIFFERENT Central EuropeanUniversity History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts Zsófia Lóránd Submitted to ü 2007 By CEU eTD Collection without the written permission of the Author. of the permission written the without made. Further copiesmay be madeobtained in accordancefrom the librarian.by the Authorwith This and such pagelodged mustinstructions in formtheeither Libraryina partfull or inof part, ofany process, any themayby mayCopies such be Author. Central the with made rests thesis notonlycopiesof this text in the in accordanceCopyright beEuropean made with theUniversity. instructions given Details Statement of Copyright of Statement ii CEU eTD Collection Abstract iii CEU eTD Collection people simply did their best for the best results. Of course,photocopying the material I forgot. And for everything. theespecially responsibility in the National and University Library, giving a roof over my forhead there, the final outcome is exclusively mine, all these And finally, to Stevo To allthe people with whom we had the lond-durée coffees. language. To Andrijana Stuttgart. in photocopying the for Betzwieser Hagen and Butterstein Frau To Thanks to Bojan Aleksov for the contacts he gave. Teodoroviwith. (Women StudiesI am Centre) alsoAlso to the archivistsin in the OSA, Botond Barta Zagreband Robert Parnica for their help. very forparts of the thesis. the lot gratefulofThanks to Professoruseful István Rév for the thought-evoking discussions aboutmaterial certain with my initial idea. on shego to encouraging for Antohi Sorin Professor to thanks say provided to also like would I to Jasminka me and alsogaveencouraging feedback. a of advice,aboutlot gave myideas, had manysuggestions the texts discussing Pešut from the Centar za ženske studije and I would like to saygrateful thanks to my supervisors,Professor Professor Balázs Trencsényi Jasmina Luki Ĉ uraškovi ü , Petar Mitri ü . They spent a tremendous amount of time on ü Acknowledgements for helping with the translations, guiding in , ü and Danilo Šarenac for helping with the iv CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 96 II...... 94 Appendix I...... 93 Appendix ...... 89 Conclusion .Fmns nteNwNto tts...... 48 the NewNationStates Feminism in 3. 2. The Emergenceof and History...... 11 Background 1. 1 Introduction...... Erfahrungsraum and the other way round (Drakuli other wayround and the Erfahrungsraum 3.4 Redefining Yugoslavia in Retrospect –from Erwartungshorizont to ...... “Witch-Trial” The 3.3 ...... Period theWartime Discourse in Rape 3.2 The ...... early1990s inthe Feminism for New Challenges 3.1 Counterdiscourses...... Placeto and inRelationOther Neofeminizam its 2.3 2.2 Individual Approaches to Feminism – Drakuli Feminism– to Approaches Individual 2.2 2.1 Neofeminizam – First Conference (1978), Main Topics and Major Figures.... Neofeminizam Table ofContents in Yugoslavia in the 1970s and 1980s...... 20 the 1970s in Yugoslavia in v ü , Ivekovi ü , Ivekovi ü , Ugreši ü , Ugreši ü ...... ü )...... 72 60 54 48 43 30 21 CEU eTD Collection Yugoslav identity, albeit in different ways, the inclusion of elements from the the 1970s-1980s was thinking in terms of Yugoslavia and the three authors claim a Drakuli three significant figures of Yugoslav feminism, three Croatian authors: Slavenka manifestos, scholarly articlesmajor and literary works, andelements on the activity and career of of the feminist discourse of the age, published in debates, Imagining theBalkans Todorova, Cf.Maria that war. to dowith nothing who had countries, other states and successor Yugoslav the between notdifferentiate wars”does term “Balkan the Moreover, etc. barbarian, course morecruel, is of and one, European with the isconfronted ” of“Balkan concept specific The Maria Todorova. 1 Yugoslavia and the . the and Yugoslavia nineties, that overviewis the of the eventstime of the lateof 1980s,thethe the birthsecond periodmovement, toof look theat is the and inearlynew its successor states. The first period in focus is the time of thestates, emergencethe of latethe break-up 1970s 1990s. early the of and a different turn, whichearly isnot surprising, considering the history of the country in 1980s,up the space for feminist discussions as well, the Yugoslav historyand of feminism took later in most East European countries the democraticthen, transitions of 1989/90 opened following earlyin the 1970sfeministgroupsstarted andwork.to emerge However, while most East Europeana short countries. The onlysecond wave feminism inexception Western Europe are absent from the intellectual history of is the former Yugoslavia,Europe where and feminismone, could in general,have beenin the sense of a modeone of speechhave and a systemof of thoughts these, contradictingplayed the ruling a counterdiscoursethe in eachsociety wherever it appeared. While counterdiscourses, a ideassignificant and claimsThe second waveof of role feminism,the emerging in from thetotalitarian mid-1960s on, has functioned as Introduction regimes in Eastern I avoid the use of the term “Balkan wars”. The reason for this is in accord with the argumentation of In this thesis I examine two periods of feminism in the former Yugoslavia ü , Rada Ivekovi (NY and Oxford: Oxford UP, 1997),137. Oxford Oxford: (NYand ü and Dubravka Ugreši 1 Theanalysis is directed to two phenomena: the 1 ü . Since, as we will see, feminism in CEU eTD Collection Rycenga (New York: Garland Publications, 2000) 247-274; Cynthia Cockburn, “The Anti-Essentialist “The CynthiaCockburn, 247-274; 2000) Publications, York:(New Garland Rycenga ,” in Serbia,” 6 out. left are federation Yugoslav oftheformer countries other in it,the aplace deserves literature is thatwhileCroatian writing” women’s European “Central about Hawkesworth by edited volume of the gesture A remarkable 2004). Ljevak, (Zagreb: literature) women’s contemporary književnosti ženskoj suvremenoj o Ogledi trauma: tijelo, Tekst, Literatures, in Literatures,” Croatian and Serbian inContemporary Narratives Centered Writing 5 4 1990). Inc., Press Arden 3 1999. idem., Transformation Great of the andMeaning the Sources in Yugoslavia,” in “Feminism Ramet, P. andSabrina 67-87 UP 1999), States Successor Yugoslav the and Yugoslavia in &Politics Women Look,” ACloser Yugoslavia. in “Neofeminism idem. 200-223; Press,1985), Westview Colorado: (Boulder, focusing on those aspects of the writings. broader politicalHowever, these numberarticles orof remarkableintellectual and authorsbooksappearance and success wasdo of a thenewnot women’s phenomena writingsembed in theand Andrealate Zlatar there are 1970s, texts bothin in Serbo-Croatian the history,whichSouth and English on the withliterary thisSlavic literatures. phenomena since into theya are literary historical works was written in the late 1980s.aspects of the beginningsWorld which would War not be(WWII), availableinformative book about women’s role in the partisan movement and in the Second any more,mostly since the bookbased on fieldwork and oral history, thus revealing 2 groups is even moreinto the (feminist) politicalfragmented context. The discussion on the second period I examine and consists of various articles about new feminist Websterpresent later at theare beginning someon) of earlytheand movement, Sabrinatexts“Yugoslavia” in the title is justified. by Barbara about historyJancar Ramet.the of(Barbara feminismbeginnings Jancar-in the other republicsby scholars is necessary andwho the wereuse of the themselvesterm Lepa Mladjenovic [Mla Celia Hawkesworth, “Croatian Women Writers 1945-95,” in 1945-95,” Writers Women “Croatian CeliaHawkesworth, Also the translator of several works by Dubravka Ugreši Jancar-Webster[Jancar], Barbara See Barbara Jancar, “The in Yugoslavia,” in Politics in the Western Balkans , ed. Celia Hawkesworth (London: Palgrave MacMillan–UCL, 2001); Jasmina Luki Jasmina 2001); MacMillan–UCL, Palgrave (London: Hawkesworth , ed.Celia 6 The literature on thetopic sofar has been diverse and fragmented. There and about thewartime mass rapes, ed. Pamela Chester and Sibelan Forrester (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1996); Andrea Zlatar, Andrea UP, 1996); Indiana (Bloomington: Forrester Sibelan and Chester Pamela ed. Frontline : Women, War, and Resistance, and War, Women, Frontline Feminisms: Vol. (8)1 (1988): 1-30; idem. “Women in the Yugoslav National Liberation Movement,” Liberation National the Yugoslav “Women in idem. 1-30; (1988): Vol.(8)1 ÿ enovi ü ] and Donna M. Hughes, “Feminist Resistance to War and Violence in Women & Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941-45 in Yugoslavia &Revolution Women 3 By authors like Jasmina Luki , Gender Politics in the Western Balkans: Women and Society in , ed. Sabrina P. Ramet (Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State Pennsylvania P.Ramet(Pennsylvania: Sabrina , ed. 2 5 2 In the In thesis,Iplace theseliterary text Barbara Jancar even wroteavery BarbaraJancar 7 but probably also due tothecloseness (Durham–London: Duke UP, 1991), 197-211; Duke UP,1991), (Durham–London: ü into English. Yugoslavia in the 1980s inthe Yugoslavia A History of Central European Women’s European Central of A History ed. Marguerite R. Waller and Jennifer (Text, tear, trauma: Essays on Essays trauma: (Text, tear, Social Currents in Eastern Europe: in Eastern Currents Social ü , Celia Hawkesworth (Denver, Colorado: (Denver, Engendering Slavic Engendering , ed. Pedro Ramet ü , “Women- 4 CEU eTD Collection War Victims Ten Years Later podiplomski humanisti podiplomski Discourse: and Case-Studies Essays from and Yugoslavia specific cases and onlyrepresentation ofexperience. Since the theories ofBlack andJauß areappliedin in some chapters, I discussW. Scott, Susan Sniader Lanser and Philippe Lejeune on autobiographythese and the at the Joan of texts point and Jauß, of Hans-Robert theory reader-response the ideologies, to where they Borislav Radovi Reinhart Koselleck’s approaches, such as the“interference theory” of Max Black, conceptual theories like from the complex nature of theMethodologically, topic besides the basic techniques ofof discourse myanalysis and derivinginvestigations,Applied Theories and Methodology I use several linguistic personal life, public life and writing. writing of literary history and on forming literary canons, and the role ofideology in and the political inliterature, the effect of the interpretation of history on the around which the thesis is concentrated will combinespace of acountry/countries the changing borders, regimes,problem standpoints. The questions of autobiography Ristanovi Drakuli special focus on the work and the story of three post-Yugoslav authors, Slavenka discourse of feminism in Yugoslavia in the 1970s-80s and in the early 1990s, with Herzegovina 7 Two Women'sProjects,” between intheInteraction andFeminism Choice: Nationalism records, that revealsother aspectsof the history of and the changes of this approach are examined and compared to other individual could call feminism, there are only feminism 1980s. Moreover, since the statement that there isnoone single stream which we the period and none of them brings it together and compares it with the 1970s and of theevents, none of these is acomprehensive history of the discourses present in Volumes on this topic: Alexandra Stiglmayer, ed., Stiglmayer, Alexandra topic: this on Volumes Therefore, this thesis relates the changes, similarities and differences in the ü ü , ed., , Rada Ivekovi Vol. 6. No. 4 (2000): 611-629; etc. 4(2000):611-629; Vol.6.No. , trans. by Marion Faber (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, c1994); Vesna Nikoli Vesna c1994); Press, of Nebraska University (Lincoln: Faber Marion by , trans. ü Women, Violence andWar: Wartime Victimization of Refugees in the Balkans, (Budapest: CEU Press, 2000); Svetlana Slapšak, ed., Slapšak, Svetlana 2000); Press, CEU (Budapest: þ ni študij, 2000); Vesna Kesi Vesna 2000); študij, ni Begriffsgeschichte ü and Dubravka Ugreši (Zagreb: Center for Women War Victims,2003). War Women for Center (Zagreb: and Michael Freeden’s conceptual approach ü 3 , ed., Mass Rape: The Mass Waragainst WomeninBosnia- s , if individual authors, their approach ü Women RecollectingWomen Memories: The Center for and their position in the discursive RussiaISH (Ljubljana: - Fakulteta za feminism . War Discourse, Women's and trans. by ü - CEU eTD Collection 9 (2002): 50. 8 Practice 10 Dissemination Proust and Rilke, Nietzsche, transparent, so the carefulreading of textualworks isnecessary. teach us that language isinherently metaphorical and meanings are never Other schools under the influence of the linguistic turn, especially deconstruction, of texts and languagebelieve any more that language represents some “truth beyond itself”, the analysis is the onlybasis sourceof the new approachwe areCarver, toleft discourse with Paul is inthe Ricoeur ourlinguistic investigations. and,turn, andof sincecourse,introductory part. we do not Michel emerge. However, ashortoverview of other the approaches isnecessaryFoucault.this in As Carver writes, the very counterdiscourse. produceof those who are usually spoken-for. When they start tospeak for themselves, they counterdiscourse a discourseand possession ofphenomena. knowledge,whichFoucault isembeds the linguisticstands approach, whenalso looking at the power relations structuring discourse, thisthe analysis one who into opposingintroduces a broader context the ofconcept socialthe and of institutionalruling one, that is a feminism, coming from primaryits concerns, always goes against the mainstream emerge. already, which, discourses any alternative against war, are government at nationalist of the of course, challengesthe ruling discourses of thetwo periods, that of the communist party state and that and motivates the alternative discourses to Cf. Paul de Man “Semiology Turn’,” ‘Linguistic and the Analysis “Discourse Terrel Carver, and Rhetoric,” in Gilles Deleuze and Michel Foucault, “Intellectuals and Politics,” in Politics,” and “Intellectuals Foucault, Michel and Deleuze Gilles , ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1977), 205-217. UP,1977), Cornell (Ithaca: F. Bouchard Donald , ed. My approach to discourse and its analysis is influenced by authors like Terrel Foucault, who interprets discourse in its relation to power and the production The casesexamined here arespecial also since, ontheother hand, , trans. by Barbara Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,c1981). Chicago of University Johnson(Chicago: Barbara , trans.by . He differentiates between the ruling discourse and the discourses 10 Thediscourses in this thesis areespecially remarkable, since (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979) and Jacques Derrida, andJacques 1979) Press, University Yale Haven: (New Allegories of Reading: Figural Language in Rousseau, in Language Figural of Reading: Allegories 4 European Political Science Political European Language, Counter-Memory, and Counter-Memory, Language, 9 However, besides Vol. 2. No.1 Vol. 8 CEU eTD Collection UP, 1984),67. history, similarly to fictional narratives. nature of history and the reconstructive rather than descriptive characteristic of 13 c1983-1985). Press, ofChicago University 12 1989), 234-235. 11 therefore can and should be changed.” are socially created, detrimentaldiscourse, stating that “gender divisions of work, pleasure, power, and sensibility to women, and, to a lesser degree, to men, and convergence of aesthetics“designates anaesthetic aswell asa historical function”, what implies the“possible and of history”,investigations as a genre between thepersonal narratives,literary such asautobiography. Autobiography becomesand crucial in my the historical, as a genreof whichhistory and fiction and the emphasis on narratives,Ricoeur, who, in his unreadably long leads to the discussion of implementation was planned, the party state never declared itself feminist. equality,latter has gender ’the equality movement,importance on importantits asagenda, well as in butthedeclaration apartcasein ofthe fromthe party caseitssupplemented of definitionstate. of itForseveralof example, ofa interpretationcompared genderperson, the women’s of Ruddick criticism, by groupI will the use groupsas inlong this asto elementthesistheor power asorganisationin other a relationscore the definition carrying early sheof feminism, inequality issues 1990s,did are not ofchanged.not beinglike This mention, andthe feminist. the whichway This isits willthe affirmativebe women and thus to ground claims for the legitimacy of women’s history in the idea, even sharedpitfall by some of thefeminists strategy oftoo, counterdiscourse. “is voice, which is crucialalso in order for the counterdiscourse to be effective. to universalize As Joan W. Scott the writes,identity the ofcommon Paul de Man, “Autobiography as De-Facement,” in as De-Facement,” “Autobiography Man, Paulde PaulRicoeur, Sara Ruddick, A further important author contributing to the discursive approach is Paul The need for the individual voice derives from the most frequently emerging Time and NarrativeTime Maternal Thinking: TowardsaPolitics of Peace , Vol. 3., trans. by Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer (Chicago: Pellauer David and McLaughlin Kathleen by , Vol.3.,trans. Time and Narrative Time 11 12 5 Thisapparently implies a constant social Ricoeur’s approach, with the comparison The Rhetoric ofRomanticism The Rhetoric 13 and moreover, it gives the individual (Boston, Mass.: The Women’s Press, TheWomen’s Mass.: (Boston, , emphasises the narrative , emphasises the (New York: Columbia (New CEU eTD Collection 14 21 20 Voice Narrative and Writers 19 18 17 16 15 OUP,1999),88. Oxford: and Reader, Interdisciplinary tell.” shared experience of historians of women and those women whose stories they to oppression, that is, to feminism.” to is, that oppression, to political, for the lived experience ofwomen isseenas leading directly to resistance domination, whether natural or political”, accrued Deniseto womenRiley is quoted notessentialisesby Scott: by“it masksvirtue the likelihood ofthatwomen … [experiences]their and areoveremphasiseswomanhood alone, the materialitybut as traces of theirof bodies, or as have experience, butsubjects whoare constituted through experience.” experiences as well.” the framing of thislegitimacy in the shared experience, it also hides theworkings of dominationexperience behind andwomen theas one group “necessarilyand legitimises women’s history, forThough seemingly example, this unified common experiencediscursive allows the representationby placing of this characterunified and transparent isreally dubious, as it happens in several feminist texts. of these each of these representing “a particular kind of narrative consciousness”. helpful. Lanser differentiates theauthorial, the personaland thecommunal voice, authorship in the case of feminist texts, the categories of Susan Sniader Lanser are self-referential”, and“potentially hetero-andextradiegetic, being besides discourse, public authorial authorship.” Joan W. Scott, “The Evidence of Experience,” in. ofExperience,” “The Evidence JoanW.Scott, ibid., 16. ibid., 15. ibid., Susan Sniader Lanser, “Toward aFeministPoetics Narrativeof Voice,” in 88-89. ibid., 83. ibid., 89. ibid., 89. ibid., 14 Scott continues: "In addition, it literally equates the personal with the From this point of view the attempt to represent women’s experience as When speaking about the representation of experience, autobiography and 21 Lanser attributes attributes an Lanser 20 also “reproduces the structural and functional situation of ed. Sharlene Hesse-Biber, Christina Gilmartin and Robin Lydenberg (New York 18 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell UP, 1992), 15. 1992), CornellUP, (Ithaca,N.Y.: 15 This is more harmful than useful, since it authoriality 6 16 Feminist Approaches to Theory and Methodology: An Methodology: and toTheory Approaches Feminist so after all “it is not the individuals who to this type of narrative Fictions of Authority: Women of Authority: Fictions 17 19 The CEU eTD Collection struggle over which representations of female voice are to beauthorized.” female voices, according to themselves,Lanser their female world. Onthe other hand, since male writers have created the “arena of personalwhere narration may womeninvolve a the personal voice risks the repetition of aretraditional gender relations in literature, excludedthe arena for women authors to fight their place in the literary and cultural scene, from men’s world and can speak/write only about paratexts. Gérard Genette: as count can gossips and interviews advertisements, comments, reviews, book the even paratexts, on whole book a wrote in 1987 who Genette, to According etc. cover, the on author of the the portrait covers, book illustrations, series title,blurbs, title, foreword, cover), onthe two usually (these subgenre is granted pact ofthe therealisation names, the Besides 3-30. c1989), Press, Minnesota of by University (Minneapolis: paratexts, that is by texts which are on the threshold of the literaryframes. AsLanser argues, since the frames ofnarration wereestablished by“white, work itself: genre, texts produced within the Western discourse, itmakes sense toremain within those is rather underdevelopedshare narrative authority”. According to her definition, it is “either a collectivein voice or collective voices thatWesterncollective experience and collective action deriving from a shared experience. narrations, while if dissolved. we are speaking about 25 24 ofInterpretation Thresholds Paratexts: emerge, this is really adanger, but ifthe could issues similar other and authenticity about discussions futile that sense 23 22 from ‘within’ the fiction, in a culture’s literary, social, and intellectual debates.” consciousness, which authoriality enables the writer herself or himself “to engage, by Lejeune’s narration and autobiography are indistinguishable, their difference is resolved only narration. Structurally, for example in the terminology of Genette, the personal is at the same timevoice is an autodiegetic same (Genette’s term)time one, meaning a firstalso person narrator the who main character, the protagonist of the ibid., 21. ibid., Lanser1992,18-19. Philippe Lejeune, “The Autobiographical Pact,” in Pact,” “The Autobiographical Lejeune, Philippe 17. ibid., Lanser’s category of the communal voice reflects on the problem of As opposed to this “structurally ‘superior’” voice, the personal narrative autobiographic pactautobiographic Seuils 25 However, this is acomplicated issue, especially since it . Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1987. English edition: Gérard Genette, Gérard edition: English 1987. Seuil, du Éditions Paris: . , trans. by Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: CUP,1997). E. Lewin(Cambridge: Jane by , trans. or truth pact truth 7 truth pact truth On Autobiography, . 23 While the authorial voice opens accepted,is these problems are trans. by Katherine Leary Katherine trans.by 24 In the In 22 CEU eTD Collection 31 30 83. Press,c1985), Mass.: MIT (Cambridge, This happens so that “the space of experience, open toward the future, draws the 29 28 27 26 we’”, ruling class men” whose “‘I’ is already speaking with the authority of a ‘hegemonic appropriate[es] thepower” plurality. ofthis constructing female community”, therewithout communal voice,” isand “it is difficultalways to construct communal voice a withoutpossibility that a “singleto authorthem as a points out, there are several traps in terming morecommunity. women asagroup andreferring Since “it is possible to represent female community and suggests. prefers asScott shaped, is experience this which ways in the or to group certain “gives a voice” to it, whichwho doesspeaks, not bring usbut closer one either single to the experienceauthor whoof a imagines that community somehow and expectation ( the politicalBesides their ambiguous nature, concepts also have a strongand temporality, effectingsocial space of experience ( words”, claim todifferentis from words, since “[s]ocial and political concepts possess asubstantial generalityare usually also concepts in other discourses too. In Koselleck’s definition, concept counterdiscourse with aspecific setand ofconcepts, which concepts at thesame time alwaysthesis. have meaningsThe certain group’s discourse and sometimes go against it. individuals […]individual voices which are sometimes representative and characteristic for a in modalities speaking other andthan writing are parts and producers of a ibid., 270. ibid., 84. ibid., Reinhart Koselleck, Scott1999. 22. ibid., 21. ibid., 26 this communal voice was not needed. On the other hand, as Scott also Also, this is how conceptual theories become crucial for the analyses of this 29 and“concepts are thus the concentrate of substantial meanings.” Erwartungshorizont 28 This is why here, in this thesis I find it unavoidable to show Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time of OntheSemantics Futures Past: ), which by the concept embody past and future. 8 27 In which case, it isnot the community Erfahrungsraum , trans. by Keith Tribe ) and horizon of 31 30 CEU eTD Collection gender–class relations through revolution to the nation and Yugoslavia. as we shall see invalid in this thesis, though dependingthe on the discourse–counterdiscourse relations,followings,the core the definition concepts power the relations between and female”. male of Ruddickin focus I also here chosespecifies its core concepts, the most central one willconsidered “gender in politics or as thevary root frominterpretationpolitical systems need toresolve”. the of feminismquestion if they are able to “exhibit a why therearecore conceptsand peripheral onesineach ideology. on the ideology, some of them are of course more central than other ones, this is morphologicaland interpretative constraints of the older established ideologies”. agenda but which, together with the green political thought, is “trying toescape the himself also applies his approach to feminism,meaning. as a new ideologystating that it is the ideologieswith which selecta certain the meaningFreeden’s conceptualapproach to ideologies interprets conceptsand within ideologies, establish networks of that definite meaning of acertain concept which they are aiming at. Michael achieved, the horizon opened up towards the future means also the fulfilment of 33 32 37 36 35 57-58. Begriffsgeschichte 34 1996), 54. in an unequal manner”. horizon of expectation out of itself” and redoubles “past and future in one another Michael Freeden, 275-276. ibid., ibid., 491. ibid., 486. ibid., 1996,485. Freeden, in Theory,” Political and Ideology “Concepts, Freeden, Michael At the same time, since these ideologies had a very specified agenda, it is a For feminism, as for other ideologies with a goal of social change to be 33 Within the networks, meanings also influence each other and depending (Challenging the history of concepts) ed. Carsten Dutt (Heidelberg: Winter, c2003), Winter, Dutt (Heidelberg: Carsten ed. concepts) of history the (Challenging Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach AConceptual Theory: Political and Ideologies 32 36 full Inhis chapter about feminism, Freeden 9 spectrum of responses to issues […] that 37 This statement is in consent with (Oxford: Clarendon Press, Clarendon (Oxford: Herausforderungen der 34 Freeden 35 CEU eTD Collection changes in the feminist discourse will also be examined. in Yugoslaviaattention to the relationships of feminismand and individual feminists to Croatia,the state, both as the personal narrativeswell of the three authors, their reactions to the new situation. as to andthe Koselleck West come into theand picture.itself, requires WesternThe a more lastprecise subchapterlinguistic approach,“raping herethat isfeminism. howis the thetheories discussion of BlackCroatia”. of three TheThis authors secondsubchapter is dedicated to the issuechapter, of mass rapes andin the “witch-trial”, where the focus, due of togetherfeminismsto theis rather colourfuldiversification in the age.with A majorand partin addition, of thethe absencechapter,two of a single theparty statesecond otherruling the discourse,of the palettethe wartime, the gender womenrelations arediscourse sharpened and turn more easily into oppositions writers,democracies and their relations, within and between the new states. Since in are accusedshort overview presents the most important new feminist groups formed thein new of new nation states, where feminism faces new challenges and reacts on them. A on the example of the three authors three possible forms of feminism in the age. broadened version of the ideas discussed in theprevious subchapterand showing of Slavenkaespecially, to the Praxis group and the MASPOK. The third part will look atthe work Drakuliwell as the relationship of feminism to the activity of other dissent circles, representatives. Thestate’s reaction to the new alsodiscourse is discussed here, as dealspartisan movement andwith the gender policyhistory of the communist with state.the The thesecondthe one1970sbrief and 1980s.historyappearance The Followingfirst of the introduction,subchapterwomen’s the first chapter provides movementswill The Trajectoryembracethis ofText the historythe ofbackground feminism inin the and 20the pre- of the new feminism, its major ideas and In the conclusion, I summarise the two periods in detail, with special The second big chapter is about the early 1990s and about feminism in the ü , Rada Ivekovi ü and Dubravka Ugreši 10 ü in detail, giving a th Yugoslavia, the CEU eTD Collection discussion of the partisan period, I largely rely on this exhaustive book, especially former partisan women, mostly high-ranking officials, in the 1980s. In the articles and valuable several published Jancar-Webster Barbara InEnglish, Serbo-Croatian. a book dedicatedcelebrated and commemorated inseveralbooks andinterviews, mostof them in to the topic. Hero. National of thehonour accorded were women She also conductedthe Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia. After the war, 91 interviews2.000 women reached an officer’s rank and many ofthem were elected members of withBulgarian, Ustaše), where around 282.000600.000 of them died. In the course ofwere fighting, carried off to concentration camps (German, Italian, Hungarian, Narodna knjiga, 1980). Jancar 1985,205. 1980).Jancar knjiga, Narodna Women ( Jugoslavije 38 Detachments800.000 ofmovements in the partisan times is already enormously informing: out ofthe Yugoslavia partisans happen to be less equal. ( equality of men and women,fighting womenmostly towomen. The reason is that since the alwaysmajor question isthe gender seem to be more interesting,when speaking about gender relations, the focus usually shifts from both sexes as they posed by thein “new feminism” of the late 1970s.the It shouldpreservation and alterationbe of notedthese during the reign of inTito and theadvance challenges that People'sSouth Slav societies, their transformation during the Second World War, the In the following I examine gender relations, focusing mainly on their origins in Liberation1. BackgroundandHistory Army and Partisan Data based on the The stories of these women participating in the partisan movement are The number of women engaged in the resistance and anti-fascist Antifašisti ), 100.000 were women. Those involved in the Anti-Fascist Front of Leksikon Narodnooslobodila Leksikon þ ki front žena Narodno-oslobodila –AFŽ) counted around 2.000.000. Out of these, 11 þ ki rat I revolucija u Jogoslaviji 1941-45 uJogoslaviji rat Irevolucija ki þ ka vojska i partizanski odredi partizanski i vojska ka 38 (: CEU eTD Collection and thus contribution to the war effort. front the on fighting those for done service but more, any work domestic simply traditional female work gained special appreciation,activities. as washing or sewing were not members Some of theof themparty worked has beenas doctors involved in partisanin educational hospitals. and administrativeHowever, 41 40 39 most countriesaffected by the war.Differences were generated mostly bythe new, Furthermore, for many of them, the sign of “true equality was the gun”, womenpossible these not that themselves did feel being treated assexual objects. on the denial of bodily difference and the shading of female sexuality, what made it bolstered by the ban of “immoral” relationships. was and and shared whichsupplemented of fighting living”, comaraderie hard “motivated by returned again.probably never the spiritfound liberation in the war; indeed, they did reach a high level ofequality that has doof not reveal anything about its meaning.self-sacrifice”. Many partisan women believed that they than numbers do, which principally prove the high participation and sacrifice, but These recollectionsstate. communist federal of the discourse the within still being provide 1990s, the before a differentEquality approachcontemporaneous feminist discourse and the answers of the former partisans and different typeonsince of information,the front it mixes meant “thethe approach of an American academic, knowing well the Youth Movementmany of ( them werebecame already open for womendead. who stayedThose behind, who asjoined mostenabled them to express similar physicalmen force as men did. werethe in AFŽthe armyor andthe Communist ibid., 207. ibid., 207. ibid., 207. ibid., The latter two phenomena were not Yugo-specific, rather wide-spread in In the course of thewar, partisan women fought together with men, Apart from women fighting on the front, male professions or activities Savez komunisti þ ke omladine Jugoslavije 41 12 39 Inthissense, equality was based – SKOJ) or became 40 which CEU eTD Collection 44 43 1997), 86. Bildung, Politische für Bundeszentrale in Deutschland Frauenbewegung Nave-Herz, Rosemarie in Quoted sex.” fair/gentle of the status the social transformations are impossible without thefemale ferment. The social progress is exactly measurable on 42 been there personally. conditions of women in the Soviet Union as ideal, though most of them had never propagated byMarxism–Leninism. womenimaginedthe equality Yugoslav and to join the Communist Party during the second world warwomen in high administrativewas positions. the promise of and continueare valid in the casewar-time of Yugoslavia,sich exakt messen an der gesellschaftlichen Stellung des schönenand Geschlechts” the state indeedachievements, ohnemade das weibliche Ferment unmöglichefforts sind. Der gesellschaftliche Fortschritt lässt to maintain etwas vonGeschichte weiß,auch, weiß dassgroße gesellschaftliche Umwälzungen mostlyeven prevailing or dueadditional, had women of emancipation the however, Yugoslavia, In ideology. to thesupport presence from theequality became a central issue. partisanof partisan the “normal”,times. pre-war gender relations, in the new communist countries gender Marx’spost-war orders. While inmost Western countries the aimwas the reconstruction of sentences: “Jeder, der needs of the woman asmother”. conditions “to satisfy the particular needs of the female organism and […] the working adequate provide to and work political into women mobilize to women, which kept women in subservience,the home into the working world, to end the traditional household organisation to provide Theequal most urgent aims of the educationalConference were the following: to bring women out of opportunitiesof theFirst International Conference on Working Women, held in Moscow in 1920. for Jancar1985,201. Ramet1999,92. social huge that also history, knows anythingabout who knows “Anyone In translation: For manywomen, the motivation to participate inthepartisan movement The equality of menand women isdeclaratively importantfor communist 43 Their blind impressions were bolstered by the statements (The history of the women’s movements in Germany) (Bonn: Germany) in movements women’s of the history (The 44 13 Die Geschichte der Geschichte Die 42 CEU eTD Collection of the Fourth AFŽ manyCongress other problems waiting to bein solved. 1953 This lead to women’sthethat consequence de jure byon behalf andthe de facto new equality: legislation for the regime, it was one“the problem amongquestion of their own and not society’s problem.’” society’s not and own their needed to fight on their own to win their rights and social position, that these were unified political life’ and would have been led to the mistaken belief that ‘women necessary because otherwisewomen would have become separated from ‘the later on,Minister of Socialmakes Politics between 1945-46 things and holder of other important positionseven more clear. According to her, “this action was country’”. activity, the AFŽ disregarded the first task, i.e. “the building of ‘our Socialist because of Thirdits “concern AFŽ Congress,centralising only for processTito practicalwomen himselfof theand endCentral women’sof expressedthe Committee’s AFŽ asissues”. self-managing regularhis disapproval criticism. organisation In 1950, of atwas thethe a resultAFŽ, ofmostly a longer 49 48 47 46 45 Their first actthe wasStalinist to extend model,Conference and after WWII Tito’s visionthe was to establish a new Yugoslavia along suffragethe processMoscow the in rooted is background ideological the although that, note to important to was women. under theworked together on the implementation of thesecontrol principles in legislation. It is of the AFŽ high officials. “Women’s Section”cooperation with the KPJ and in 1950 the AFŽ absorbed into the National Front’s ( ibid., 166. ibid., ibid. 165. ibid., 1990,165. Jancar-Webster 208. ibid., The explanation provided by Vida Tomši Sharing their aims, the AFŽ and the KPJ ( 48 Ženska Sekcija Narodno Fronta 49 Tomši 14 þ points out a crucial idea concerning þ Komunisti , a national hero from WWII, ). 46 45 This absorption and the Their work was in close þ ka partija Jugoslavije 47 As he saw its ) CEU eTD Collection Republika Jugoslavija 51 50 person performing the abortion the performing person from 1951 to 1952. In this period, the law year, one for only provided banned was abortion Yugoslavia in bloc, East of the countries for the prosecution both of early 1950s thereregulations on women’s self-determination concerningwas reproduction. Although in the a stream of restrictionsobligations. in the practicetime, access of to welfareabortion institutions,the which“Internationalin freedthe them of several Women’s traditional demonstrationDay.” of the gender textileIn addition,workers in New York, the anniversary it of whichalso became grantedto work, the latter two stipulations being also demands of the of the 8 women, for the first rights (both active and passive), accessthe private and the public spheres. The toconstitution guaranteededucation, women political equal wages and Inequal the spirit right of the constitution, women were supposed to become liberated both in already in the 1946 constitution: Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republicconditions of Yugoslavia ( authorities legalised abortion“for medical, legal, socialand related reasons”. These were reconfirmed in 1960. In 1969, a resolution adopted by the task of the AFŽ has been completed and their existence is not justified any more. women’s inclusion in society has been resolved once and for all.” Meaning that the Ramet1999,94. 165. ibid., Probably the most important fundament of concerns the Women enjoy equal rights with men Thein all“question spheres of ofstate inclusion economic ofand women in society” was explicitely addressed the the right to paid leave before and after confinement. maternityparticularly hospitals,work, social children’slife. Womenand areprotects entitled to a salary equal toenjoy that of men for the same homes the special andwelfare day nurseries, ofprotection and byand ensuring child in theby establishment labour relationship. of The state ), established that “families enjoyed the right to determine for and of the woman undergoing it. In 1952, federal 15 Socijalisti 51 þ ka Federativna th March 1857 March the 50 CEU eTD Collection 57 1972). Zagreb, 1972” (Sexual education and . Marijan Koši Marijan sexism. and education 1972”(Sexual Zagreb, situation Women’s representationin in the party membership was dropping continuously.education The percent was definitelyImmediately in after WWII,1954, women’s employmentimmediateto thepost-warpre-war times,butnotcompared better:to the period. grew to 47 andpercent, droppedthe has to be toaddedrose 25 that the numbernumber of women in work or politics decreased comparedto of and education, approximatelywomen in the mid 1950s these numbersenrolled started to drop again. However, it to symbolic is only one aspect, and one of the reasons of it. 35 percentcriticism. It can thus duringbe concluded that realthe equality 1970s. was still not gained and the 56 55 54 53 52 education”. wrote several critical articles on schoolbooks, for example about one on “sexual mothers in the kitchen, fathers as playingschoolbooks, which reinforced traditionalfootball, roles in the family, picturing women as etc. these messages coming from abovedid notinfluence, forexample, thecontentof equality, in the form of films, printed media and party statements also. this was a milestone on the way to independence. maiden name after marriage, if they wished. Concerning the rules of , symbolic butinstead meaningful , ofwomen were granted additional legal rights. For example, maternal right was provided leave,constitution of Yugoslavia reinforced this liberal policy. to parentalwomen: they leavecould retain was codified.their In this way, another themselves how many children they wished to have.” Jancar-Webster 1990,167. Jancar-Webster Slavenka Drakuli Slavenka ibid. 95. ibid., ibid. 96. ibid., Žena After the initial post-war “boom” of women’s representation in work, politics The party also conducted a considerable propaganda in favour of genderBesides formal equality under law and the guarantee of women’s , Vol. 37. No. 1 (1979): 65-70. 1(1979): , Vol.37.No. 56 Later on, this phenomenon became one of the targets of feminists’ ü -Ili ü , “Spolni odgoj i seksizam. Marijan Koši Marijan seksizam. i odgoj , “Spolni 16 þ ek: Sexual education Sexual 53 þ ek: 55 Slavenka Drakuli 52 Spolni odgoj Spolni In 1974, the fourth the 1974, In . Textbook . Skolska knjiga Skolska 54 However, ü , Zagreb, herself 57 , CEU eTD Collection 62 61 60 59 58 28.8 28.8 percent the 32.2 percent of the male population. This proportion was reduced to 1961 to 54.4 percent of the female population over the age of 10was illiterate, compared to in general. Women’s illiteracy was an urgent matter to solve: in 1931, for example, universities showed a steady increase, also due to the widening of mass education by Marxist feminists. The concept covers the domestic work done by women, which women than among men, out of whom only 4,1 percent were illiterate in 1981. positions.” of society is much greater than indicated by female presence in decision-making society on an equal basis with the man.in Woman’s the contribution following to the developmentprocess is explained by the leading Yugoslav politician and sociologist Stipe Šuvar sentences: “Our idealrespondents even added that “that was the way it should be”. is that womanintervieweesalmost unanimouslyagreed were thatwomenand somenot equal would meansbe that men were asked if they think Yugoslav women achieved equality. The the architectworkplace or at home. One week later, the same question wasposed to men, which of denied that they had achieved anything even close to equality either at the of equalitywere diverse:refused many toanswer, many expressed confusionabout thenotion itself, the survey, Yugoslavsome women were asked if they had achieved equality. The answers said that socialism has fulfilled its promise and others journal resolved and full gender equality was not achieved. A survey published in the averageactive political rights inoneparty state didnot really mean anyliberty, and the less wage rates were signs that the “women’s question” was not totally Quoted in Ramet 1999,90. in Ramet Quoted Ramet1991,199-200. Ramet1991,199. Ramet1999,95-96. Politika The perception of the population about the half-successful emancipation The glass-ceiling syndrome – prevailing in the field of politics also, where , 15 Politika 62 th March 1981 and 22 and March1981 This idea is in accord with the concept of unpaid labour, as dealt with 58 and to 14,7 in 1981. However, it was still three times bigger among 60 and described by Ramet presents the same conclusion. nd March 1981. Quoted in ibid., 199. in ibid., Quoted March1981. 17 61 During 59 CEU eTD Collection 66 65 64 63 role of thebasically and inherently patriarchal. This isby and large true, but the dominating grandmothers alters the picture to a certain extent. by virtue of being incorporated into their husband’s families,wives hada chance to“achieve their power not but as the structuresresult of becoming mothers and, allowedeventually, inheritance also in common”. a certainwhich land was held in common by the extended family, with succession and mobilityplural), “a social and economic land-holding unit of traditional South Slav society in for womenfamily structures were also transformed. sincesurroundings. Apparently,thepercent thisnew had a great wives,influencerural,industrial on women’s while lifestyleone a modern to agrarian society from a traditional transformation Yugoslavia’s fully happened also, in as 1978, rapidly:many 70 the percent populationwomen, ofof interwarthe populationthe Yugoslavia’s new was lived social80 in urbanised order also brought along social insecurity. organs of power”. of organs reaction to their changed circumstances then is their participation in the formal abortion and divorce. As Jancarrepresentation isconcerned. phrases: “theseinvested, are more indicativeAlso, the work done in the background might be “on an equal basis” in energy of butwomen’salready in the formis of a “secondnotwomen shift” into was theneitheron world resolved of equalpaidwithout financial and mentalnor appreciation work, and restitution.compensated By also transferring the problem for. ofserves asthe basisbasis both ofsociety and of the theeconomic system, though remains free work done by them,in its appreciation or as far as self- against patriarchal authority”. Simi 1990,226. Jancar-Webster Quoted in ibid. Jancar1985,204. ü 1999. In this part of the Balkans, rural life was typified by A clear sign of the unresolved “women question” were growing rates of 63 Sociologist Vjeran Katurani 64 65 It should also be taken into consideration that, for One may suppose that these structures were 18 ü interprets these as a “revolt zadruga s or 66 Traditional zadruge (in CEU eTD Collection 69 68 67 while women declined in their sexual attractiveness. men grew older, they lost muchgreater of their aggressivenessequality. This and situationscame in which the relationshipalso, between husband and wifeas approachedof a a theirresult vitality, of an “interplay of sex and age”, since as also had to face social insecurity and uncertainty. socialinsecurity hadtoface also to become dependentwomen to keep their maidenon name afterthe marriage, indicatingnew that they do notfamily. have structures lost their authority was the regulation mentioned above,However, which allowed womenmarriage. A seemingly small, though in fact significant elementin of how these old this new situationface, a new processtype of broke freedom, these up intoas theynuclearpartisan generation of women and the representatives of the new feminism. left families. the equality. However, body and sexualitypaternal became topics inthe clash between the older Women achieved, tutelagewomen’s and physicalalso alreadyhadgender equality should not mean sexual to neutrality. Thisstrength is why the propagation of before in Nonetheless,the 1950s this was is notmistaken,achieved only if bodilyonly difference and sexual desires canimpossible be eliminated somehow. not in mostonly“immoral cases for butrelationships” thealso undesirable,sake ofin partisan since times, this means that gender equality can be groups by giving birth to sons”. grandmothers”, thus to “legitimate their status within their husbands’ kinship Jancar1985,204. 20. ibid., 14. ibid., As In his article about the traditional Yugoslav family, Andrei Simi zadruge were a typically rural family network, the sudden urbanisation 67 19 69 68 As in the case of the ban on ü concerns CEU eTD Collection equivocal if the phenomenon can be called a movement at all – had already criticismhad onbehalf of the state and the a SKJ. Croatian Spring will fall in the scope of my comparisons, with special focus on the there. The most significant ones, the those in Croatia,into dialogue with other oppositional traditionssince in the federal state, especially with the threethe Yugoslavia of the day. The question arises, if the new feminism was able to stepauthors thefrom the thesisearly 20 is concentrated“neofeminist” movement on in area warmhistorical from welcome and discursive in anywithin an authoritariancontext, society – however,society. feminist ideas usually do not enjoy a as one with In origins the second part of this1970s and 1980s and were enhanced by the silent liberation of speechchapter, after 1972. I willenabling the emergence of the feminist circledput throughout the federal state in the this from the Soviet greaterthe intellectual freedom from thebeginnings, provided by independence Unionwith Stalin,and but also had a majorthe influence negotiations the in Yugoslavs the of onposition special post-warlegacy a to only not ground later gave gender relations. This, withof theMovement Liberation of the YugoslavNational partisan activity that the assume war were looking at the history of women and genderthe relations from the Second World War. I two majorchapter factors I willSociety) discuss in 1978, the withincontext the framesin which of thethe Croatian movement Sociological came into Society. being, Inby this officially with the foundation of the organisation which hada coherent , beginning in Zagreb and Belgrade, It seems at the moment that Yugoslavia was the only country in the East Bloc, and 1980s 2. The Emergence of Emergence 2. The The name “neofeminism” designates that the movement –though it is Not surprisingly, this feminist movement had to take a counter-position th century and placed in the context of other counterdiscourses in Neofeminizam 20 Praxis group and the groups around the in Yugoslavia in the 1970s inthe in Yugoslavia Žena i Društvo (Woman and CEU eTD Collection 76 75 74 73 1994),20. Communication, and Research Studies, forWomen's Center European Feminist Conference, 72 Croatia). 71 187-213. [1986]1996) Blackwell, (Oxford: 70 capitalism and revolution. psychoanalysis, women’s identity and women in culture, the relations of woman, majorwere issues manifold, embracing the women’s movements ofthetime, though the meeting was open only for those directly invited. Portorož, Croatia, which was basicallyInternationalYear ofWomen 1975, the Marxist centres organised aconference in the first event when feminism was appearedequality thenewfeministdebated, movement inthe1970s.1976, In after the Reflecting on the problems of women and on the unfulfilled realisation of gender Figures 2.1 Neofeminizam – First Conference (1978), Main Topics and Major periodization of Julia Kristeva, with a first and a second wave. Yugoslavorganisations feminism at the turn of when itappeared past the century followsand in the inter-war period. InWestern this sense feminism’s line of history, at least in the Schwarzer, , Dacia Maraini novi pristup”, Students’ Cultural Centre in Belgrade, the title was “Drug-ca žena: žensko pitanje – The main organisers of the conference were Žarana Papi Hungary and the entire Yugoslavia in 1978. conference with the participation of women from England, Italy, France, Poland, Women Studies course was held. another conference intheinter-university centreDubrovnik, in where the first Drakuli 8. ibid., 1999,8. Feldman 20. ibid., Žarana Papi Andrea Feldman, “Uz dvadeset godina neofeminizma u Hrvatskoj” (To twenty years of neofeminism in Julia Kristeva, “Women’s Time,” trans. by León S. Roudiez, in ü Kruh iruže Kruh 1995, 42. 1995, ü , “Women’s Movement in Former Yugoslavia,” in 74 that is “Comrade-ess women: women’s question – new approach”. No. 10 (Winter 1999): 8. 1999): No.10(Winter again ed. Marina Blagojevied. Marina 75 The most famous guests from abroad were Alice . This “past” is the presence of several women’s 72 After this came the first big international 21 76 ü and Hélène Cixous. , Daša Daša Duha , 73 The venue of the event was the What Can We Do for Ourselves? East The Kristeva Reader þ ek andJasmina Luki ü and Dunja Blaževi 71 70 This was followed by , ed. Toril Moi , ed. ü (Belgrade: ü , the CEU eTD Collection of the ideas prevailing in Žena i Društvo,many of the main otherfigures. However, three in order to namesgain a full picture should of the complexity with related intellectually and beboth personally was she though mentioned, circle, feminist the the third author in the focus of this thesis, was not actively working together with took part intensively in the work of the society Žena i Društvo. Dubravka Ugreši Drakuli the around of and feminists post-structuralist (1963), as well as or representative authors of the French December 1978) (Belgrade: Asocijacija za ženske inicijative, 2003). inicijative, ženske za Asocijacija (Belgrade: 1978) December 1978 idecembar novembar 77 of those involved later inthe “witch-trial”, Vesna Kesi main representatives, Yugoslav neofeminism was ideologically rather diverse. Out military service of women and the restriction of reproductive rights. Looking at its the 1980s and then later inthewar period, in Slovenia, against the mandatory mostly an intellectual one. Mobilisation of women was possible only later, first in soon after the beginning,former had thean obviousone feminismin Yugoslavia, movement in behind particularlythe 1960-70sand was ablethattheir Western comrades. toinand mobiliseCroatia, the Yugoslav womenwasthey focused mainly on the problems present inquite the country and were different from one decade later is that while the ’s admittedlythey read the basic textsof the Western feminists ofthe 1960s, like the new feministsideologies with no relevancewere for the self-managing Yugoslav society. It is true thatinfluencedaccusedparty state thenewfeministsof importing somecorrupted Western by the second wavemedia was rather negative. of Western feminismwomen in Yugoslavia, theand reputation of the conference on behalf of the pro-regime A collection of these can be read in: Dragica Vukadinovi Dragica in: beread can of these Acollection An apparentAn difference between the Western, predominantly American However, although the new feminists’ major concern was the position of ü (Drakuli Sexual ü -Ili ü , by then), the latter two are also in thefocusof this thesis, (Comrade-ess: retrospective press collection on October, November and November October, on collection press retrospective (Comrade-ess: 77 This attitude characterised the later reactions too, the (1969) or ’s 22 Tel Quel Tel ü , ed., , Drug-ca: retro presarijum za oktobar, presarijum retro Drug-ca: ü , Rada Ivekovi circle, but at the same time ü and Slavenka ü , CEU eTD Collection her international career) Chomsky, Susan Sontag or Ericafreedom Jong from (all the bysecond Drakuli half of the 1970s:very wellcharacterises theintellectual variegation, resultedfromthe spiritual interviews with , Noam movie stars, nude photographs of women ( weavers and metal-worker women ( Derrida ( ( andabroad Yugoslavia took place amongst long essays about social, economic and political issues in Union / Savez žena Hrvatske) to the tabloid magazine tabloid tothe žena Hrvatske) / Savez Union (New York and London: W.W. Norton &Co., 1992); Norton London: W.W. Yorkand (New c1993); Hutchinson, (London: Soljan Maja trans.d by Harper Perennial, [1992] 1993). Perennial, Harper Drakuli journals, from the weekly were allowed to be published in the most mainstream and popular magazines and Drakuli 80 don’t intend to be one”), interview by Kristina Zaborski, by one”), interview to be intend don’t of the official journals (Women and Society. Cultivating the Dialogue) in 1987collection and of essays publisheda debate under the title on the pages Yugoslav neofeminism, apart from the individual work of these authors, are a p a r t i c i pwomen, a t i o n .this ” V j eexcludes r a n K a t u nmen. a r i […] I am not aware of any feminist organisations in which there is male Despot, anthropologist and sociologist’s. Katunari 79 78 feminist. feminist journal (founded in Zagreb as asign of insurprise, a“male neofeminist”,1993) that of Vjeran Katunari Blurbs by Steinem and Walker are on the covers of the English and American editions of the books of The explanation Jancar1988,12. of Katunari ü . Cf. Slavenka Drakuli . Cf.Slavenka Of all media publishing feminist texts probably feminist publishing texts all media Of The two major forums and collections of the main issues and articles of ü ) and several SKJ-people participated. On the other hand, feminist articles 79 Pitanja ), articles about working hours, number of children and wages of Žena ü 80 ü ü ü : “I am disturbed by its homosocialism. […] While male sexism includes , “Nisam feminist niti to namejeravam biti” (I am not a feminist and I Danas , sociologist’s, Lydia Sklevický historian’s and Blaženka were mixed withallthealready weremixed mentioned themes.This Danas Balkan Express: Fragments from the Other Side of the War and ), the translations of the latest work of Jacques through Naše teme Žena 23 ) and colourful news about Princess Diana, Žena Start How We Survived and EvenWe Survived Laughed How , in which some feminists (Ivekovi Holograms ofFear Holograms Kruh iruže Kruhruže i 78 (published by the Croatian Women’s Žena i Društvo. Kultiviranje dijaloga ). butlater anin interview for the ü was labelled by Jancar-Webster, No. 9 (Summer 1998): 34-35. 1998): No.9(Summer ü Start , meaning good contacts for Start he refused to be called a isthe most peculiar and , trans. by Ellen Elias-Bursa Ellen by , trans. . The feministarticles (New York: (New , parts ü and ü CEU eTD Collection can happen via the emancipation of women. Patriarchal consciousness suppresses emancipation upside down and arguing that the emancipation of the working class 84 83 1984),233-238. Naprijed, resulting half-done emancipation, from the families became atomised. women in the new, communist society. In his view, patriarchy is maintained, and example) to Marcuse also –,Katunari Marcusealso to example) dichotomy.” away with the traditional consciousness/nature, man/woman, authority/oppression relations and division of labour, Yugoslavia’s alternative type of socialism “does Marxist regimesself-managing socialist Yugoslavia could have been anwere exception. While the first étatist and authoritarian, not permitting alternative power the whole work of Katunari them. and other Eastern European countries – but does not mention Yugoslavia among writes, totalitarianism maintains and institutionalises patriarchy in the Soviet Union Frankfurt School, though Katunari based on Freud and Marx – something we have seen before in the work of the 82 81 Committee in 1980, reflecting on the figures on women’s employment. on women’s figures onthe reflecting 1980, in Committee the realisationstarting point, trying to approach the problem fromofneofeminists, whilethe criticising the whole societyfailure for being patriarchal, took aMarxist genderof the party state in or equalitythe local feminismalso means – couldthata the ideasfact reach of the new left a broadinadmitted the West, Americanaudience feminist literaturethroughout even theby country.the SKJThe Central book, establishment’s achievements and on the system itself is Vjeran Katunari Jancar1988,22 223-225. ibid. VjeranKatunari Ramet1991,200 83 Female Eros and the Civilisation of Death According to the other most important Marxist thinker, Blaženka Despot, One of the most interesting authors, with an overt criticism on the Which apparently does not mean that Yugoslavia was an exception, since 84 Despot still trusts the Yugoslav system, turning the order in ü Ženski eros i civilizacija smrti i civilizacija eros Ženski ü focuses on the Yugoslav situation. ü turns several times (already in his title, for ü investigates the disadvantaged position of position disadvantaged the investigates (Female Eros and the Civilisation of Death) (Zagreb: of Death) Civilisation andthe Eros (Female 24 ( Ženski eros icivilizacija smrti 81 82 ü As he . In his ), CEU eTD Collection in the socialist self-management), in self-management), socialist in the 90 means the denial of his or her historicity. natural biological role is racism, since reducing a human being to his or her biology Whereas, in terms of theHegelian scientificpremise, toconfine awomanto her mother” and which systemrevision ofgender relations meansat only the social care systemthe built on the “working same time also constructs the working mother. essentially un-abolished. criticises Marx for leaving nature, gender, woman’s sexuality and the reality ofwork theme of HegelMarxist reading of(by Hegel and theMarx otherof way her round. work, andShe stated her thatachievementMarxists) the overlookedproductive forces”,was butan in spiteelaborate of the factis that feminism withapproximationwoman, wassociety, only a small segment like theof the“humanityfeminism nature ofto thethe technical society”of woman.or about the “ideology She of 89 Jancar 1990,174. and 206-208 1985, Jancar 1985, especially Jancar 1990and Jancar 1970s-1980s. inthe Yugoslavia 88 87 1987). Cekade, (Zagreb: self-management) Berus in an interview, an in Berus positions in the party state, who, like the former partisan and national hero Anka also in contrastreminiscence with the ofview consciousnessfeudalism of the and former capitalism,women, partisan never Despotchallengedwomen as arguesinis leadingand most changed.forcharacteristic the political liberation Thisfeminists is of both sexes and does notofof look both theexclusively agemen on anddid. women, Also, and in sinceher view,it is a patriarchal 86 85 had conquered the equalityonce already. the old patriarchal consciousness and passivity, while they (the partisan women) settlement of the . both men and women, while the pluralism of interests (Kardelj) Despot 1987, 42 and idem. “Žensko pitanje usocijalisti pitanje “Žensko idem. 42and Despot1987, Gordana Bosanac, “Blaženka Despot,” Bosanac,“Blaženka Gordana in fieldwork a long during partisans with former Jancarconducted the interviews this,see About Jancar1990,174. Blaženka Despot, Blaženka ibid. Despot is a philosopher who wrote about various topics, mostly concerned mostly topics, various about wrote who a philosopher is Despot Žensko pitanje i socijalisti i pitanje Žensko 87 blamed the younger generation of women for returning to 89 The results The are visible intheYugoslav society, where the Žena i Društvo Kruh iruže þ 86 ko samoupravljanje ko This opinion is exceptional and new, as 25 88 No. 16 (Autumn/Winter 2001): 7. 2001): No.16(Autumn/Winter 34-35. 90 Despot also is critical onthepresent þ kom samoupravljanju” (The woman question (Thewoman samoupravljanju” kom (The woman question and socialist and question woman (The 85 would allow the CEU eTD Collection Marxist theory and women’s emancipation –today), women’s emancipation theory and Marxist 94 ( Yugoslavia of Development the in Women of Role Social the for Conference is “love for power”, “extra-institutional activity” and “elitism”. Drakuli “elitism”. and activity” “extra-institutional power”, is “lovefor of conservative social consciousness”. built around the class question. Stipe Šuvar called here feminism “one of the forms scope of strugglethe party’s(thougha bourgeois ideologythe fromlatter the West, posingactivity, women’s would known and easilyemancipation guessable. In view, their the new feminists weresimply importing above solve the class the official former),de- andand bynetworks for oncetaking andapoliticising for all and if there areit problems, out these of washaveof to nobe solvedthethewoman through question the party’s any more,new sincefeminists,women. the women’semancipation the SKJ’s reaction of women waswasorganisation. unequivocallyfulfilled rejective. For the state, Theirthere objections are well 93 1999),28. (Winter 92 91 ruže today” ( – emancipation women’s and theory Marxist consciousness, “Social title the with seemed to be willing to discuss the problem, published in the journal reactions in 1978, the next larger discussion happened in 1982, when the SKJ Keši who does not even place it in the centre of her work, but also by Sklevický or Vesna organised campaign yet,ispresent onthe neofeminist forums, not only by Despot, nature.” to relationship old the of a proof too, wives, their beat “self-managers Moreover, politics. in involved getting for themselves, educating for self-management, for time have forces of production.” Women are on the lower levels ofstate the ofhierarchy, self-management. they do not According to her, its patterns are still “based on the old Konferencija za aktivnost i ulogu žena u drustvenom razvoju Jugoslavije “Društvena svijest, marksisti svijest, “Društvena The title essay of Drakuli Lydia Sklevický, Despot1984,37. “Kad žena kaže ‘NE’ to zna No. 10 (Winter 1999): 22; Vesna Kesi Vesna 22; 1999): (Winter 10 No. ü . 92 Although in most cases direct attack on the party state was avoided by the Društvena svijest, marksisti Društvena svijest, ü counts six “deadly sins of feminism”, apart from those mentioned above, it 91 The issue of domestic violence, though not in the form of þ ka teorija i emancipacija žena – danas” (Debate) (Social consciousness, (Social (Debate) –danas” žena iemancipacija teorija ka ü þ , “Žene o ženi” (Women on women), on (Women ženi” o “Žene , ka teorija i emancipacija žena –danas žena emancipacija ka teorija i þ i ‘NE!’” (If a woman says “no”, it means “no!”), 94 26 Branka Lazi Žena Vol. 40. No. 2-3 (1982): 71. 2-3(1982): Vol.40.No. ü ü , the new president of the -Ili ü 1984, 102-111. 1984, 93 Afterthemedia Kruh iruže Kruh Žena – the in full in ), was Nr. 10 Kruh i CEU eTD Collection 34. No.5(1976):60-65. 98 97 sociologiju 96 95 and Lydia Sklevický. represented, like extensivein the of the article Belgrade sociologist Žarana Papi movement movementhad greatest the mobilising force. The Westernimprovements andof the the academicpreliminary meantwork is ofof coursefeministsfirst of all to Kardelj, as the ultimate authorities. the feminismrepresenting the official party-opinion and referringwere to the leading man politicians,from theof Unitedcourse States, discussed where the and feminism appearedarticle, in the United where Statesthe transcript of Gordana Cerjan-Letica.she ingives the 1960s. a more Cerjan-Letica critical summaryis critical of on the various forms in which management society”. “imported fromname itself is remarkable)developed, reminded in a speech on the foreignness of capitalistthese ideas, countries”, to Yugoslavia, “a socialist, self- ideas and problems of it were already lesspresented in 1976unambiguous. on the pages of ThoughJoan Scott and Judith Butler. it stood ofwhose courseresearch gave basisas toapproaches anthe improvementexample, of the theoriesto world’”. ‘women’s in outsider theanthropology, of suchbasic names like history,anthopolgist among them isanthropologistsdo research, the they interpret thephenomena […] the male thusMargaret twice asMead maintenancemuch of andgender an inequality outsider:that and stereotypes Gayle dominatedon “gender-blindness”women. of the field, Aswhich of coursethey contributed to outsiderwrite,the Rubin, “male inideas in , being atthe the same time very critical on its previous male- new culture and Gordana Cerjan-Letica, “Ameri Cerjan-Letica, Gordana 32. ibid., Papi Quoted by Drakuli by Quoted ü , Žarana and Lydia Sklevický, “K antropologiji žene” (To the anthropology of women), theanthropology (To žene” antropologiji “K Sklevický, Lydia and , Žarana The “Western-import” accusation is not a simple issue. By this, what is About the Western,Aboutthe especiallyAmerican movementreactions were itself, the No. 1-2. Vol. 10 (1980):29-45. 10 No.1-2.Vol. ü -Ili ü 1984, 102. 1984, 96 Heretheauthors givean extensive overview about thelatest 95 Mostparticipants ofthedebate were women, mostly þ ki feministi 97 At the same time, they present the latest feminist þ ki pokret” (The American feminist movement), feminist American (The ki pokret” 27 98 Also that year she published a further Žena Žena Revija za Vol. , in ü CEU eTD Collection (1984) and idem., (1984) and Women’s Front – with cultural change towards a “new type” ofwoman), type” a“new towards change with cultural Front– Women’s 102 101 100 earlier. even been founded organisationswomen’s had period, and interwar inthe already history in the South Slav countries, showing that there was feminism in Yugoslavia and Laura or Eleanor Marx. ideological relationships too, lists the names of Clara Zetkin, Aleksandra Kollontaj on women’s position in society, and to refute not only the spatial but also the Dragolja Jamevi Dragolja an ideology of the Western middle class. To refute this presupposition, she cites feminism, Sklevický asks the questionhumiliation of women.if feminism is necessarily of Westernproblem, origin, whereas Sklevický interprets it as a sign of patriarchalism, of everyday in the West. Feminism and Democracy), trans. by Dóra Puszta, by trans. Democracy), Feminismand West. in the of men”, though for Drakuli complaints of their guests on the Belgrade conference about the “street behaviour attitude, behaviour, appearance. Sklevický and Drakuli give accounts on the “Western feminists”, not only the debates, but also their 99 authors for a criticism onMarxism. toaMarxistthesesubjectedsameFrench also reading andatthe timeusedthe represented by Rada Ivekovi predominantly theoretical, the French post-structuralist approaches, were mostly directions of Marxism.criticism The otherperformances most and otheris publicimportant actionsinthose represent smalleraccord onlywomen’sstream a spectacle liberation-type of infeminism. feminism, of groups,Herwith who, according which to her,the with theirwas mixture of admiration and criticism from the Slavenka Drakuli Lydia Sklevický, “Antifašiti Sklevický, Lydia 22. ibid., 1999, 17. Sklevický 102 A further proof for these arguments are Sklevický’s articles on feminist After the first international conference in 1978, both Sklevický and Drakuli Which obviously means that the representation of women’s issues was Konji, žene,ratovi Konji, ü ü , “Egy keleti feminista Nyugaton. Feminizmus és demokrácia” (An Eastern Feminist , an academic from 19 , anacademic 100 ü ka front žena – kulturnom mijenom do žene ‘novog tipa’” (Antifascist tipa’” žene ‘novog do mijenom – kulturnom žena ka front Looking at the origins of the Western second wave 101 ü ü in her retrospective recollections, this was not a real (Horses, women, wars) (Zagreb: Ženska Infoteka, 1996). Infoteka, Ženska (Zagreb: wars) women, (Horses, , who, as it will also be shown in the next subchapter, th 28 century Croatia, with remarkable writings 2000, 1995.No.5.42–45. Gordogan ü also mention the , Vol. 6. No. 15-16 6. No. , Vol. ü 99 CEU eTD Collection partisans, one of theprimary reasons given for joining the communist party and for common experience of unsatisfied nationalist hopes. In interviews with the women interviews conducted with nineteen leading women partisans: “Women shared the activity influenced thenecessarily Western, then bourgeoispartisan origin. movementsupports also.theSklevický inSKJ’s showing the presenceAs of feminismJancar in Yugoslav positionhistory, this history also bourgeois writes, towards basedthemselves Yugo-neofeminism on onesher representing women’sfeminists, interests for instance, but most of them distanced as situation.an All of the interwar groups consideredfrom ideologythemselves women’s organisations, which feminismof,being is ifnot impliesa notWestern import, wave of feminism calledit also in Yugoslavia reveals in orderthat to theprove ideologicalone main argument, namely in complexity that “feminist”.spite of the of the achievements The communist of women called the 103 that they were communists, then the Alliance withdrew from the cooperation. meetings and cooperation with the Alliance, it worked well only until it turned out When theSKJ women’s sections’ representatives, like MitraMitrovi communists. for aversion own their had Alliance Women’s the in organisation, by the former“feminists” both by their contemporaries from the party and in the new Yugoslavia were educated, forwhom independence was important, theywere labelled partisanorganisations advocating a broader scale of rights came from the upper-class and women.brought On along socialthe theother accusation(communistsrights or women in the trade unions) and those integratinghand, also political and thereinto of being womenwasthe not a communista invention, and neither wasclear feminism“radical”agenda. a Western import. However, in differencethe orDemandingbiggest “feminist”. between political groupsSince womenpromoting inrights solely apart economic from rightssuffrage Jancar-Webster 1990,24-25. Jancar-Webster The mixture of ideas and motivations of women engaged in any political Therefore, although Sklevický and Jancar build on the history of the first 29 ü , initiated 103 CEU eTD Collection appear around appear more the expression of the usual aversion to feminism, nationalism does not apart from such reactions, whichthat feminism had not yet corrupted Serbiando women, unlike notthose in Croatia. have any real nationalbeginnings, relevance Serbian and are woman scholarsfellows/comrades intheother member states. However, as Jancar remembers the she met in Belgrade believedby in the internationalismthe of feminism andtime they relied on their were joking mainstream –,itdidnotcharacterise thenew feminismall. at The neofeminists women, at least in thedetermination in 1935 was decisive for them. case offor the respondentssuremotivation ofthat the single persons participatingofandthe Jancar was constantlya federaldeclaration or a national what “nation”– meant one.here, as therepresenting concept of nationIt was surroundedis by ambiguities debated theof bythe that Central time and itCommittee cannot be clearly about decided national if the self- 106 105 104 journal In an interview, given twenty years after the beginnings of the movement to the 2.2 Individual Approaches to Feminism – Drakuli has never been a secret moreover,that the all of them belongsrespondents became of the narrativized, modifiedand necessarily judgement to a certain privileged group.it should not be forgotten that the interviews wereOn done in the 1980s,the so the other hand, it NOP) was the Party’s and NOP’s position on the national question.” participation in the National Liberation Movement (Narodni Oslobodila Narodnog Jancar1985,209. ibid. 16. ibid., While particular national interests were not totally absent from the partisan Kruh iruže Oslobo neofeminizam ÿ enja Jugoslavije) had , Rada Ivekovi . ü National emphasises that all the women involved in the 30 national Liberation Council (Antifašisti 105 aims, though it is a question if ü , Ivekovi 104 Nevertheless, ü þ ki Pokret , Ugreši þ ko Vije 106 But – ü ü e CEU eTD Collection Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora], 1983). In English both published in: Dubravka Ugreši Dubravka in: both published InEnglish 1983). Zora], [Biblioteka Hrvatske Character, zavod Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora],1981) and [Biblioteka zavod Hrvatske 110 1984). Znanje, Zagreb: Testicology] [Drakuli Mramorna koža idem., bajka literature, The books which brought her the recognition as anew voice in contemporary scholar, workingtwo authors on considering Russian the publishing formalism, activity too: though she washer also a literaryfirst two books were children books. Co., 1992. First published: Co., 1992.First 109 1988). koža straha 108 ruže grijesi feminizma as a journalist, three years after the publication of her feminist essays, Sporost–oporost and philosopher, also wrote a novel with a very personal voice, with the title 107 their achievements both in the field of fiction and theory. Rada Ivekovi manifold Yugoslav feminism reveal themselves in more detail. feminism as suchfeminist circles. On their examplescan it is visible that neither women’s experiencebe nor universalisedfigures for Yugoslav feminism, evenone is of them was not member of the first and at thisthe part same of the timethesis I interest,thelook thisataspects is alsothe represented work in oftheir three ofapproach the to andwomen definition who of feminism. were In all important the feminist circle. movement were individual subjects with their own personal motivation for joining Dubravka Ugreši Dubravka idem., Rada Ivekovi Slavenka Drakuli Slavenka No. 9 (Summer 1998): 37. 1998): No.9(Summer ( ( Marble Skin Marble Marble Skin Marble ( ü Besides the feminist affiliations, a common feature of thethree authors is ], Life is a Fairy Tale Holograms of Fear of Holograms Smrtni grijesi feminizma. Ogledi u mudologiji u Ogledi grijesi feminizma. Smrtni Sporost–oporost trans. by Celia Hawkesworth and Michael Henry Heim (London: Dalkey Archiv Press, 2005). Archiv Dalkey (London: Heim Henry Michael and Hawkesworth by Celia trans. Štefica Cvek u raljama života Zagreb: Grafi Zagreb: ü , “Što je to feminizam?” (What is feminism?), interview by Vivijana Radman, (Translated by Greg Mosse. NY: Harper Perennial, [1994] 1995.) First published: First 1995.) [1994] Perennial, Harper NY: Mosse. Greg by (Translated ü ü , , (Slowness–roughness). ). Štefica Cvek uraljama života Cvek Štefica Holograms ofFear Holograms (Mortal sins of feminism), came out with the novel 107 109 Beyond their background, personal experience and field of Thecase of Dubravka Ugreši Hologrami straha. Hologrami ([Slowness–roughness] Zagreb: Grafi Zagreb: ([Slowness–roughness] þ ) ki zavod Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora], 1988; Slavenka Drakuli Zora],1988;Slavenka [Biblioteka Hrvatske ki zavod ) and then, a year later with a further one, 110 and (Translated by Ellen Elias-Bursa Ellen by (Translated Forsiranje romana reke Život je bajka je Život Zagreb: Grafi Zagreb: ( 108 31 ([Štefica Cvek in the Jaws of Life] Zagreb: Grafi Steffie Speck in the Jaws of Life Slavenka Drakuli ([Life Is a Fairy Tale] Zagreb: Grafi þ ki zavod Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora], 1987; Zora], [Biblioteka Hrvatske ki zavod ([Mortal Sins of Feminism. Essays on Essays ofFeminism. ([Mortal Sins ü is abitdifferent from the other þ ki zavod Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora], [Biblioteka Hrvatske ki zavod ( ü . NY–London: W.W. Norton & Norton W.W. . NY–London: ü Fording the Stream of theStream Fording , beginning her career ü , ü Lend Me Your , Indologist Hologrami Mramorna ), Život je Život þ ki zavod Smrtni Kruh i Kruh ü -Ili þ ki ü CEU eTD Collection confrontation with her position asawoman”), position with her confrontation 115 – yes orno?), – yes writing), women’s and literature pismo” (Women’s žensko i književnost “Ženska Ingrid Šafranek, (1983): 4-6; 114 34,50. 31, 1998),17,23, Studije, zaŽenske Centar 1997) (Zagreb: autorica 1968.–1997 Jelena Zuppa, Rada Ivekovi Jelena Zuppa,Rada 113 112 1993. Press, University Northwestern took less part in the theoretical discussions on women’s achievements and 111 a search for their own sexuality and imagination. have started to search for linguistic expression of their presence in history, through like “women’s writing” at all. As Jelena Zuppa argues, with the avant-garde women nature of women’s writing, female subjectivity and the issue if there issomething Consciousness argues for. narrative, the “formation of the experience of an individual”, the one Joan W. Scott background start towrite personal narratives. The personal voices tell apersonal with an authorial voice, as writers with journalistic, academic and literary and her book on Russian formalism. Walker, Duras, Sylvia Plath, Doris Lessing, Simone de Beauvoir, Virginia Woolf, Alice writers who were perceived as exemplary figures inworld literature, like Marguerite literary discourse too. From the late 1970s onwomen’s relation tolanguage.texts were published theoreticalabout women play texts some discussed betweenrole the intheoreticalhere theautobiographic, moreover, the reader is left usually are insecure about it. The gamerelations or aboutjournalistic of women’sthe workfictive–referential of body,the authors women’s and their fictivewriting texts and ambiguity, since all the Jelena Zuppa, “Žena pisac i sou Slavica Jakobovi Slavica Among others by Ingrid Šafranek, Anita ofthisthesis. the “Introduction” Kontrec, 1999and Cf.Scott Ljiljana Gjurgjan, Slavica Jakobovi idem., In the categories of Susan Sniader Lanser, what happens here that authors The issue of women’s writing became more and more central inthe Yugoslav Republika 113 Fording the Stream ofConsciousness the Stream Fording and women’s writing in general, 112 Žena Onthe other hand, the personal narratives are not always necessarily ), No. 11-12 (1983): 7-28; Jasna Tkalec, “Žensko pismo – da ili ne?” (Women’s writing (Women’s –dailine?” pismo “Žensko JasnaTkalec, (1983):7-28; No.11-12 ü Vol. 45. No. 3(1987):72-73. Vol.45.No. 111 , “Upit(a)nost ženskoga pisma” (Women’s writing in question), writing in (Women’s pisma” ženskoga “Upit(a)nost , . (Women’s perspectives – selected bibliography. Works by [woman] authors 1968– [woman] authors by Works bibliography. –selected perspectives . (Women’s were published only following her first collection of short stories ü . Jasminka Pešut, . Jasminka þ enje s vlastatim položajem žene” (The woman as author and the Žena Ženska perspektiva – odabrana bibliografija: Radovi bibliografija: –odabrana perspektiva Ženska 32 Vol. 38. No. 6(1980):52. Vol.38.No. , trans. by Michael Henry Heim. Evanston, Ill.: Evanston, Heim. Henry Michael by , trans. 114 with topics such as the subversive 115 Drakuli ü , Ivekovi Republika ü ü , Jasmina Luki and Ugreši No.11-12 ü ü , CEU eTD Collection Šporer (Zagreb: Sociološko društvo Hrvatske, 1987), 27. 1987), Hrvatske, Sociološkodruštvo (Zagreb: Šporer dijaloge Društvo. Kultiviranje 117 80-94. 116 of the usual topics, the theoretical texts of especially too. scene local the in place their have Rada Ivekovi possibilities in literature, but their works of fiction showed that the questions raised fight for the women’s movement today (in1981). would she that suppose can we time, her in revolution the for and class working devoted to the woman question as such, based on the way she fought for the , ends with the conclusion that Rosa Luxemburg, though she was not first essays, first published in 1981 about the woman question in the history of Speculum del'autre femme in of Irigaray that to approach issimilar Her approach. ofher centeredness of allby , which signals adeeply theoretical interest and the language- Her approach was deeply influenced by the Frenchpost-structuralist feminists, first the whole field divided intomid-1980s gender first,studies when andpart ofwomen the discipline studies) has wasbeen inrenamed the centre. and combines the post-structuralism of Irigaray with Marxism inher work. masculine language, thus aneedforfeminine language emerges. Ivekovi any women writing and speaking in this discourse is necessarily imitating the discourse which has always oppressed and excluded . This means that Drakuli the relationship between nature and culture and the place of women in these direction of Marx and the implications for action,Irigaray’s French post-structuralistIvekovi approach tofeminism, its re-reading from the fictional work. For Ivekovi idem., “Studije o Ženi i Ženski Pokreti” (Studies on women and women’s movements), in movements), andwomen’s women on Pokreti” (Studies o ŽeniiŽenski idem.,“Studije Rada Ivekovi Rada Nevertheless, in spite of their absence from the strictly literary discussions In one of her texts, which combines all the aspects mentioned above: ü about feminism tackle some issues which can also be related to their ü , “Filofozija Luce Irigaray” (The philosophy of Luce Irigaray), of (TheIrigaray” philosophy Luce , “Filofozija (Women and Society. Cultivating the Dialogue), ed. Rade Kalanj and Željka ü in 1974, who approaches the history of philosophy as a , the academisation of women’s studies (it was in the 33 117 ü extensively speaks about Republika ü and Slavenka 116 No.7-8(1985): Oneof her Žena i ü CEU eTD Collection women at crossroads), trans. into Hungarian by IlonaSirkó, by intoHungarian trans. crossroads), women at Monthly, 122 121 120 119 118 realms. […] like badpoetry”. […] like compared tothe traditional one, mayseem to be “distorted, eccentric, incidental in language, as much in thinking too. Therefore, new language is needed, which, nature” is also discussed bypotential Blaženka Despot, of Marxism,Frankfurt School and some Marxist Women Studies projects. having of resolvedthe birth of the text the it did “abstractis the notonly one which contains fulfilthe possibility for transgression, since up to the time its capabilities. division The only exceptionsbetween are thehistoryand male idealism. and higher philosophy is needed materialismto exceed this old opposition and of citesa female materialism the matrilineal societies in India as examples. However, a enough, Ivekovi a significant role, in order to createuniversal, the particulara andspace the personal should be taken seriously and shouldfor play female philosophy. philosophy should also come. This new philosophy is not focused exclusively on the subject–object, history–nature, male–female, etc. With the new language, a new idea is built on a vague interpretation of Hegel and maintainsobjective the binary models of science and scholarship, “propagated by the dogmatic Marxists”, which Ivekovicourse interpretnew the language, body and itsthough Hélènerole Cixous, andfor sincea thenew materiality languageit theis emergence ofof the of oppositethe femalematerial.rather Forbody French feminists,is differently,nature.also likea key Irigaray, to theJuliaThese Kristevafinding or andthreeof a authors of Blaženka Despot, “Women and Self-Management,” 741. ibid., 379. ibid., 378. ibid., idem., “Tudni és cselekedni – válaszúton a n March 1981, 35. March1981, The only philosophy Ivekovi ü 118 also gives a further interpretation. She equals the feminine with This difference between the sexes is reflected in language and as much ü sees this change in the disappearance of the metaphysical and 119 But it is so only in the shade of the idea of a neutral, ü finds capable of this isMarxism, or atleast this Ę k / Znati i mo 34 122 Socialist Thought and Practice. AYugoslav Practice. and Thought Socialist Létünk but the problem and the possible ü i: žene u procjepu” (To know and to act: No. 5 (1982): 737-748. No.5(1982): 121 This subversive This 120 Interestingly CEU eTD Collection relation to the indisputable position of men”. the society and in the family, according to her possibilities and abilities, and in biological theories about the purity of race” and “determines the place of women in traditionalism and totalitarianism. Totalitarianism as principle “has its roots in the 127 muda patriarchy is totalitarianism itself. What she calls totalitarianism is not against totalitarianism which preserves patriarchy, but patriarchalism as such, prevailing in the Yugoslav society. Her criticism on 126 125 Testicology were published later in a volume with and thearticles in journals title and bi-weeklies like most famous (and loudest) Yugoslav feminist, even today, was publishing essays 124 politics. problems in common with each other, which cannot overwritteninternational, since the women of the worldby have stillclimate more practical and theoretical or local human, idiosyncratic femininity isclear. Women’s movement is necessarily about female nature. conceive as woman is thea “human” function,construct meaning that “woman” as such does not exist yet, what we of patriarchy,find their way in the formso of a movement.it is In their impossiblepractice, women have to take on go into party politics (notto as if this had been very lively ina partyteach state), but should her consequences of this for the movement are that in their “strategy”, women cannot 123 example in the anthropologic essay of Lydia Sklevický and Žarana Papi and of Lydia Sklevický essay anthropologic inthe example solutions for the binary thinking emerges by most authors already discussed, for ibid. 67. ibid. Drakuli 745. ibid., Ivekovi Papi , meaning “testicle” and ü and Sklevický 1980,35. Sklevický and Considering theory, Drakuli 125 ü ü -Ili 1982,744. ü 1984, 64. 1984, ( Smrtni grijesi feminizma: ogledi o mudologiji 124 Thesubversive effect of this formation of the undefined logos ü is asfar from Ivekovi , as language and law) and , aslanguage 35 127 Danas Mortal Sins of Feminism. Essays on and testicology ü Start, aspossible. Probably the 126 ). Drakuli consists ofsexism, ( and most of these mudologiji ü ’s target is ü , out of . 123 The CEU eTD Collection 132 131 Vol. 2(1980):45-50. 130 criticismMoreover, on massalong real freedom for women, this sexual revolution is following“revolution on the bridle”. media,orgasm is necessary, while woman’sthe is not. After all, sexual revolutionpracticeDrakuli did not bring in Western culture sexuality is defined by reproduction, which means that man’s of that women’s sexuality isseveral not only a reply on men’s, it has its own features and that humanother beings in their sexuality are influenced more by culture than bytheir body, feminists of the age in their 129 bodily pleasures. revolution” meansget, following the rules of male sexualmostly behaviour. In this version, “sexual promiscuousthis did relationships, not happen.the concept itself: revolution means radical changeWomen affecting the entire society, and moreover, receive did itonlyhappen. is Firstrestrictedthe of all,freedom the basis of hertopatriarchy argumentation is based onallows the criticism themof to about women and sexual revolution. 128 cultural issues in general and not on the state and its ideology. Yugoslav feminist first met their Western fellows. account on the first international conference in 1978 in Belgrade, where the touch the spot, like in her essay “Why do women like fairy tales?” tongued, but more oftenWhich does notwitty mean, still, that the latter lacks all merits: in her many times shrill-and ironic commentsidiomatic on society system Drakuli of Drakuliprobablyevil, though in the description of Drakuli be compared to the post-structuralist concept of discourse, in the ibid., 49. ibid., 46. ibid., Slavenka Drakuli Slavenka Drakuli Drakuli A text by Drakuli The target ofthis attack is clearly not the party state, but an even greater ü ü 1995, 42-45. 1995, -Ili ü 1984, 33-45. 1984, ü -Ili 131 ü After her considerations, the conclusions of Drakuli , “Žena i seksualna revolucija” (Women and sexual revolution), sexual and (Women revolucija” iseksualna , “Žena ü standing more in aMarxist tradition is written in 1980, ü , without the theoretical underpinnings of the former. ü 130 also mentions that this image of “sexual Drakuli 36 ü , it istotally ungraspable. It could ü here refutes that sexual revolution 129 However, these texts tackleon 128 Dometi ü or in her is able to ü are that No.13. 132 CEU eTD Collection Lanser’s personal narrative, who has to face a kidney transplant. novel, female sexualityfemale into discourse, the Slavenka Drakuli Drakuli Drakuli Zymunt BaumanFrankfurt School andsexuality re-readings forÁgnes a broader audience, of KodrnjaHeller.it, withabides by referencesthe Marxist discourseThe toand theremnantMarcuse, and besides of thehim, Marxist approach by 1988. The novels, in her fictional work, in two novels published in two subsequent years, in 1987 and and makes it different at the same time. the effects of this revolutionargumentation, on women even givesif it is nota stronger too genuine. feminist On the other tone hand, to herher emphasistext on the source for Drakuli 135 topic]), 134 133 emphatically a step towardsthe consumerist the liberation press. However, ofchange betweenfor Kodrnja, the sexes, thewhich fulfilment has notof comeDrakuli yet of butsexual the slogan revolution is exploitedarticle isby five years earlier by Jasenka Kodrnja, who presents most of the arguments phenomenon independent of social change. revolution” is maintained by the press and other mediums, who present it as a Luki Jasenka Kodrnja, “Seksualna revolucija (Marginalije na temu)” (Sexual revolution. [Marginalia to the [Marginalia revolution. temu)” (Sexual na (Marginalije revolucija “Seksualna JasenkaKodrnja, 46. ibid., ü Revija zasociologiju Revija 1996,236. This approach to female sexuality became well-wrought and deeply present Similar argumentations can be read by many authors, for example in an ü ü Holograms of Fear Holograms , with several reprints within a few years time. As Jasmina Luki Jasmina As time. years afew within reprints several with , is her valorisation of the term “revolution”, which indeed contributes to her ü . According to her too, the aim of the sexual revolution is an essential ü was the first author in Yugoslav literature who has brought Holograms of Fear Holograms ü Vol. 5. No. 3 (1975): 53. 3(1975): Vol.5.No. is the American Shere Hite, who wrote several books about is the story of a woman, a first person narrator of 135 and from a woman’s point of view. The first 37 133 Marble man [ Skin osloba , brought along success for ÿ anju anju þ ovjeka ]. 134 ü writes, While CEU eTD Collection Boheemen (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, c1997) 150. c1997) Toronto Press, of University (Toronto: Boheemen femalereadership of the novel. bodies. The resistance to objectivation is that can have a liberating force on the women’s other to body own the of relationship the and body own her to relationship femalesexualise the body, butbecause the narrator herselfa very has conscious primarily sexualises the femaledesire. body, usuallyauthor/narrator the object of desire. of experiencing Or rather: this her is notown body as an object of someone else’s 140 3. in Chapter thisbook about write indetail From the narration slowly unfolds an incestuous story about the mother’s husband sculptor, whose sculptorsresemble all thesame female nude,herown mother’s. mother–daughter relationship. The daughter, the narrator of the novel, is a focalisors neither are who is that position, of male characterssuccessful endeavour. In addition,who the emphasised presence of women and wouldthe lack be enabled to have either a seeing or a speaking 139 138 of Drakuli brings along the idea of a female community, a recurrent issue in the entire oeuvre signals “the narrator’s awareness of belonging to the female world”, other women appear around her, supporting her in the sensitive situation. This best friend who committed suicide, her childhood and family, while in the meantime 137 3. I write inChapter thisnovel, About compared. cannotbe books thetwo merits literary and their innovation in However, bed. hospital ona while laying her narrative 136 a triple mirror, thinking about her mother and her own almost grown-up her being far away. alone, family laying daughter (Luki Mieke Bal, Slavenka Drakuli Slavenka 236. ibid., Luki A later novel, Alater ü 1996,237. The second work of fiction, This is not only due to the centrality of her illness, which of course also de- The author/narrator tells her story from the bed in the hospital, where she is because according to the conventions illness (or pregnancy) would de- ü , a sometimes more ( Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, Theory the to Introduction Narratology: Kao da me nema 137 ü : which brings into play Irigaray’s How We Survived and Even Laughed Even and How WeSurvived (As if I wasn’t there) has a similar beginning, with a heroine starting Holograms Marble Skin Marble 38 136 ), sometimes less ( In her very vulnerable position she is . NY: Harper Perennial, [1992] 1993. I also 1993. [1992] . Perennial, NY: Harper focuses even more strongly on a 140 Speculum del'autre femme nor narrators, prevents the 2nd ed., trans. by Christine van How WeSurvived 138 which also ü calls this ), her ) 139 CEU eTD Collection and a post-war period, and insearched elsewhere. oeuvreHer theup to now canbe divided clearly into a pre-war pre-war period she did not take part in political However,potential ofthe a new approach to the bodyfeminism and the subjective female voice speaking. ofmotivations for becoming a feminist.the literaryfather figure program and the oppression of Dubravka of her mother by himUgreši was one of the personal Ivekovi father, as authoritarian an biographyalsohas Theauthor’s patriarchy. authoritarian complicities, from thedaughter’s perspective, where the father stands for the the book, the reader meets again a mother–daughter relation with all its the only pre-war fictional workfemale subjectivity, of Rada what is also attemptedIvekovi in the two first novels of Drakuli their concept of the maternal is a program for the search for and creation of a new apart from Simone de Beauvoir,want to suggest that the work of the three most famous French feminist thinkers would say the same,Kristeva and Cixous which influenced the feminist streams.but By this, Iwould never it can maybe saidin thatthe casestream was very much present and widely publishedof in the Yugoslavia of the 1970s, the feminists, it was definitely the feminist stream of Irigaray, 141 more by Ivekovi novel ensure a more conscious awareness of the characters of their own body. illness in the casebetween the characters, especially between the mother and theof daughter. As the step into dialogueswith eachother, since itseems, language isnotable to mediate believe him?) and the wooden sculptures with marble skin and emptiness inside the stepfatherthe webelieve Bettelheim, (who, if is not even and the sculptor/narrator/daughter. The bodies of the mother, the daughter and Ivekovi The feminism of the literary works discussed so far lies in the subversive the in lies far so discussed works literary the of feminism The This is apparently an effect of French post-structuralism, in theory cultivated ü ü herself tells that inthe interview of 1998,37. ü , in a writing practice by Drakuli Holograms , so does the profession of the daughter in this 39 Kruh i ruže from ü , in the novel ü . Although this philosophical step 1998. father – but shall we Sporost–oporost 141 For her, this ü is to be ü and . In in CEU eTD Collection 144 (1988): 164. theory, feminist versions included. While the narration isnot that personal type, literary theoryand sometimes readlikeexamples ofaperfect textbook for literary metaphorical penis?”. for the question posed in the essay of Sarah Gilbert and Susan Gubar, “Is the pen a brightest short stories of interpretations is very much there in these texts. Jasmina Luki from the feminist readingstoo. fiction of her works.Ugreši And indeed, the potential for feminist Russian women’s prose”. Ugreši Petruševska], [Ljudmila Petrushevskaya According to her, this is a first person narrative close to the everyday lifeofwomen. narrative consciousness, while thematically this newwomen’s prose is limited tothe literature. approach –,it is not only in her fictionalwork where she reflects on the feminine in state-supported stream of proseofthe Soviet Union– a very women-centrednot Trifonov, Valentin Rasputin and Andrej Bitov, all belonging to the 1970s modernist, writing and her dissertation was written on three Soviet-Russian male authors, Jurij 143 1980). Liber, the 1970s)(Zagreb: proseof Russian-Soviet inthe prose movement 142 playful way, like in her short novel (or “patchwork novel”) and in particular on the gender of the author, though more in an experimental and feminist activity. However, her writings were stilldiscussions quite reflexive on women’s issues in any way, neither in the from of essayistic journalism nor of any stories of stories Luki Dubravka Ugreši Dubravka Dubravka Ugreši Dubravka ü ü 1996,231. The lack of the feminist activity and intention did not “protect” the author Although Ugreši here and this definition of women’s writing returns in more of her works of skaz 142 Život jebajka Život In an article, presenting the work of the Russian writer Ludmila , a mode of narration basically characterised by the presence of a ü ü , , “Surovo žensko pismo” (Brutal women’s writing), women’s (Brutal pismo” žensko , “Surovo Nova ruska proza kretanja u ruskoj sovjetskoj prozi 70-ih godina prozi 70-ih sovjetskoj kretanja uruskoj ruska proza Nova 144 ü and in the novel The texts of Ugreši did not participate in the feminist discussion on women’s 143 Život jebajka Život The work of Petrushevskaya is highly appreciated by , “Lend me Your Character”, as an answer 40 Forsiranje romana reke ü tell of a deep and wide knowledge of ü calls her work “aparadigmatic her calls Štefica Cvek Republika . ü reads one of the Vol. 44. No. 5-6 Vol.44.No. , in the short (New Russian (New CEU eTD Collection attempts to fulfil her dreams and become the ideal woman of the magazines, which other hand, the author/narrator has a sympathetic voice with her heroine and her the magazines which do not solve the horrible troubles of the poor heroine. On the Štefica, where she fallspopular in love with a genresmillionaireto catchis film a expressed man,director first orof byall.and in these magazines for theher problems of how tobe beautiful, Theby successfuladviceand how criticalthe of refusal stancepopular culture, where the hopelessof heroine is looking thefor advice among her friends ofauthor/narrator the “fake” towards ending the of the story of 48. magazines. mothers and wives, but Blaževi year by Dunja Blaževifalse image of gender equality and sexual revolution or another one from the same important issues on the agenda of agenda onthe issues important the already discussed article byDrakuli that addressing primarily women, like magazines or culture.trivial Several feminist authors romance. published critical texts on mass culture, An especiallyexample is Štefica the recurrent allusions to Flaubert’s in form and in language. Many of these opens again towards feminist readings, like Ugreši solution is some play around the topic. element of the literary game theor the 1980s’fictional space postmodernism, itself is a problem, so the only practiced with mastery by Ugreši 145 made sure that the gender of the author which we have seen in the fiction of Drakuli Drakuli ü and Ugreši In the spirit of the newly upcoming postmodernism, the first books of are full of intertextual references, marked and unmarked quotations, both ü 1980; Dunja Blaževi Dunja 1980; 145 Forsiranje ü chooses a different approach: ), but the most striking one which relates to one of the most ü on women’s magazines, which are addressing women as ü , “Idealna žena” (Ideal woman), žena” (Ideal , “Idealna ü is also critical onthe commodity-fetishism of these Madame Bovary neofeminizam ü on the role ofmass media in maintaining a 41 does ü matter.Nevertheless, in thespiritof and Ivekovi Štefica isthe references topopular Književne novine, Književne and Madame Bovary (both in is a mockery on female ü , the reader is always ü , the author as an 25 March 1980, 45- 1980, 25March CEU eTD Collection written by the author with the name Dubravkanarrator, Ugreši who then can tonarrate be theable story ofto this create other men, anda thecharacter story will be who would tell his story to another male, the woman with the name Dubravka Ugreši who is present in the moment of the narration,of theconfession isvalid only when the narrator to whom he tellsis the story anda man. So, the author, whoa manis a confesses his tragic affairthe goal of distractingwith an theunfaithful other passangers attention. woman,passenger with the tragic narrativeHowever, was a pickpocket andthe the story was serving only in narrativethis case, when situationUgreši aspect, gives strong opinionwork iswidely discussed, sometimes praised,about sometimes criticised from afeminist women and their placeone tellsin society. a story about The his storywife to theby other.readers The fromtext of Tolstoy’sTolstoy, an author short displayedwhose in thestory: short story “The Kreutzer Sonata”. The situation isknown forpassengers the sit in a closed cabin of a train and canon. is looking for her idiosyncratic voiceor everyday problems, and neither about her bodyher or sexuality, she,own the narrator/author place in literature, inideas tillthe the finishedliterary text. Although we do not know anything about her private life with the feminine genre, the trivial romance, which the reader follows from the first she whose mind the reader is continuouslySpeck, theallowed central character to look or into.the real Itheroine is her is thestrugglesthe narrator/author title herself.bears It is the name of this young woman, Štefica either. opinion witty her hide Cvek or in English, Steffie Blaževi among the isreaders also a moreof herunderstanding book. So, unlike position most towardsfeminist the critics,other women for who example are also ü Similar game with the narrative voice and the gender of the narrator is While the novel isabout writing a novel about an ordinary young woman and ü is repeated, apart from the ironic ending, when it turns out that the , Ugreši ü is not purely critical towards mass culture here, though does not ü 42 creates a narrator, who is a man, in order ü . This is a very complicated CEU eTD Collection SKJ’s argumentationZagreb, against and the these MASPOK. groups In resemblesspite of theto a crucialpredominant differences extent in between them, the the country, that is the phenomena appearing almostThis is a characteristica decade before the self-organisationfor a common ofplatform feminists ofin at a counterdiscursivediscussion position, but as it can be seenand also above, debatethey were looking As describedwith theabove, primarilyofficial in the first communist subchapter, the neofeministsCounterdiscourses one. were aiming 2.3 Neofeminizam and its Place in Relation to Other the shared elements and its own position. which is at the same time also dialogic and its capability for dialogue derives from a mainstream and malestream programs. In literature,space Marxism is less present (if atall), but theself-positioning inalso contributes to a but these terms arereinterpreted fromand embeddedcounterdisursive into feminist theories and stance their terminology andnarrative strategies: in theory, they often use Marxist terms, created not only by what they say aboutsubject, equality and women’sin philosophy, rights, but alsopossibilities byliterature, sexualitypersonal option for speaking too. The authorstoo. discussed here all play around the Their counterdiscursiveof havingplace for itself position in thea androgynouspersonal isvoice directsliterary spacethe attention and femalethen warning of the that reader there voice is toa the personal and one, thusgiving first creating voice a to the female narrator way, without throwing it into their face that the gender of the author and the theoretical texts of Ivekovi narrative solutionssituation, beyond doubt. Its strength isalso in the complexity, sincethe by these texts of Ugreši This type of writing is subversive and feminist in adifferent way than the matters . Praxis neofeminizam ü or the novels of her and of Drakuli circle both in Belgrade and Zagreb, but mainly in ü shares with the two major oppositional major two the with shares manages to warn the readers in a subtle 43 ü . The authorial CEU eTD Collection and feminine whilesocial no one would/should question biological difference, the “sex-linked masculine roles”factors which(i.e. make women less equal are not merely “natural”,gender, but also social, and in its pre-Judith Butlerexisting wealth of cultures, life styles”.sense) are nation,to be race,liberating sex. The formerthe effect” casemust begroup andisabolished, differences withbetween stemming the from butinequalities groups classes,the in lattereconomic with and politicalis “merepart thepower, like of disappearancenatural“the differences”, of which such as“has only indeed a 149 148 till 1995. this position neofeminists and the party communists, it seems thataccording toMarkovi Arts of 1986 and later henationalism. became vice president of MiloševiHe was one of the authors of the memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and by virtue of by virtue being persons”. that belong to individuals simply by virtue of being members of groups rather then together with other groups when asking the question if there are “any moral rights 147 Yugoslavia in Socialist Dissent and Stojanovi presented by theBelgrade philosopher Mihailo Markovi Yugoslav revisionist Marxists, not as their primary concern. On the basis of the two extensive monographs on the journal necessarily involvesmore surprising from a theoretical perspective, considerationssince a profound re-reading of Marx of the gender relations. Some authors of the 146 schematic in each case. and clearly expressed standpoints, different totally despite their upfor, Croatian stood Spring of the major characters the reactions of the SKJ are rather similar and standpoint of them. Whatever the new feminists, the each case, attacking the lack and seeking to disqualify the “truly” Marxist Markovi Crocker1983,128. It should be noted here that later in the 1980s Markovi inthe1980s that later here It noted should be David A. Crocker, Compared to the “gender or class first?” discussion between the Considering the relation of ü Praxis (New Jersey: Humanity and Sussex: Harvester, 1983); Gerson Sher, 1983); Gerson Harvester, Sussex: and Humanity Jersey: (New ü quoted by Crocker 1983, 130-131. by quoted had some interesting remarks on the issue, though understandably, Praxis and Democratic Socialism: The Critical Social Theory of Markovi Theory CriticalSocial The Socialism: Democratic and Praxis (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1977). Indiana UP, (Bloomington: 148 146 However, Markovi themost fascinating theory on women was neofeminizam 149 44 ü to in the Socialist Party of Serbia. He was in ü turned more and more towards Serbian more towards and more turned ü Praxis makes a distinction between Praxis ü , the lack of reference is . 147 -philosophers and the He treated women Praxis: Marxist Criticism Marxist Praxis: ü those ü and CEU eTD Collection representation of nationaldemocratic society. interestsFor and them,women’sto settle the national emancipation, nationalquestion for onceCroatian Spring from theand point ofemphasising for that communists have all,not managed as the case of theCroatia showed. mainequality issues would have been an essential component of a the party reformists, like Miko Tripalo or Savka Dab turned the helped its opponents reduce it to its nationalistic constituent”. bank and a national army “speeded up the suppression of the Croatian Spring and equated the Croatian nation with the exploited class. Their demands for anational fraction, who interpreted the nation and the class as parallel categories, and SKJ’s standpoint. cannot beread cannot as unbiased, identity for and intellectuals around interpretation. Comparedtothepartyconservatives, “ideas expressedbystudents its nationalism,deviation and onthe the part efforts of the deposed thepartyof “newlyfraction”,the partycleansed reformists’ Centraldue to dominance Committee” of the students were and the radicals, withfaded partly the to the aim “specialby of thereport” proving of party- the “nationalistic ideological or practical predecessor of predecessor practical or ideological 154 153 152 Croatia,” 151 150 their presence in the contested. ibid. 210. ibid. 201. ibid. – Zs.L.) added 2005, 200-201. (emphasis in Zubak quoted inPost-Communist Heritage Communist the Interpreting Spring: Croatian “The Zubak, Marko Crocker1983,132. nationalistic purposes Failure of the communist Yugoslav state in realising self-management, equal The Croatian Spring ( , East CentralEurope East the rejection of revolutionary principles 150 Praxis Nevertheless, it is not the ideas ofMarkovi group definitely against themovement andmade it impossible for 152 Though, as also Marko Zubak remarks, the report of Peri Praxis , Vol.32(2005):200. Matica [h]rvatska ”, as can be read the study of Ivan Peri -discourse is significant, as context for neofeminism. 153 Hrvatsko nationalism was clearly present in the radical neofeminizam 45 Prolje revealed strong remnants of ü or, at best, their tendentious use e ) was even less possibly an . In spite of its diversity, partly diversity, of its . Inspite 151 it became characterised by ü , which are innovative, but þ evi ü -Ku 154 þ This nationalism ar, to approach ü , reflecting the bourgeois ü CEU eTD Collection face new challenges in the already dissolving Yugoslavia, which also meant that feminists. As “late-comers”, it was not long after their appearance that they had to the party, Praxisof the professors and the MASPOK members, as well asthereform section of the activitydiscourses was a result, of more theoretically nor strategically. However,since liberation the of theintellectualprecisely,these a balancing two actuniversity, for theopposition harsh the other punishment two groups did and quite a few years notlater than the dismissalof the Belgrade philosophersbear from the any relevance circlesfor them, neither only paved the way for the neofeminizam women is the inherent and most basic elements of theircritics of the system. existence. On the other hand, they were feminists, so focusing mainly onMoreover, since their primary concern withthe partisan women and the SKJ can be interpreted as partlywomen true, inasmuch in they disregardedwanted to negotiatethe problems with the party. raised The charge by ofother being apolitical from thetrial”, discussed in afurtherside chapter of this thesis. of openly confronted the nationalists and their clash reached its peak in the “witch- 156 Tu conservatives Movement 1966–1972 Movement radicals from the party, Hrvoje Šoši seeking social movement”, Spring. This prevented weakened them both,the pushing the foreign Croatian Spring historianshad the opportunity to communicate, but their ideological distance three groups closer toeach other. to see the MASPOK as “a reform- dogmatism, according to Ante to according dogmatism, 155 Praxis promised by the partisan war and by the break-up with Stalin, were revealed by the Zubak 2005, 202. Zubak A “regrettable“ event according to Marko Zubak, but a sheer necessity, deriving from their ÿ man and his politics. At that time, in a new political setting, the neofeminists , the Croatian Spring and However, in the 1980s the neofeminists were not looking for allies, they 155 came almosta decade later than Kara and drawing the picture of extreme nationalism about the Croatian (New York: Columbia UP, 1990), 144-145. UP,1990), York:Columbia (New ý uvalo. Zubak 2005, 205-206 and Ante Ante and 205-206 2005, Zubak uvalo. 156 and this picture did not improve, when the former neofeminizam Praxis ü Praxis , Šime 46 philosophers and the major figures of the onto one platform with the party . Although this does not bring the ĈRÿ an and Marko Veselica joined ÿ or ý uvalo, ÿ evo (November 1971), The Croatian Nationalist Croatian The CEU eTD Collection action in the Tu representativesmain ofYugoslav neofeminism moreorless defined their spaceof Drakuli to her wartime publishingof many works by them, activity,like in the caseand joint of action more Despotdifficult, if not impossible.also This led orto the loss of Katunarisignificance to the growingwar and nationalism brought along different conflicts and made their cooperation popularitywhile until break-upthe theissues wereshared by feminists fromtherepublics,of the the work of ü . At the same time, for her and for Ivekovi ÿ man era also. 47 ü , their previous activity as the ü , and probably due CEU eTD Collection agenda, were focused primarily on , especially domestic engaged inYugo-feminism activism.After The the becamenew exciting women’s3.1 New Challenges for Feminism in the early 1990s less late active,organisations, 1970s and while early the1980s,work. withnew thestreama claimed theoretical-academicYugoslavism, emerging feministtreason I will wasanalyse moreauthors. Then, since one of the accusations levelledthe at theside three authors was changing of alsoagainst concept givewill I states, successor inthe feminists for of implications its including an “witch-trial”, Yugoslavia overview in“witch-trial”. After the discussiontheir of ofthe Croatia,rape discourse and the debate on the the wartime changes in the feminist due discussionsto their of the three obsession with Yugo-nostalgia and Rada Ivekovi in the story of the three authors in the focus of this thesis, since Slavenka Drakuli in each state. I will examine this discourse and the trope of rape, which also returns aboutand around the mass rapes committed most ofthe time by the enemy’s army predominantand part of thisthemessages. Since the war has radically changed thediscourse of the early 1990s, overview feminist willand the socio-political environment which strongly influenced their activitiestake and stockand issues of the feminists, especiallyof of the feministorganisationsthe groups founded and changed,warin Yugoslaviaand the and/or discourse itsThe second partsuccessor of this thesis examines the position of states.feminism in the early 1990s I will give an overview in NewNationStates the 3. Feminism were of the new aims forced to react on this agenda, the ü andDubravka Ugreši ü were among the five feminists involved in the 48 ü , CEU eTD Collection 159 http://www.zenstud.hr/ 157 http://www.awin.org.yu/home.htm in 1990 was the ŽEST, this action. In addition to the Lobby, the other political force on the Serbian scene role also in the wartime and their contacts and political presence was established by results of the elections, this attemptwas not very successful, buttheLobby had a telling them not tovote for nationalist, fascist, militant parties. Considering the stance against nationalism.a strong 1990) (founded immediatelyin took Lobby Belgrade the Women’s in but Before the elections they Zagreb. Thecreationeven of same organisationsthe in Belgrade came alittlebitlater, issued a call to voters, the political opinionendangering them. of women wasopposition women and children predominantly foundedbelong to, carries the possibility of problemin the same discourse.year, The establishmentexists of alsothe Hotline was a gesturehomes,in towards society 1988 thatand the byin maleSOS Hotlinethe also meant the introductionmembers of gender based home,violence committed in the the ofagenda the not thesolelyfamily, for djecu žrtve nasilja osnovanathe udruga)primary was established in Zagrebdiscussion in 1987-88, setting against of theviolence. problem: women theplace establishment and children, of thewhere into in thea public–private 158 (1990) andcontributing to the democratic transition and promoting tolerance among nations. theconcerned with discrimination against women, improving the lives of women,Sklonište (Shelter), later called Autonomna ženska ku Infoteka) children(Autonomous Women’s House), for providing shelter for battered(1990). women and Later on, in 1991 and 1992 the Ženska Infoteka (Women’s Major sources for women’s organisations and their mission, activities and history: and activities mission, their and organisations women’s for sources Major Thenoun http://www.zinfo.hr/ The Women’s Lobby (Ženski LOBI), an association for the representation of Further important organisations founded in Croatia were the group Kareta 157 159 žest The first SOS Hotline for women and children (SOS Telefon za žene i and the Centar za žene žrtve rata (CZŽŽR – Centre for Women War also means “alcohol”. alsomeans (Accessed 22 May 2007) 22May (Accessed , 158 Ženska Stranka (Women’s Party). They were mostly , http://www.zeneucrnom.org/ http://www.zinfo.hr/ 49 , ; Mladjenovic and Hughes 2000. Hughes and ; Mladjenovic http://www.womenngo.org.yu/ ü a , CEU eTD Collection their public statement A similarly harsh and anti-Serb group in Serbia were the Women in Black, who in Women’s Lobby announced: The women too. Serbian and Croatian Slovenian, incorporated who movement, the Belgrade Women’s Lobby, working together with the Women for Peace nationality problemand theharshest criticism against theSerbpolicy was issued by the anti-warorganisation Bedem Ljubavi (Wallof Love), which had initially been supported by all feministaffair groups.of the CZŽŽR withwar andThe MPtheir Vera criticismmost Stani on SerbLobbyexplicit aboutpolicy, the maintenance of Yugoslavia, the the activityprotest of Woman in Black against of Karetaagendaattention from the point of the focus of this chapter: the statementwith of the Women’s war victims, for the the solution of the 160 name of whomand thethe Serbian warfeminist andgovernment pacifist,is and fought]saw Serbian nationalism as a motivatingas aggressor. force of thebecome war Thus, the thehostages “citizens of ofSerbia their [in theimperialistic same name. worldwide, I will use the English name here), inspired by the Israeli group with the (Žene u crnom – since the English expression is widely used and the group exists women’s groups, the Belgradedemonstrations against the war. However, dissatisfied by the effectivenessfeminists of these soon associationsfoundedand together withtheBelgrade Women’s Lobbyorganised several the group Women in Black 163 162 161 Victims) ibid. 261. ibid. 2000,259. andHughes Mladjenovic http://www.czzzr.hr/ http://www.zeneucrnom.org/ There are a few issues of women’s organisations which deserve more by force is useless to everyone. the separation ofany from Yugoslavia. A Yugoslavia maintained barracks. TheWe ask that the units of the Federalyouth Army unconditionally withdrew to their did not go to serve in the military in order to impede 160 were also established. The Women’s Lobby incorporated most of these most incorporated Lobby Women’s The established. also were 161 (Accessed 22 May 2007) 22 May (Accessed 163 (Accessed 22 May 2007) 22May (Accessed defined themselves as antinationalist, antimilitarist, 162 50 ü and, finally, the mothers’ protest of the CEU eTD Collection well. It is not easy to term the affair between the CZŽŽRthis and Vera Staniaffair bearsaspects a lot in commonof the clashes withrepresentative) deserves more attention, asanaffairwhich highlights several the betweenargumentations feminist ingroups the “witch-trial” andwhich the Women in Black emphasisedthe so much. nation asstates.especially women, exactly going against the acknowledgement Moreover, of the other victims, considered rape as exclusively a Serbian weapon against the civil population, andmedical help, gave legalshelter andsupport tothem. However,Kareta from Zagreb. Karetaand cooperation with the feminists. alsoprotest lost its anti-war character and by this, also the chance to establish a contact workedwith their with protestssons had a nationalist turn. The participants turned out to be more rapedconcerned being theon greatestwomen,“the wrongdisappointmentinitiative seemed to be promising, a lot of women protested againstprovided thewar, butside” for of thethan feministmother’s by anti-war thepsychological, war womenprotest: itself. from during organisationthe theLobby, summer of the1991, mothers of the sons in the JNA, lead by theBedem Ljubavi (Wall of love), organised protests. The nationalities. the numbers of victims must not allow us to forget the sufferings of women of other percentage of Muslim women as victims, emphatically adding that the imbalance in 167 166 165 164 strengththat the members of allof the armies are guilty to the thesame extent. They refer to the JNAsuffering, i.e. that women ofeach nation are to the same extent victims of war and and the forces of Karadži forces.” Cockburn 2002,626. Cockburn 260-261. ibid., 263. ibid., 262. ibid., A short interaction between Thethe other group withCZŽŽR a nationalist overtone wasand the feminist groupMP Kareta Vera Stani Women in Black was partly a reaction to the double failure of the mothers’ 164 Considering the rapes, they refused the position of symmetrical 165 51 167 ü in Bosnia and to the higher 166 Thus, the ü , because ü (HDZ CEU eTD Collection http://www.zinfo.hr/engleski/pages/research/elections%202000/TheySaid.htm politician. But, I wouldn't want you to take me for a feminist." ( afeminist." me for youtotake I want wouldn't politician. But, and taking upon herself the important duty ofbeing amother, a wife, a working woman, andthen also a "Woman is destined byGod that in life, from the start, shemust be oriented to taking care of the family, 1993): in notexpectable was it (but too statement this so after do would if they a question Itis (189) 169 gesture from the state’s war policy, reminding the readers and thedirect addressee to do everything within andthe then frameworkthey add that they of are thestill law.” registeredinternational and foreign institutions and especially non-government in organisations,Croatia, and they do theirconsequences”. They givean account about“best theirfinancial sources, which is mostly we make that: “wepolitical are not involved in politics and we do not tackle the causes of war nor do Following assessmentsthese lines, the CZŽŽR describes of itsit activityin what and mission, we emphasisingdo. We only deal with its Ve The authors of the letter acknowledged her activity for women, and throughout her carrier she had argued that Zagreb – Autonomous Women’s House Zagreb) in her speech toParliament in1990 representation, she even stood up in support of the AŽKZ (Autonomna ženska ku authors of the letter also acknowledge, had attempts to stand up for women’s 12 the 171 addressed, while Stani 168 events: the CZŽŽR replied to an interview with Stani 170 neither of the words They even say: “We consider your way of thinking feminist, which, in our jargon, is a compliment.” ibid. Letter of the CZŽŽR to Vera Stani Letter of the CZŽŽR to Vera Stani þ ernji list ernji statementof yours. publicdisqualifications thatwe have experienced, as wellas some less intense disinformationsigns about Croatia.’ Considering certain public attacks and way of – whiletheseanimosity groupsIn your opinion and according to the information that you have – as you said ‘givein factout thetoward false they impression us,are of we acting aimed‘recognized’ in a humanitarian at acting ourselves harmfully in thisand spreading show interest if these issues involve privileges and the position of power. qualified for resolving many social and political issues in which men only and that politicswomen should be involved wouldin politics on a larger scale and more onlyintensively benefit from this as women are certainly more th August 1992), in which they were not named but felt themselves felt but named not were they which in 1992), August -interview also felt offended and obliged to clear the issue: dialogue ü neverreplied totheletterCZŽŽR. ofthe Stani 170 ü ü , in , 190. , Kesi exchange ü 2003,189. 52 or correspondence Vjesnik 171 ü (of the daily This is already a distancing , 22 nd October 1999) October would describe the (Accessed 23 May 2007) 23May (Accessed 169 Ve but after the þ ernji list ü , asthe 168 on ü a CEU eTD Collection discussed in the following subchapter. feminists, which, together with abroader analysis of the discussion of rapes, is CZŽŽR affairnation these belong to, clash with the nationalist ideologyin of astate inwar. The this sensedifferentiate between those who bring them in that situation, no matter to what resonatesthink with which values, feminist the how well aboutvery represents theCroatia” about disinformation “witch-trial” women as of thethe five uninvolved, Croatian passive sufferers of war and do not 173 172 interview) better than war.” considered even theworst compromise (“with the devil himself”, as you put in your find no particularwartime, and allowssatisfaction no other position: “Please believe us that, after everything, we patriotismin the banal fact democratic thatvalue system. Their pro-women and anti-war attitude overwritessince their and the beginning thethe nationalismweruling have state, but they questioned the thought that anything not serving the purposes of partyThe emphasis is placed again on the democratic nature of their activity and the new expected (HDZ) fromand thethe membersgovernmental of the nation confirms that politics in interest, would fromwhich the mission to helpgo womenis war victimsbothagainstnew state,and refugees a but and“professional theyto protect are women’s not pbligedthe to agree with anyobligation” ideology. However, coming and a “political one”, CZŽŽR of the letter that their existence is in accord with the ibid. ibid. Accusing a feminist organisation of “acting harmfully and spreading and political life in Croatia rather than harm it. democraticrefugees’ rights. deeplyWe believe that thisisboth ourdemocratic right and obligation,its offices or individuals jeopardize these interests or violate women’s and abroad – if we notice thatand the Croatian politics,that,there is thenothing Government, strange about us reacting – both insideor the countrysome and of by doing so, we promote the democratic 173 53 172 democratic constitution of the of constitution CEU eTD Collection very far from the gender relations of the partisan times, as it can be seen from the (mostly) against the female thepopulation wartime of the enemy country.feminism of This inthe war(the moral former)early was Yugoslaviafeminism. Ironically enough, therehad never been greater Westerninfluence on 1990s, and in the Yugoslav in andsuccessor connection states,method than in significant impact on the discourse of the Yugoslav wars. The vocabulary, approach withfor helpingthe mass rapes the provided thecommitted tool set for furthersurvivors investigation. or research about theWWIIevents, was alreadythe progress mass and in rapes of mass thetime. So, newwarcould have evoked interest towards the historyofsimilar rapes owes same at the almost happened by thewars, accompanied ofYugoslavia, break-up a lot exactly, since thedemocratic totransition inmost EastEuropeancountries and the AmericanliteratureWorld from War, the silence mass aboutthe rapes committed the Soviet bythe armyintheSecond withWest. a newHowever,came justset at the timeof when toolsit itbecameand ispossiblemovies a provided inquestion, the former appeared,journals, whole volumesSoviet of studies, documentaries, literary texts, blocvisual artefacts to breakby whatallthefeminist literatures on rape.focusing Discussions second in the media, articlesbrought in newspapers and onwave thealong topic.feminisms’ what existing discursiveThe situation. thematisationalsowill givethat, I abroaderview onlocal the attempts to change thealready of thethe “witch-trial” will follow the general introductionissue into the rape-discourse. After Croatian feminist authors fits sadlybetween very well into this discourse, that so thespecialised historiographicanalysisand literature, which provides a basisof for a comparisonthe discussionIn this of subchapter,the 3.2 The Rape DiscourseYugoslav inthe Wartime Period wars. I Thelook “witch-trial” at the discussion of five of the WWII mass rapes in the As we will see in this chapter, the feminism from the United States had a The mass rapes in the Yugoslav war in the 1990s brought along a revival of 54 CEU eTD Collection http://epa.oszk.hu/00600/00617/00003/tsz99_1_2_peto_andrea.htm Remembering the1945 Budapest rape cases], nemier Az 1945-ösbudapesti of being charged with rape.” (Djilas, 1962, 95.) Andrea Pet Andrea 95.) 1962, (Djilas, rape.” with charged of being mood certainly came whenStalin exclaimed, kissingwife, my that madehe his loving gesture attherisk 20), but the part which follows is never mentioned by these authors. After the toast, as thetoast, authors. After these by mentioned whichfollowsisnever part the 20), but remembers, he “kissed my wife [Mira Mitrovi Ungváry, or also byTony Judt inhis Pet Andrea by others among quoted, widely is utterance This 95.) 1962, (Djilas, triffle?” some funortakes with awoman has and death fire and blood through ofkilometres thousands crossed Can’theunderstandifasoldier,who has are? not knowwhathuman andthehumanheart suffering forgive his criticism: “And such an armycontinuously was insulted by Djilas! […] Does Djilas, who is himself a writer, making fun of him for his protest against the crimes of the Red Army. Stalin could not Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, c1962] 89.) Later 89.) c1962] Jovanovich, Brace Diego: Harcourt properly pillaged.” (Milovan Djilas [ Djilas (Milovan pillaged.” properly have always174 regarded as being among the most heinous – and when our soldiers were abused and scapegoat side, Catherine MacKinnonmass rapes inthis sense was inevitable.became The fact that themain figure ofthe part of those investigating broughtthe mass up viewpoints relevanthave such an attribute, though mostin of them belongsany to the constructionist case stream) of rape, so itsand the non-scapegoatimpact ones (as they saw themselves as “normal”, they ondid not the Yugoslav already written inEnglish. Thedebate betweenso-called the “scapegoat feminists” international discussion is that most of the materials I discuss here are available or concentrationwas campjournalists presenceof “Omarska’s of internationalon the white feministpress the UN, the United was States and the foreign house”.media, all these had aradicalthe influence who publicity discourse agenda, by sometimesA the necessary and sometimes useful externalinfluencerevealed of furtherit brought along, too.consequencethey for Oneexample managed of itthethe of unanimously the torturesto maintain positiveSoviet troops when they entered Serbia. theirand effectsdisillusionment with Stalin was Stalin’s reaction on the rapes committed by murdersthe own oftheoretical the committed and political in the framework and the early phase of the memoirdescription of Milovanof the first chapter of this thesis, but it is also useful to look at the (New Haven: Yale UP, c2005). Yale Haven: (New Krisztián Ungváry, “In view of the position I held, I could not keep silent when women were being violated – a crime I – acrime violated were being women when silent not keep I could I held, of theposition “In view Considering the Western influence, it is again a striking difference between The Siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II, Ĉ neofeminizam ilas, where he tells that one of the reasons of his Ę Ĉ szak esetek emlékezete” [Army in passage, enduring trauma: enduring inpassage, [Army emlékezete” esetek szak Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 since Europe of History A Postwar: ilas], Conversations with Stalin with Conversations ü by then] because she was a Serb […] The zenith of his , as discussed in the first chapter, that while 174 55 Ĉ ilas tells a further episode with Stalin, who was who withStalin, episode tells afurther ilas Ę Történelmi Szemle Történelmi , “Átvonuló hadsereg, maradandó trauma: maradandó hadsereg, , “Átvonuló , trans. by Michael B. Petrovich [San B.Petrovich Michael by , trans. (Accessed 14 April 2007); 14 April (Accessed (New York: Penguin, 2005, York: Penguin, (New trans. by Ladislaus Löb. Ladislaus by trans. No.1-2(1999) Ę and Krisztián and Ĉ ilas CEU eTD Collection http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00012/00016/23peto.htm Russian soldiers. To tell or to remain silent?), Totell ortoremain soldiers. Russian 178 the danger of putting words into one’s mouth is very much present. vocabulary, explanation) than theinterviewee. Especially inthe caseoforal history, interviewerthe or the researcher hasa different language (approach, narrative, of the narratives, mostly resembling Hollywood movies, like recorded via oral history in the 1990s. She draws attention to the schematic nature narratives she has from archives, mostly recorded by authoritiesPet and narrativesmeans athirty yeartimedifference between events discourse. the and thenew from the women’s point of view. In the case of the Second World War rapes, this 177 176 175 Susan Brownmiller’s book Brownmiller’s Susan knows”, addition, there is also a clash between the historical narrative and “what everybody memory overload, there is clearly a complex anything else but selective, otherwise we would experience some hard times with set of reasons behind this silence. In stereotypical elements. also a selective collective memory working. each level”, while besides forgettingHungary, on both a thispersonal is a andspecial a social statuslevel,about there of socialis memory.rapes It isdifferently surrounded in the case of the Yugoslav story. As Andrea Pet committed by silence “on also bycrucial the Soviet in thetroopsmore clear-cut. case on rapesofHungarian thecommitted childhood in Bosniawomen during in the1945abuses, war, makesin the sideswhile in the debatesit comes even to the fore Pet SusanBrownmiller, ibid. Pet Andrea Ę herself also admits the problem of parallel narrative modes Ę 1999. Probably more interestingly, Pet interestingly, more Probably In Pet The major feature of WWII mass rapes was silence. The issue of silence is 176 while thecollective while remembering reinforce thewill selected, Ę , “Magyar n , “Magyar Ę ’s argumentation, it was the second wave feminism and especially Against Our Will. Men, Women and Rape Ę k és orosz katonák. Elmondani vagy elhallgatni?” (Hungarian women and women (Hungarian elhallgatni?” vagy Elmondani katonák. orosz k és Against Our Will Magyar Lettre Internationale Lettre Magyar Ę 56 also points out several features of the features several out points also (Accessed 14 April 2007) 14 April (Accessed , 177 175 which created a language about rape Though collective memory cannot be (London: Simon and Schuster, 1975). andSchuster, (London: Simon Ę argues in her texts No. 32 (Spring 1998) 32(Spring No. Doctor Zhivago Doctor 178 in cases where or CEU eTD Collection tendencies are lost for to the conscious desire. Ian Hacking, desire. conscious tothe lost for are tendencies repression is a “postulated181 mechanismdifference between the extent to which the rape ofwomen makes women and men suffer. where a been have must thatthere thethought theattention catches butsurely interpretations, imply several incidents are sufferedlost to the conscious Hungarian a lot memoryfrom andmany drives180 things, or chapter directly andis more or less clear. the worst179 for them was the rape of women. This one sentence can 182 the Sciences of Memory situation did not allow the victims to speak about the misdeed of the liberating allow open discussion about the female body and moreover, as the political multiple silence and silencing, damages” “additional of the was part Rape about it. a speak to language have horrors fights between men on the battlefield. There is a way history,to speak about itthe is latter, not part its of the mainstream histories about wars, which are aboutcombined with the already mentioned shame felt about the rape. the and languagenot the actual narrator. Consideringand husbands as narrators, the question ofpower the issuecharacter of his or her story who underwent all the sufferingof and humiliation and the husband–wifeinterviewee/survivor relationseither someone else,who supposedly “knows orthe story”, to tell the it, has creates a story with in a thirda lotthe person to agedo withnarration, come shame many cases,in,where it was the husbandwhich who toldit the storyis of the thewife.keeps This has apparently onehorrific back stories alwaysfrom happen speaking. to someone else and not to the speaking person. In Gone with the Wind long suppressed orrepressed memories. began topress for theopen discussion ofthe topic and for the reconstruction of the since too traumaticit is toremember. was the It second wave feminism, which Ian Hacking makes a difference between the two. According to this, suppression is deliberate, while isdeliberate, to this,suppression two. According the between adifference makes Ian Hacking One example is the report of the Swiss embassy in 1945 from Budapest: “Thethis notconcern does times,which Soviet worst the throughout aspects the political mentioning Noteven suffering for the Pet Ę 1998. Even though the raping of the enemy’s women ispresent throughout human population 180 and its language was silence, something, which is better to forget, is due to the rape of women.” Ungváry 2005, 350. Although the population the 2005, 350.Although Ungváry ofwomen.” to therape isdue (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, c1995), 260. c1995), Press, University N.J.:Princeton (Princeton, . Third person narrations are also extremely characteristic, the 182 as the contemporaneous discourse in itself did not 57 181 The memories are “distorted” by Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and Personality Multiple Soul: the Rewriting 179 Therefore, often CEU eTD Collection 1993), 29. 184 “Alaine Polcz remembers” on one ofthe black bakelite phones in the room of the invasions. as is represented andit horrific details indeed about telling thebook from is taken one quotation Only which is underpinnedTerror of House is The of Polcz. book of the complexity the disregard a bycontexts and authors several goodto seehow the factexample: thatStalin thethe Sovietaim of example. thetroops museum raped 1944-1945. War: Hungary, isIt Hungariantobecame show the a pointwomeninhumanity in ofa veryreference of cruelan oppressive way. on the power,topic, similarly to Milovan democratizing potential”. invocations of ‘women’ […] it is acritique without which feminism loses its operations and differential power relations that construct and delimit feminist term “woman” has to undergo serious criticism which “interrogates the exclusionary the of use the writes, Butler Judith victimisation, and essentialisation of type this and sexuality between men and women. As one of the most important opponents of would make it impossible discern to rape as a crime from everyday life practices by the implicationsomething what would makethat any cooperation betweenmen accusation,men something and moreare thenwomen extremely disturbing impossible to think about and the mortal enemies of women. This perception 185 183 ones, are still under the influence of the second wave. Catherine MacKinnon, who discussion about the war in Bosnia, many authors, even the most acknowledged second wave feminisms’the by influenced were which by tools memory reconstruct to professionals other not always moderate ideology. As it can be seen in the was literature, as Pet troops ofthenewally.Till then, theonlymedium for telling thepersonal stories keep nothing more or power relations, she speaks aboutless men andwomen, a relationshipin where rape “is than a consciouswomen processand of victimisation of a rhetoric has an Brownmiller-book praised and quoted widely anti-maleof intimidation attitude. by which Basically, Brownmiller does not speak about JudithButler, ibid. In Hungary and from the time of WWII, Alaine Polcz’s http://www.susanbrownmiller.com/html/against_our_will.html (Translated by Michael B. Petrovich. San Diego: Harcourt, Brace & World, c1962.). Itis interesting c1962.). & World, Brace Diego: Harcourt, San B.Petrovich. Michael by (Translated all women all A feature the WWII rapes is the fight on behalf of historians, therapists and However, the new feminist discourse on rape has its own pitfalls. Already the Already pitfalls. own its has rape on discourse feminist new the However, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex in a state of fear”. Ę Translated by Albert Tezla. Budapest: CEU Press, 2002.) isanextraordinary CEUPress,2002.) Tezla.Budapest: Albert by Translated emphasises. 185 183 184 58 This hereapparently is avery sharp Asszony afronton Asszony Accesses 17 Accesses (London and New York:Routledge, New (Londonand th Ĉ April 2007 April ilas’s ( One Woman in the One Woman Conversations with Conversations all men all CEU eTD Collection 191 190 of Vision Field in the Sexuality Political, the 189 188 187 186 theorists like Joan W. Scott, apart from the rigid framework ofgender difference”. theorised sexuality of forrelations room no leaves account deterministic highly dominating social position and ‘women’ are those defined in subordination. Her differentialfor MacKinnon,genderplatforms. Judith Butler is one of those who see MacKinnon as the major enemy, as categories, spite“sexual of suchher commitmentrelations that ‘men’harassment. to areoffeminism, thosesubordinationthe campaign of Women Against Pornography and worked on the issue of sexual defined havewomen in court against accused of genocide. been in disputeda sexuallyessays, aregave interviews, commented on trials andunderstood represented on Muslim and Croatianseverala major figure feministindeed worked a lot for those women whobecame victims ofwar rape, became also to of establishthis fight for the justice of the victims. MacKinnon published maintain the ambiguity by using both terms) to which the survivors of rape belong, will I so Kosovo, at looking when complicated more even is and war the of time moral implications: the ethnic group or nation (this was obviously aquestion by the Yugoslav war. The phenomena is even more burdened by the fact that it has further human being.” ‘victim’ – whom they thereby construct as helpless, rather than asan autonomous theorists and cliniciansrepresent themselves asbeing so entirelyonthe side ofthe part of another cycle of oppression of women, all the more dangerous because the opposition to MacKinnon’s “deterministic form of structuralism”. form “deterministic MacKinnon’s to opposition Leys in Hacking 1995, 76. (emphasis added – Zs.L.) added 1995, 76.(emphasis LeysinHacking 1993,239. Butler Ruth Leys, “The Scott,1999. E.g. Real Miss Beauchamp: 1993,238. Butler Gender andMacKinnon inWikipedia Catherine the Subject of Imitation,” in The manifold activity of MacKinnon evoke criticism on several sides and in As Ruth Leys argues, “current theories of abuse, trauma and dissociation are ed. Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott (London: Routledge, 1992) 167-214; Jacqueline Rose, Jacqueline 167-214; 1992) Routledge, (London: W. Scott Joan and JudithButler ed. 191 This positioning of the “victims” can be seen in the case of the (London: Verso, 1986); both quoted in Hacking 1995, 75-76. in Hacking quoted both 1986); Verso, (London: 188 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharine_MacKinnon Jacqueline Rose or Ruth Leys, 59 186 187 She has been also active in Butler, along with feminists 189 190 positions herself in Feminists Theorize CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002), 316. Press,2002), Mass.: MIT (Cambridge, in signature of the “Globus investigation team”, without any names. Five feminists, Five names. any without team”, investigation “Globus the of signature 192 war discourse for showing off the aggressor and proving one’s innocence. Pet feminist theorists and historians agree on the argument that rape is abused in a other side. just because their women are (imaginedthe most andsuffering always reinforced) victims community lessof the aggressors are not lessstrong strong on the and brave either, fathers of the nation, the soldiers and the male members of the published in the newspaper inthe published and it also exemplifies The binaryhow opposition of victim and perpetratorrape characterises the “witch-trial” itselfcan be turned into hate3.3 The “Witch-Trial” speech. The article was horrors of the invasion and the faultlessness of the Hungarians has to be put forth. former case, the guilt of the Soviet army had to remain in silence, in the latter, the the Terror Housean exemplaryelement way ofboth the toemphasises already it in theWWIIrape cases, where theargumentthe contributed in Polcz silence bookabout thein rapesthe duringafter-1989/90 communism and to period. In the depending on the context. For instance, Tu work and maintain themselves, with all the shifts inhundred theand twenty thousand.systems of argumentation, showing off completely differentvarious groups (women’s organisations, state committees, international observers) numbers of victims, frombe. Partten thousandof the proving up to might that whatever one procedurecommunity, international the of support and help sympathy, of one’s own suffering iswas the warthe of numbers, general victim of the war, thus the “goodie”, the one deserving the See for example Vesna Kesi Balkan as Metaphor: Between Globalization andFragmentation Globalization Between as Metaphor: Balkan Interestingly enough, despite the wide-spread victimising approach, several ü , “Muslim Women, Croatian Women, Serbian Women, Albanian Women,” Globus 192 This is an example how the patriarchal structures on the 11 60 ÿ man, Izetbegovi th December 1992, with the authorial , ed. Dušan I. Bjeli ü or Miloševi ü and Obrad Savi ü are not Ę ü CEU eTD Collection women authors: keep the positive imagepublished in ofthe international press, thewhich was disturbing those who wantednew to Croatia – thismysterious was caused directly reasons Danas by the – probablyfive sinceexpression in Croatia, based, among others, on the abolishmentthe of the journal critical 59 articles of the fivesection of PEN at thePEN Congress in Rio de Janeiro against the organisation of the authors wereapropos of the articlementioned as “witches was thefrom Rio”protest – hence the “witch-trial” of somedeserve the same empathy regardless ofname their ethnicity.representatives of the affair. The raped of werethe New not by exactlyYork turning against the ethnicising rapeMuslims, discourse, stating that the women –, and Serbs but primarily women and thus they associations inthe former Yugoslavia in thelate 1970s, Ugreši from Rio” 194 Europe Eastern progressive branch. Vesna Kesi Vesna branch. progressive will not easily incline to feminism.” However, she was member of the SKJ and belonged to its Vesna Kesi Kesi In fromtheterm“feminist”undervaluing”. even andtherecollection insulting because it“sounds of 196 195 193 besides Dubravka Ugreši See: Appendix I. Tax1993. Jelena Lovri 193 Globus th ü World PEN Congress in Dubrovnik, pleading the lack of the freedom of , she has always been focused on high politics and “a woman who wants do deal with high politics were accused of “raping Croatia” by not being patriotic enough in wartime and oronthe attacks ontheindependent weekly The title said: “Croatian feminists rape Croatia”. The five women are often of journalists and newspapers. Washington Post’, CNN, BBC, etc) Croatia is alwaysaccording to blame for persecution feminists to thethe leading campaignhave enjoyed tryingto overcome theirprofessional complexes by supporting worldTheir media epigonsmentioned (‘Time’, [sic],against various ‘The scribblers New Yorkfromthe ‘GLASNIK’ Times’, abovefreedom and ‘VE‘The whoof press.are responsibleIt is both them and for the this absurd fact: 11 http://www.zinfo.hr/engleski/pages/faq/vjestice/VjesticeIzRia.htm th ü December 1992. December ü , ed. Tanya Renne (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1997), 199. 1997), Press, Westview Colorado: (Boulder, Renne Tanya , ed. – Ivekovi was not only not a member of any feminist group, but she had always kept a distance Globus 11 ü , Drakuli ü ü th , Rada Ivekovi , “Confessions of a ‘Yugo-Nostalgic’ Witch,” in Witch,” ‘Yugo-Nostalgic’ of a “Confessions , December 1992. The English translation: Ženska Infoteka, “Witches Infoteka, Ženska translation: The English December 1992. ü and Kesi 196 ü 61 , Slavenka Drakuli ü were members of the first feminist 194 Feral Tribune ü , also Jelena Lovri (Accessed 22 May 2007) 22 May (Accessed ü Ana’s Land. Sisterhood in Land.Sisterhood Ana’s andLovri . 195 û ERNJI LIST’ For some For ü were not ü and CEU eTD Collection she is a female,the gendering of a debate or fight,their own ethnic, cannotmoral, human intellectualit and politicalis identity”.very interesting theytobe see are that “apretty,the group enemy, of if selfishappearance”physical managed to getmarried, weremarried to basicallySerbs, but middle-aged unless womenof their husbandswho – those of them, who “in spitehave of their theoretical position and seriousshe problems is withan evil femme fatale: the 199 120. 1996), Phoenix, (London: Celia Hawkesworth trans. by in ethnicity but becoming victims of rape primarily becausemasculinity of their sex. of the war, they spoke about women as victims“sisters”, unlike other women!,of which makes theira “betrayal” anconflict even graver crime. based on Hungarian)withdraw their solidarity and empathy from the Muslim and Croatian (and victimswomen ofof thebrutalThe argumentation implies that all the violenceinnocent was committed by Serbs against the gender Croatia based and BiH,violence. and by stating These this, women the fivewere authors their 198 197 brutal violence: rape Croatia, only not women thatthese but byexplaining further, even goes argumentation The do not take solidarity with those women who were exposed to Ženska Infoteka, “Witches from Rio”. Cf. “We are women andnot nationalities”. Dubravka Ugreši Globus Globus What is referred to here is that when the five of them spoke about the terrorism. ‘ethnical cleansing’), to rapes, to bestialsexual tortures, to ritual sexual by eupheminist [sic]cleansing not the metaphorical‘diplomatic’ one: to the persecuting and killings (labelled synonymsisters for the holocaust - women,and genocide – Croatian and Moslem women, were exposed to the real air’ which was spreading through Croatia, her and Slavenka Drakuli Slavenka her and throughCroatia, was spreading which air’ And while Dubravka Ugreši are not Serbian women, because they are Croatian and Moslem women. because they arewomenbecause but they are‘non-Aryan’, because they women and old womentalking and writing about totally opposite truth.in About the truth that ,Bosniaterritories ofand the former Yugoslavia butHerzegovina raping WOMEN (!), all media were business and thesis about not raping Croatianare and Moslem womenraped on the wereand killed not selling literary flosculus about the tragedy of the war as man's For example, while Slavenka Drakuli 11 contains several personal data, from their marital status to the ethnicity th December 1992. December 197 ü was writing her essay about ‘metaphor’ of ‘clean 62 ü , Rada Ivekovi ü , TheCulture of Lies: Antipolitical Essays, ü and Dubravka Ugreši 199 198 Considering The article ü 's ü CEU eTD Collection letter of protest against the accusations andto rape. about the inaccuraciesbody hasof to be thedefended, article. and feminists are not proper women, they are even able 1993): 124. is being raped and thus is a woman.’”in the same way Serbians rape Croatianthe deedswomen. of these criminals and turn against their“According own innocent country, raping it to this belief, ‘CroatiaSerbian men and these feminists, by ignoring who theaggressor “in reality” is, hide “Serbian criminals”. The story line is rather clear: Croatian girls are raped by of five womenand extensive data (includingwriters, the number of their children and their marital status) there is an article about young Croatian girls raped by “Witches from Rio” Infoteka, Ženska Zagreb: Infoteka Ženska ofthe collection the 2005)and 11 February (Accessed 1, 1993.” July Intimidation. and Censorship 200 issue of issue of therape discourse becomes even more visible if onehasalook at very the same witch trials, those of fabricated prosecution and . offers space for the flourishingartist of aboutthe metaphor, the McCarthy with era, the thetwo tropologymain aspects invented of the by the accusers themselves 201 2006). February someone is highly ironic. A furtherif “only” self-referential verbally element of –,the and to accusewitch. the very sameoptions here the enemy is not the evil fairy or the queen stepmother,person but the ugly of committingarchetypical representations rape of women areon present here too, and of the two major war and forty years after Arthur Miller’s the “witch”-attribute of these women. Not even a decade after the end of the cold Meredith Tax, “The Five Croatian ’Witches’: A Casebook on ’Trial by Public Opinion’ as a Form of RadaIvekovi After the After It is not mentioned by the sources Ihave consulted, However, to attack someone inher sexuality, appearance, private life – even Globus ü , “Women, Nationalism and War: ‘Make Love notWar’,” Love War: ‘Make and Nationalism “Women, , , where just a few pages before the unsigned article with five names Globus http://www.zinfo.hr/engleski/pages/faq/vjestice/VjesticeHome.htm -article, the Women’s Lobby in Zagreb immediately issued a 201 63 The Crucible The home The country isclearly feminine, its http://www.wworld.org/archive/archive.asp?ID=157 , a play written by a left-wing 200 but the conditioning Globus Vol. 8. No. 4(Fall 8.No. Vol. (Accessed 11 (Accessed -article is -article CEU eTD Collection 25 44. http://www.zinfo.hr/engleski/pages/faq/vjestice/wlobby2.htm 207 206 thus were part of the racial policy ofthe perpetrators’ side. especially sincemost ofthe time the rapes were perpetrated with the purpose of forced pregnancy and women, predominantly were ofviolence type victimsofthis However, this happened. also caseswhere 205 hypocrisy. Allies Western the and Nations United ofthe inprotest 1995quit who inAugust rights, human for envoy the UN's was ofPoland Minister Prime former the Mazowiecky, Tadeusz wars. 204 directional projection of the attribute of one onto However,the other. Rather, “the metaphor interferencebetween elements thetwo orthe two “subjects” ofthemetaphor. as Black Black describes“interference as theory”. According to this theory, there is writes, The theirmetaphors working relationin this discussion are following isCZŽŽR). the behaviournot of simplewhat Max feminist, similaritynot not founding even andlobby, participatethe because one- memberthis is an informalin theirof un-hierarchical severalwork and group”,although organisations moreover, Kesi Drakuli (for example also of the 208 203 2007) 202 against women because they are women, participating also in the anti-warbut a group of women in Zagreb gathering different women’s organizations, protests. Neither KesiWomen's Lobby, which is not “a union of feminist groups“witches from Rio”-article, especially technical from ones,about stauesthe Zagreb of the Croatia and Serbia”, “Serbs rape men too” from However, the debate went on, among others with the article of Davor Butkovi the Croatian paramilitary formations aswell”, Croatianformations paramilitary the activities and mission, among them that “women wererapedby themembers of letter. anopen in regardless of their nation or consequences of the crime as individuals anyway and, as such, they need help, Zagreb Emphasis added – Zs. L. are there though violence, tosexual subjected also men were that mention not does letter the Here Yugoslav the in rights ofhuman violation the about Mazowiecky-report tothe here refers Theletter Women’s Lobby 25 MaxBlack, Zagreb Women’s Lobby 25 DavorButkovi th January 1993. January 207 Models and Metaphors: Studies in Language and Philosophy and Language in Studies Metaphors: and Models ü “Serbs rape men too”from men rape “Serbs http://www.zinfo.hr/engleski/pages/faq/vjestice/wlobby2.htm 203 Here they confirm some of the most crucial points of their th January 1993. January Globus , 202 ”. on which the Women’s Lobby answered again Globus 206 This letter also clarifies some points of the 64 , January 1993. Quoted in Zagreb Women’s Lobby Women’s in Zagreb Quoted 1993. , January 204 205 that “sexual that violence” is directed who “will bear the horrifying th ü January 1993. January , nor Drakuli (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1962), UP, Cornell (Ithaca: ü herself is an active (Accessed 22 May ü “preside the ü did 208 ü CEU eTD Collection performative. About this see Butler 1993,11. thisseeButler About performative. becomes constative, be to meant statement so the rule, a create we also group, orthat person 211 27-28 304-0-16: 1993.OSA min. 23April 210 209 this war is an “undeclared war of men against women”. role in any war, it cannot be disregarded here either. factor making the mass rapes possible is metaphor butwomen, as language plays a crucialas the bodycan of thebe country.raped raped.and However,This if we look at this logic again, it is also visibletheobviously that if the country country doeswomen. The country is like women and women can beraped, so the country can be notis meanlike that women, the only it is somehow necessary to rape the performative idea of female purity forms of humiliation, the idea that nothing can be worse than rape is in accord with committed by a gang of men and is accompanied with beating, mutilation andother to a woman is rape. However, though it in thisis warindeed as the tool of warfare horrible, would mean that the worst especiallything that can happen if thebetween rape ismen and women. “All men rape the victims,all MacKinnon’s women.” is suggesting that the gender relations can turnFocusing into a war exclusively Nevertheless,on rape whilesex of the victims instead of their ethnicity, and is still radicallythe different. argumentargument ofthe Zagreb feministsof of the “witch-trial”, emphasising the aspectthe of the Zagreb-authors goes against ethnicising existing”. creates the similarity”, instead of formulating “some similarity antecedently supposedly there, it is also used in an explanatory model. explanationsas a transmitter of a message for the demonstrationenemy.and These of a man’sare a rightfewit toamong the female the bodypossibleis orcommitting the use of theobvious women’s body and alsorape understandable on women. These that ifcan motivation be the proving is of masculinity, the In the sense that if we state something about someone as the natural and general feature of that featureof and general thenatural as someone about something ifwestate Inthe sensethat “Herak Trial 37. ibid, Part 1 and Part 2.” (trial proceedings) Court TV, producer. English language. 78 + 57 Another use of the metaphor is tosay, as Catherine MacKinnon does, that 209 In this case, the two elements are the nation state or country and 211 65 and thus also with the motivations behind motivations the with also thus and 210 It is very close to the CEU eTD Collection 214 213 community and about gender structures and gender–sex relations in general. what happens butto it should women not be forgotten that warunder is still regardedcircumstances andto witnessing be the procedurewara men’sis equally painful for men and women,business tells and a lotwithin about a thegreater againstgender women and the approach treating women’s sufferings as “additional harm” structuresproject.that the war between of the YugoslavLosinga memberaware were thatpunishing they her.” states in one’sthe 1990s was a war of itmenbeloved was the woman who was directly ones punished,After this,whathappenedthe prison toher“in was rendered absurd; nevertheless, probably under without the torturers cruelenemy’s being side] was the anddeath of the husbandsenselessthe andposition the incapacitation of her of husbandher son.”this womanwho was“the a circlepoliceman of horror and wasfor closed being by a definitewoman on and the direct punishment [for then the tortures she herself experienced. Even accordingthe murder of her husband and blindingto of herNikoli son, which seemed to her worse 212 then anything else. their children or the possibility to see their children tortured and raped was worse sexual violence, the topic. From several narratives of women who experiencedand the war tragediesand usually also in their life,you ask but women if theabout talk, rape, interviewthey speak aboutwomen is aboutrape. and And rape, theythe mentionthatoveremphasising will their be lossesa par excellence place for explanations. of However,their the danger of thebody victimisation of shouldelement somewhere on theborder of the sex/gender relation, and rape seems to be be kept in consideration. If ibid. 63. ibid., See Nikoli See One of the interviewees of Vesna Nikoli The body is also an exciting factor for feminist theorists, as a central ü -Ristanovi 212 itturns out that for them, the loss or the possibility of the loss of ü ’s collection inNikoli collection ’s ü -Ristanovi 214 This explanation is between the statement 66 ü 2000, 207-236. 2000, ü -Ristanovi ü , forexample, talks about ü -Ristanovi ü , for 213 CEU eTD Collection 221 73-81. 1994), Press, Nebraska of London: University and War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 220 TV. TrialPart1,Court Herak mass atrocities.” and torture mass and rape mass toenjoy preconditioned is sexuality (sic) who’s who arepre-primed, ofmen apopulation is produces thisdoes I what mean stash. pornography massive his ownpersonal 219 218 217 Stiglmayer 1994;Nikoli Stiglmayer sometimes. into get the Stiglmayer-book authors the generalisations” the “Western on especially goal of the consumptionpower and its contribution toobvious pleasure, similarity betweenof pornography thepornography) and rape,problem which is the role of theof feeling sexual ofpurposes. There isone more issue about pornography: pleasure though there isat least one (a primary in werethe case exclusivelyof war rapes is not that accused of using recordings of the rapes for pornographic MacKinnon as example, magazinementioned by that the supporteddetail and the are connected arguments that ignoranceethnicising of historical and social characteristics of the former Yugoslavia” impressiveabout“a rather is pornography” by telling was“flooded Yugoslavia violenceon the Court TV against women is highly problematic. These two and several texts byNikoli texts several and Postmodern Genocide’,” 215 genocide”. before the war, pornography “paved the way for the sexually obsessed counterarguments of Nikoli of counterarguments one edited by Nikoli edited one Brownmillerrapes, (and some essays 216 one by a physicianedited from Zagrebby andAlexandra a lawyer from ), Stiglmayer and another and containing several texts by MacKinnon and one by the rapes were the for pornographicused purposes bySerbs” “exclusively text about the relationship between pornography and rape states that recordings of Together with Kesi inter-ethnicof the dismantling Yugoslavia.rapes, She does not speakrightly, about ethnic peculiarities of the as it would be difficult and dangerous to find any. Nikoli in Genocide,” Postmodern Pornography: into Rape “Turning CatherineMacKinnon, „And we also have testimony concerning ibid. Mr. Herak’s case that his father showed the New York Times Nikoli Vesna Kesi Vesna Basically there are two representative volumes published in English focusing on the Bosnian war ü ü There are several objections to be raised considering this claim. The major Nikoli -Ristanovi -Ristanovi 218 ü ü MacKinnon repeats this statement in her comments on the Herak trial , “A Response to Catharine MacKinnon's Article ‘Turning Rape Into Article Rape Pornography: MacKinnon's ‘Turning , “AResponsetoCatharine -Ristanovi ü ü 219 ü 2000, 62. 2000, 2000, 62. 2000, -Ristanovi and in her essay “Turning Rape into Pornography”. ü ü -Ristanovi Hastings Women's LawHastings Journal Women's , 215 ü she is harshly she criticalof MacKinnon, -Ristanovi ü attempts give to anoverview of mass the rapes inthewar ü Start , first published in Belgrade in 1995, with a preface by Marina Blagojevi Marina by a preface in 1995,with in Belgrade , firstpublished ü 2000. ü , was published in Croatia, while it is the Serbs who -Ristanovi ü herself. The latter is of course critical on the former volume, the former on critical is ofcourse latter The herself. ed. Alexandra Stiglmayer, trans. by Marion Faber (Lincoln Faber Marion trans.by Stiglmayer, Alexandra ed. ü 67 are that the idea that the pre-war the that idea the that are Vol. 5. No. 2 (Summer 1994): 276-277. 5. No.2(Summer1994): Vol. 216 for MacKinnon in her in MacKinnon for 220 Mass Rape: The 217 and that 221 and ü CEU eTD Collection analysed in the case of the WWII massthe Titoist Yugoslavia). rapes and the rapesonto several others (mass rapes in the Yugoslav war and the position offeminists in in the focusone discourseof (anti-pornography this campaign in the US in the 1980s) onto another or pornography cynical?). of feminism repelled many women”. speaking for women” and adds that “[t]he presentationprivileged under the Communist regime, and who presented themselves asof pornography as a model against pornography, like Vesna Kesi of coursecreateda peculiar mixturewithin the magazine. Therewere evenarticles – and a non-feminist target of the “witch-trial”, Jelena Lovri 224 33. several members of the Zagreb circle (Vesna Kesi discussed in Chapter 1here, 223 committed. were rapes the way otherinthe each were committed betweenbut parties due to whothe camescope from more attention, of deserve would and thanaconqueror.” This rather is afascinatingargument individual thethis same chapter, socialisation I do not soldier goand into that the the details, mayparties not influenced especiallylikelycommit sincesexualless the army, an organized The better times. the ofancient the wars since ever are phenomenon rapes psychological violence in itsthis case on a as existed has gratification, and somesoldiersrecompense collective of with akind victors the providing occasion,women, of defilement “The of pleasure: the factor to according soldier but civilised the distinguishes tohe wouldobey be seeking such his archaicpleasure 14min.4 language. as an urges. […] This is not to say that even the most civilized the issue what is missing. Not mentioned by Nikoli It doesIt not make up as an example published erotic pictures of naked women and not pornography. Sources quoted also inPet also quoted Sources in perpetrators of the testimonies 222 and powerdemonstration then sexual pleasure. data about men raped by men also, which places more emphasis on the humiliation the rapes sexually, they did not care aboutsimple: there are several sources about perpetratorsthe stating that they did looknot enjoy of their victims and there are MacKinnon 1994, 77. MacKinnon1994, Vesna Kesi Vesna About the lack of pleasure in the testimonies of perpetrators: Herak Trial Part 1 and 2, Court TV and Comparing discourses, it makes sense to look at the features detected and It should also be mentioned here that the magazine ü , “Nije li pornografija cini lipornografija , “Nije th February 1993. OSA 304-0-16: 15 304-0-16: 1993. OSA February Start very feminist either, but it is again the layered treatment of 223 Ę 1998 and Pet 1998and MacKinnon sees this as “[s]elect women who were Cry For Help Cry For Start þ na?” (Isn’t pornography cynical?), pornography (Isn’t na?” 224 was also a forum for feminist issues, where . “Cry For Help.” (news program) CBS, producer. English producer. CBS, (newsprogram) ForHelp.” . “Cry Ę What happens here is again the projection of 1999, and in Ungváry c2005, 355. Ungváry here c2005, 355.Ungváry in Ungváry 1999,and 68 ü 's “Nije lipornografija cini 222 ü , Vesna Pusi ü -Ristanovi ü Start Start ) also published, which ü , Slavenka Drakuli 28 MacKinnon brings ü th , but as it is August 1982, 32- 1982, August þ na?” (Isn’t ü CEU eTD Collection 226 15 024280-024416 Box 304-0-3 OSA HU 1992. November Centre” Information theCroatian by collected “Testimonies 1993) and June D.C., Rights LawGroup(Washington, Internationalby Human prepared Yugoslavia.” Materials, 225 gloss over, or ignore awoman’s account on rape.” can be traumatising to focusshould onlysubsume on thoserape, violationsit canshould also in thebe damagingbroader not experiencemean to downplay, making the survivorthat feel thatof her entire storysurvivors. is relevant but contextualisation “efforts Just as it to multipleordeal interviewers, etc.Among the guidelines objective there is the to of document rapehow to dealor otherwith victims, gender-based howmanuals to avoid of women’s to get organisations, them re-traumatisedviolence givingnarrations guidance by tellingfor the “fact their findingthe methods”, women, were also born remainedof those silent,and who the did interviewsregisteredthere not speak. recorded wereTheprovidetake overconditions thesea pattern didpatterns,many forwhen not thebringing undernarrationsimilar vocabulary, mentionand silence thesame elements. the Even researchers examplesinterviewsmake whichfrom of the all interviews. theseit Also,survivors frequenteasier the third personsince narration, use the same order of events, use either.recorded,place on the Therechapter.territory but Inare the ofcasestill Bosnia, of the mass similartherapes in majoritythe patternsYugoslav war, of most narration ofof whichthe took cansurvivors be seen. The victims. What Pet the to face a human give which details small several of omission the means This giving a comprehensive view, the stories are also organised according to a pattern. full name or the family name. Due to the need for generalisation in the need of want to be taken seriously and treated as equal with men,Western culture afull name is aproofinsist for one’s seriousness. Especially women,on who the usage of a personality rights of the survivors,accounts only their first name is andmentioned, stories while in the often use quotations as examples. In the protection of the Pet Former inthe Violence Gender-Based and Rape for Accountability No Piece: “NoJustice, Forexample Ę 1999. The researchers who write about the rapes and refer to the survivors’ Ę calls “memories distorted by silence and silencing”, 69 225 226 here it is CEU eTD Collection language: English, Serbo-Croatian. Subtitles: English. 63 min. Croatia,1996. 63min. English. Subtitles: Serbo-Croatian. English, language: 228 Balkans women’s suffering somewhere in the world was just one of the evening news spots acknowledges herselfbefore that she had experienced whatshe didexperience, work withtheir about footages with survived, mother his what about tells who Cigelj Jadranka otherabout victims their familyHague. The very personal detailsmembers, with theirmake childhood experience, with the footages especiallymanaged to get the perpetratorsthe to the International War Crimes Tribunal in the characters withthey became engagedthe in the fight for interviewthe justice of the victims and at the end they they sufferedof themasshuman rape andteenage other tortures multiplelawyers times.son beings.After theyof got released,from Prijedor,Ghosts. Jadrankawho were captive in theCigelj “white house of Omarska” where artificially insiderish at the same time. view of the main character, what makes the text somehow annoyingly distant and does this in a third person narrative, while focalising the book from the point of words what happened to them. So, she “must find a way tosay it for them.” women and she realised that under the trauma her interviewees cannot put into 227 mass rapes in Bosnia,You WereDrakuli Not There / S. or a Novel about the Balkans Slavenka Drakuli happened those writing about the experience of the victims that they have to say what one example, among various others on each side. abused, usually by the political forces of the opposing parties. The way the stories repeated toldand arequoted, generalised andsometimes even andbyandthe questionsposed the repeating,by bythe telling multiple distorted “The Penguin Reader’s to Slavenka Drakuli “The Reader’s Guide Penguin Calling the Ghosts / Prozivanje Duhove Ghosts /Prozivanje Calling the , trans. by Marko IviMarko by , trans. An approach from a different perspective is the documentary The factor distorting the memories hides itself in an idea behind the work of 228 and what the victims cannot say. For example, in the interview with The two main characters, Jadranka Cigelj and Nusreta Sivac are two ü in the end of the US edition of her book ü (New York: Penguin, 2001),4. Penguin, York: (New ü tells that she made several interviews with raped , directed by Mandy Jacobson, Karmen Jelincic. Original Jelincic. Karmen Mandy Jacobson, by , directed 70 ü .” In Slavenka Drakuli.” InSlavenka , a novel about a survivor of Kao da me nema / As If ü , S.: A Novel aboutthe Novel S.: A Globus Calling the -case is 227 really She CEU eTD Collection 229 However, it should be kept in mint that there is a vast amount of women who have language enabling thesurvivors tospeakabout theirexperiencebe could tested. influence how much effectively the second and third wave feminism brought anew the estimationsurvivors, depending on their relation to theirof sexuality, their social positionthe and to rape attitudein their immediate towardssuggested environment. thea egalitarianvery rape strong Theseand the urban areas,model whichthesocial were more under the influence of modernisation and the talk offactors stategender aboutstate that the equality.position policy,rapes of women and gendermostly canequality This inwaswhich bedefinitelythe means expectedrural betterknown then areas. inthatin that spitemostSociologicala differentfrom of thepredominant Muslimstheof works majorityandthe Croatsdealing ofaspect:several thelived the rapes withsocial in happenedconstitution towns,the gender ofon whilethe latter thegroupsproblematic territory relationsofthe women Serbsraped. of It isBosnia. lived known hasthatdiscourse theIt is alsonot points, andbeen the victimising analysed stillargumentation of the Women’s Lobby, as it is described in the previous subchapter. of the the with accord in is rapeyet. statement This genocide. and cleansing ethnic of discourse, Nevertheless,Muslim woman. However,but she adds, the Serbthe mass rapes were planned,ethnicisation it was part for her, all is the same, no matter if rape is committed againstthis a Croat, a Serb or a ofsufferings of Serbian women. As shethe says, she has heard about their sufferingshides and which isanother related to an issue raised by this chapter is Nusreta Sivac’s reaction on the and the feeling of responsibilityimportant by de-facing the victims. Another detail of the film, victims, which is meant to giverepresentinganddiscussingproblems about way massrapes:big the the number of emphasis to the crimes, neutralisesthe directors the sympathy for her and after all her sufferings she feels guilty forkept that. It is not by chance that this part in the film, as it is reflecting on one of the crucial For example: Vera St. Ehrlich. So far, there was a lot of discussion about the gendering of the war U društvu s U društvu þ ovjekom 71 . Zagreb: SNL, 1978;Katunari SNL, . Zagreb: ü , 1984. 229 CEU eTD Collection or on the way to emigration – both physically and mentally – produced several in focus, Slavenka Drakuli all an attempt to argue against the ethnic-nationalist discourse. The three authors Their relationship to Yugoslavia was a crucial endeavour in several respects, first of trial” for treasurystrongly with the new organisations and who were directly attacked in the “witch- against their fatherland and accused of being Yugo-nostalgic. Ugreši Different Yugoslavia and the new isstates, although for them this was not acentral matter. the casethe new women organisations also gave voiceof to their standpoint concerning those positionsfigures in a new political discourse. As we have seen in the previous subchapters,ofabove, was clearlyof nationalism and nationalist discourse,impossible, what I have called “ethnicising” discourse theAfter the moment when the Yugoslav wars broke outtask and the reversal ofthe growth of feminism was the redefinition of their to Erfahrungsraum and the other way round (Drakuli 3.4 Redefining Yugoslavia in Retrospect –from Erwartungshorizont events. the of ethnicisation the does as pitfalls, many as just but individuals with their own idiosyncratic lives. The victimising discourse carries trap, and personal narratives are crucial, since here women are not passive victims proper women. theexamples As described here easy show, to stepintoit is this women, and that feminists, who activelyto thestand ideaup for thethat rights the of womenZagreb areThe nottrain feminists of thought arguing were for ablethe opposite,passive victims of misogyny andmisogynousto action andshould not treated asrape such. positioning Croatia, women asbeing victims, notleads proper and which resembles the WWII rapes the most. difference a makes which silence is this it and sufferings their about testified not An important and overall conclusion of this subchapter is that women are not ü ) ü , Rada Ivekovi 72 ü , Dubravka Ugreši neofeminizam , who did not cooperate not did , who ü , already in emigration ü , Ivekovi ü , CEU eTD Collection 234 233 232 polno Koselleck’s threetheory groups of state nor a complete(traditional neologism, thus does notconcepts, fit completely into any conceptsof with a meaning that has expectation out of itself”, political and discussed in the introduction of this thesis. It takes place in the social and term Begriffsgeschichte then we concept,can framed in various and extensive texts, with meanings changing in time, lookfocused on the war, thisat concept bears less relevance.the If we look at orconcept is just intime, when the signified onto which the concept isdirected does notthe existany more of break-up Yugoslavia process. Thiswith is whythe for helpthe feminist of Koselleck’s activist groups and Radmila Lazi Radmila and her essay “Make Love Not War” wartime period by Drakuli in original in Belgrade, in the edition of the Radio B92. Rada Ivekovi B92. Rada the Radio editionof inthe inBelgrade, in original 231 jug i obr jug i Jovanovi Supplement, The New Left Review, Neue Züricher Zeitung Literary Times The NRC Handelsblad, Nederland, Vrij on Censorship, Index Die Zeit, Internationale, like magazines and newspapers in various published 1991 and1995, Ugreši 230 ideology orsystem ofideas? The texts infocus are what does it mean to themdefinition both of Yugoslavia, how do these three authors personallyapproach the break-up, and and in the relation to feminism Yugoslavia. former as an texts which aim at defining and redefining their relation to the (by then already) Koselleck 1985, 275-276. Cf. “Introduction” ofthisthesis. Cf.“Introduction” 1985, 275-276. Koselleck Drakuli Ivekovi The letters were published first in German in 1993 by Suhrkamp as a selection, and only a year later Ugreši þ i (The Wind Goes to the South and Turns to the North) (Beograd: Radio B92,1994). Radio (Beograd: theNorth) Turns to and totheSouth Goes (TheWind Yugoslavia ü The need for the reconceptualisation of Yugoslavia happens at a specific In this chapter I look at these approaches with the question: what is their , ü ü 230 ü , 1996. The book was published first in 1995 in Dutch and contains essays writtenbetween contains essays and first in1995Dutch was published The book , 1996. ü Erfahrungsraum , ü 1993. , Maruša Krese and Radmila Lazi e senasjever The Balkan Express the correspondence of Ivekovi ü , Vjetar ide na jug i obr fulfils the requirements of a concept, as it is defined by Koselleck and the possible uses of the conceptof (The Wind Goes to the South and Turns to the North), , which, “open towards the future, draws the horizon of , 1993 and Drakuli , 1993and ü 234 , Balkan Express Balkan though it is not as old as those of the Aristotelian 232 ü e se na sjever. / Veter gre, proti poldnevu in se obra and the two volumes of essays written in the ü 73 , ü How WeSurvived with three other women writers (Biljana ü and ) published in the volume andothers. Ugreši How We Survived Communism. Survived We How ü , 1993. , BiljanaJovanovi The Culture of Lies Erwartungshorizont LeTemps Moderne, Lettre ü 1996, 275. 1996, Yugoslavia Vjetar ide Vjetarna ide ü , Maruša Krese , Maruša þ a proti . The as a 233 by 231 CEU eTD Collection can see by Koselleck and the former is more characteristicsense of a “demand”for Jauß. or in the Althoughsense of “hope” Jaußor “prognosis”. The latter is what we deeply influenced by Gadamer, of course) may help: expectation canbe read in the concept of the comparison another interpretation of interpretation another state itself. feminist ideas and the discussion of these, there was no need to define the existing spite of allthe debates between theSKJand the neofeminists, provided a frame for common concepts “there is no political field of action”. without is right, Koselleck intellectuals. as and as feminists standpoint political definition and together with this self-definition, a basis for their theoretical and in the near future. Their concept means much more a strategic plan for their self- a veryspecific changed by the break-up, and the texts written by the three authors in focus create 238 70-73. [1984]1993), Paperbacks], UP [Cornell York: Cornell opening up an opening up 237 focused on the future,However, definitionsthe oftheconceptbefore thebreak-up werein 1991 all they stoodcompeting throughout time, even during the existence of the Yugoslav instates. a consideration,the competing meanings for the realisation of the unification ofthe South Slavs into Yugoslavia is a par excellence concept. Several meanings are 1918-1992, 236 235 South Slavs was present even from earlier, from the mid-17 since the1830s already, appearing asapossible solution for the nationality problems in the Western Balkans changed radically, neologisms). Koselleck 1985, 74. Koselleck Ivo Banac, Dennison Rusinow, “The Yugoslav Idea Before Yugoslavia,” in Yugoslavia,” Idea Before Yugoslav “The Rusinow, Dennison 1985, 83. Koselleck On the other hand, exactly the improbability of a Yugoslav state brings in This relationship between ed. DejanDjoki ed. The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics History, Origins, inYugoslavia: Question The National Erwartungshorizont Erwartungshorizont ü (London: C. Hurst, 2003), 11-12. 2003), C.Hurst, (London: 236 Erwartungshorizont while the idea of the need for the unification of the Erwartung 235 . , considering the unlikelihood of aYugoslav state However, Erfahrungsraum by Koselleck and by Jauß (both of whom 74 Erfahrungsraum, Yugoslavia , that of Hans Robert Jauß. The Yugoslavism: Histories of a Failed Idea Failed ofa Histories Yugoslavism: and 238 as a concept has been While the party state, in open for the future and Erwartungshorizont th century on. , 3 rd ed. (Ithaca and New 237 Taking have CEU eTD Collection about the issues of this chapter:Yugoslavia and feminism. but this is more about Fromher the Balkan War to Americanthe Dream journeys in the United States and does not have a weight in the discussions feminism presented in the topics of war patriarchalism bring along feminist reactions. In addition, the andcreated received”. horizon of expectation terms justifiesthe comparison1960) and the sameuseof here. ForJauß,the is “on the basis of which a literary work in the past was 242 34. Jauss1970, effect.” ofitshistorical horizon the whichitenters solution,through and problem answer, question and of modality understood inthe to be isequally ethical realm inthe social function the background of everyday experience241 of life. From the240 point of view of the aesthetics of reception its relationship to Yugoslavia aswell, sharing aspects ofDrakuli of knowledge. The term of Jauß Benzinger, 239 horizon audience, and by challenging these expectations,receivers can contribute to of a literary text, which can fulfil or betray the expectations of the writings of Ugreši second chapter, feminism as an explicit political agenda had no space in the feminist agendainthe ofastraightforward texts. appearance becomes in of the open expressionby whom this means the most spectacular change in her writings, not only because of her political standpoint considering Yugoslavia, which theoretical background, theoreticalGadamer’s created his theory for literature andthe receptionof literary works, the same Yugoslavia is the most detailed and elaboratedthese, considering the factorsis establishing the horizon.Dubravka Ugreši would assume that the author/speakerdefining also thecannot concept, bewhile discerned in the case of Jauß,from itthe is that group of the receivers,of though I We can already find some cultural criticism in the first post-1991 work, in the book work, in post-1991 inthefirst some culturalcriticism find can already We “The new literary The approach of whom is based also on thework theories of KarlL. Popper and Karl Mannheim. is received and judged against the background of other art forms as well as Hans Robert Jauss [Jauß], “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory,” trans. by Elizabeth by trans. Theory,” Literary to Challenge a as History “Literary [Jauß], Jauss Robert Hans Of the three authors in focus, the one by whom the concept of the former . 241 New Literary History Literary New In the case of Koselleck, the horizon of expectation belongs to those The Culture ofLies ü before, while 239 Thiscomplies of asystem of values and available material Vol. 2 No. 1 (Autumn 1970): 18. 1970): 1(Autumn Vol.2No. The Culture of Lies 240 the major element of the writings, but also for the The Culture of Lies isfocused on the readership who are the possible Wahrheit undMethode (Trans. by Celia Hawkesworth. London: J. Cape, 1993.), Cape, J. London: Hawkesworth. byCelia (Trans. 75 reveals aspects of the author’s isaremarkable example ofhow ( ü ’s 242 Truth and Method How We SurvivedHow We As I wrote in the ü a change of the . It is also her Have a NiceDay: Have , , CEU eTD Collection 245 244 with the loss of the market andOn thethe one readership. hand, the loss is Thecultural prognosis and intellectual, of Ugreši but just as much existential, about the “Yugo-writer” in general, who is experience, an Ugreši thematising the effects of the break-upquestioned by the ideology on of the new nationthose states of the break-up. When who share this Yugoslav identity, citizens of the state but members of the nation and what this nation is. only not be to how learn also time same the at read, to how learn who children Ugreši recognise this nation of mine.” and addstwopages later, afterrepeating these foursentences quoted here:“I of the Yugoslav’s state. As the author writes Erfahrungsraum 243 po be seen and where they should place themselves in it. The protagonists of the po federal state. since bothofthesetexts havereferences to the unfulfilled genderequality inthe ibid., 165. ibid., 18. ibid., Ugreši þ þ etnica etnica ü ü The nation implies an identity, which is supposed to be stable and which is The one of the first essays of was shared until a short time ago. greatest dramabeing is playedon outthe territory ofthelanguage which critics, literarymarket, libraries, publishers, the culture of dialogue, cultural exchanges,journals,readership, his to, literarywas used lifehe homeland,the deprived ofhis even books themselves. […] But nevertheless, the for several generations. Several generations are a whole nation, of a kind. galaxy, and another,I started inner, indistinct school one. The primer in is a kind1957. of passport That year I got my passport to the Gutenberg is shifting between her individual experience and a more widely shared is unified by their cultural heritage, by the state controlled education: ü 1996,15. , from which the Yugoslav children learned about the world, how it should are children from Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia, they are all friends andchildren Erfahrungsraum . The options for the Yugo-writer are “transformation and 244 of those having this Yugoslav identity. She writes The Yugoslav nation according to this approach of The Culture of Lies 76 245 is about a first primer, a ü is a new 243 CEU eTD Collection 250 249 Croatian canon. Viktor Žmega Viktor Croatian canon. footnote to this part of the bookfighting and is concerned solelyexplains with the death and senselessness of the fights. A the patriarchalThe relations text here of a disregardstotalitarian the (in her view) new nationalities of the human beings metaphor of the core metaphor “the body of the nation”: The Culture ofLies country, being part of the old one. her texts do not seem tochange the new horizon ofexpectation ofthe new readership, with a horizon of expectation more similar to the one she is used to, as being refused by the new one, it is the individual Ithat remains. readership in the journal inthe readership and the attempt of the Zagreb professor of literary history, Viktor Žmega Viktor history, ofliterary professor ofthe Zagreb the attempt and of Lies literature with universal values is also signalled the formerby Yugoslav the authors authorsin exile and the androgynous canoncited of Yugoslav in foreigners needhim”. only that seems as “it foreigners,” to message “his directing “Yugo-intellectual”, 248 247 246 “he”. Ugreši person singular pronoun isalways the feminine “she” and not the commonly used feminist andalways post-colonial mentioned by a waymasculine of writing, personal where pronoun, the asgeneral an act of refusalform for of thethe third that itis temporary.” adaptation; inner exile, in the hope that it won’t last long, real exile, in the hope ibid., 51. ibid., Ugreši The difference between the horizons 180. ibid., is nicely shown by the positive reputation 166. ibid., of Ugreši : Goran Šimi Nevertheless, in spite of the androgynous literary ideal, there is a point in The Yugo-writer, while theauthor herself clearly withidentifies figure, this is Yugoslavs are today merely meat. each other. […] The collective human body has becomewhich human flesh,the all ex-male representativesbrotherhoodof symbol (the baton Tito’s ofopposite: ironic their theinto transformed been formerand Yugo-peoplesunity)Just has asare every becomeannihilating tragedy a recursfratricidal as farce, so all stickthe former (a Yugo-symbols gun, a knife) have with ü 1996,187. ü , who herself eventually decides for real exile, identifies with this ü , Bora 246 where feminism and Yugoslavism meet, in an expanded Literatur un Kritik Literatur 247 ü The masculine form and the decision and will to belong to , “Letter totheEditor,” , “Letter û oši ü and, of course, Krleža. Ugreši 248 how irrelevant Ugreši irrelevant how By losing the original nation and refusing and 77 250 Literatur undKritik Literatur ü is for the contemporary national contemporary the for is Vol. 28 (April 1993): 105-106. 1993): Vol.28(April ü , to explain to the German , toexplain ü also chooses a new 249 The Culture ü in Germany CEU eTD Collection imagology”, spread to all republics only in the second part. “The picture belongs to typical Yugo- with Croatian men in Zagreb and the conceptrelationship of the misogynist patriarchalspecie, male betweenis Yugoslaviabefore, inthe the 1970s-80s in any“Yugo-man” feminist and enterprise Croatia – Ugreši more complicated, of the Earth’s the essay starts fauna with deep irony. To make the 255 30-35. feminist journal essay, “Thethe nationCulture statesbeing Yugo-nostalgicas and looks at the birth of the nationalist-patriarchala ofresult nature of Lies”, of a longerother “[i]n onesprocess. in the a Asresponsiblevolume the to highly misogynistmilieu nature ofit thewar. This essay, even if there are is explicated which canthat be incharged the has title- withhidden Yugo-nostalgia, its deeply is far from rooted East is the female, the former Other-ing the latter. East–West relationship in gender metaphors, where the West is the male and the after this no one abandoningwill her boyfriend (Serbia) preferring another (the West/Germany)marry and her, sheShe will be writesa “Westernto political whore”; feminism and aboutagainst nationalismcommunist federal one, though the latter is not faultless either. However, go her turn together newly and reinforce each other. composed “Chetnik” songs where Croatia is a , this explanation, the novelty is 254 253 252 251 Tu women matter only asthose who give birth to the soldiers. Tito, Stalin, Miloševi soldiersstate, wheretheleaderis father ofthenation, sons and the arehis Ugreši Durbarvka Ugreši 240-248. ibid., 58. ibid., 51-52. ibid., ÿ man are not different in this sense. In the essay “Because We’re Just Boys” – an essay Ugreši It seems that for Ugreši ü 1996,113. 255 and the several decades long maintenance of patriarchal values is ü , “Jer mi smo de Kruh iRuže for publication, þ her ki” (Because we are just kids), ü , the nation state is more misogynist than the explicitly feminist gendered perspective. 251 78 Nothing new is invented by Ugreši 254 while her name did not appear hernamedid while not 253 Kruh iruže ü describes the special ü No. 1 (Spring 1994): 1 (Spring No. also gave to the 252 or about the ü with ü or CEU eTD Collection Web: 259 1999). Directions, 258 257 256 be “no one”. be “no for the question of her nationality,Culture of Lies when officials ask thefor narrator-authorit. She rather chooses has neverto make a final break with the former countryidentified and the new successor state, with which anyways, in one of the last essays of roads which are closed down andwith passport controls which area shockingly new pieces shot apart. Their difficultieseven with crossingabroad), borders, whichas arelikethey changing, thedid with windbefore in theand title/motto,as if their travels are travelling could keep aroundtogether in thethe country (sometimes remains, their names and faces are forgotten by history. The four authors of are followingwould do at wartime the from travelling. Peneloperules The authors are not sitting and waitingtill at one point, all as a decent womangiventhosecreation faceless towomen ofthem ourofthree daysthe whoand friends.new ofnation correspondenceone of thecentraltopics ofthe which is Rada Ivekovi of whom Here, statesonly the the experienceis expressedmaintained of theby thefallingrule images apart of distanceof the country and and the contributor) and in the novel ‘democratisation’ has brought a new freedom for patriarchalism.” patriarchalism behind socialist formulae about the equality of women and men, laterof remembering and the incontrollable, arbitraryreturns nature of nostalgia. This is what discussed in the essay “The Confiscationbecomes ina memory andsomething which has preservedto be there. This idea is theof Memory”, together last long”project withand choosing the difficulties “real exile” (“in the hope that it is temporary”), Yugoslavia Ugreši Durbarvka Ugreši Durbarvka Iris Andri 77. ibid., http://www.leksikon-yu-mitologije.net/ The last essay mentioned above is from 1996 and commemorates a problem For Ugreši ü 1996,238. ü , Djordje Mati 259 the narrator-author tells astory how she refuses to fill inthe answer ü ü , , mostly by her emigration, by giving up “the hope that it won’t The Museum of Unconditional of The Museum ü , Vladimir Arsenijevi The Museum of Unconditional Surrender Leksikon YU-Mitologije ü , ed., 79 Surrender, trans. Celia Hawkesworth (NY:New trans.Celia Hawkesworth Surrender, Leksikon YU-Mitologije Leksikon 257 (where Ugreši (Zagreb: Rende, 2005). Rende, (Zagreb: 256 . 258 Inorder to ü withher ü Vjetar is a The , CEU eTD Collection 261 260 Balkan Express,relationshipbetween the member states as before. As Drakuli sheYugoslavia would not change, that it will remain easily possible to have the samewas “educatedSlovenia and thewar starts. However, the initial ideaimplies that theessence of Thisto expectation believe has to be betrayedthat whenthe the JNAwhole troops breakwhich the only thing she wants to avoid is war:into Croatia and and Croatian state, she is trying to keep her disinterestedness in the events, during to the new situation. One day after the declaration of the independent Slovenian the horror of the break-up. experience all receive special attention and emphasis in theletters, as proofs for active and not necessarily feminine. The spatial factor is also emphasised here. protected and fought upon, but a nurturing and protecting parent, thus someone gives it a new modality. The homelandAlthough the “homelandis asmother” metaphor is acommonplacenot already, Ivekovi a passive female body, waitingrepublics and nations, by then this wasto called: to be Yugoslav.”be Belgrade,and consideredleast this is how I feel. The sameto us the security and theholds harbour, simultaneously the basis, withoutforas which we cannotthe exist. At homeland,unified.us. Just the opposite, the naturalwhichwould be if theynever left us.Because they mean I have always felt […] Despite the common opinion, I do notI find it natural that our parentshave die before determinately)literally happen nowlived – I personallyin all experiencesimilarof todeath hermother: both my life as the deathbetween is country cities.the of break-up The family. of the to similar becomes mycountry the which mother. Zagreb andMy familyof Yugoslavia. notion has Yugoslavia”always was her homeland, whichexisted means not only a cultural but alsoabove a spatial ibid., 17. ibid., Letter from Paris, 26 In these very personal accounts, Ivekovi “The loss of Themy new aspectcountry brought in by the letters – of whatIvekovi will presumably (and probably going across the borders, without taking any care about it. althoughI don’tI’m not fond careof sovereignty, about what I thefind retrograde.disintegration, We will be that we are getting separated, th June 1991. Ivekovi June1991. ü etal.1994,15. 80 ü is trying to define her relationship ü 261 is the metaphor in 260 ü writes it inthe territory of ex- ü CEU eTD Collection 266 265 European Feminist Conference, in Milieu,” Cultural the Ex-Yugoslavian of Dismemberment and ‘common emancipator chance for all those who lived in it.’” Quoted byJasmina Luki Yugoslav national feeling. Finally there was a third group ofYugoslavs, those who felt Yugoslavia to be a notionof wider the butaccepted sides, between wanttochoose not whodid marriages, from mixed children were Then,there ex-Yugoslavia. state of the with patriotism their socialist those whoidentified Yugoslav feeling”: “The first group were ‘Yugoslavs by ideological choice’, partisans, communists and categories presented in an article byaBelgrade feminist politician, Vesna Peši A further proof for the complicated nature of“Yugoslav identity”, which cannot be unified, is the 1962. 264 263 member into ametaphoric homeland. which later turns the metaphor upside down again, turning the closest family homeland as motherhappen to Goran, because he is my onlyturns homeland”. into a metaphornightmare (in which asniper shoots on her husband) saying: “I prey that nothing of the homelandforward as parents (family)her concept of the family as homeland, when she wakes up from a emigration story of Rada Ivekovi wasn’t born here.” newspaper published in Belgrade): “This country is not my state and my city. I 262 Drakuli emigration, since as she writes in her article published in the hopes in the possibility of the maintenance anything of her Yugoslavia and chooses this time of nationalist divisions.” half in Belgrade, married to a Moslem: she is thus a Yugoslav, a rare bird indeed in 1970s, huge diplomatic apartment ofwhom the first feminist meetings are held in the late women as a mass. “Rada” is one of her returning character, once as the one in the name, whose personal experience is meant to change the overall picture about an Apartment” Drakuli that this country does not exist any more. Similarly to Ugreši Drakuli Drakuli Cf. the interference theory of Max Black as discussed in the previous subchapters of Chapter 2. Black Ivekovi The Vreme 265 As a mark of the interference between the lives of the authors, the However, the travels throughout war-ridden the republics convince Ivekovi ü ü ü . In her various essays stories appear about various women with a first ü , , etal.1994,274. then as a “very much” Yugoslav person, “a Croat living half in Zagreb, The Balkan Express How We Survived -article (28 262 th October 1991) ofIvekovi October1991) The spatial concept of Yugoslavia fails, and Ivekovi ü , 1993,128. tells the story of a certain Marta, who has the same 83-84. , 1993, 15. , 1993, 266 ü However, in the essay “The Woman Who Stole is one of the essays in 264 81 ü in Ivekovi in What Can We Do for Ourselves? East ü etal.1994,93-96. 263 Thus the metaphor of the ü , as three “modalities of ü Balkan Express Balkan , she gives up her Vreme ü , “Women’s Writing (aCroatian ü brings by ü CEU eTD Collection face of someone who loses her country refers already to the body–nation metaphor. face kepttogetherbymake-up,picture ofthe for theneedkeeping together the together withhigh heelsher make-upandin the case ofmake-up, her refugee friend fromand Bosnia. She is embarrassedherself usesshe alsoher this refusing, de-facing, de-individualising by and seeinghomogenising is tone lifeher in “disappointed” together withby her a “tryingpair of toshoes”. keep her face and moreaggressive,” make “us [the Belgrade people] feelthreatened, while they [the refugees] are more the correspondentsthe ofIvekovi does their status. Similar hostilitycase of the isrefugees, described their in a letternationalitymatter if it ofis YugoslavRadmila ordoes Croatian, Lazinot and isseem reduced to to sheherbear refugee the status.leaves same weight, asCroatia, she symbolically ceases to be a member of any nation, not 270 the book, for Drakuli mapandthe theof ideafreetravelling, aswell astheforcednationalismappear in assertive an action by her as it is by the other two authors. While the concept of Ivekovi 269 Express was an individual with a name and not an anonymous exile stealing hismoney.” Drakuli was anindividualwithaname andnotananonymousexile have never experiencedI I think […] fortyyears…’ for hard I do, and worked people weretired than from thestate more money such a terrible aregetting refugees thatyou urge newspapers in the read ‘I’ve instantly. changed toneofvoice Croatia his to distinguish myself from others,268 to show thentomine. texts of the this reading psychological man that I Drakuli colleague from the 1970s feminism and evaluates her actions and reactions, even appears in this thesis, an explanation for the Rada/Marta character by Drakuli by character theRada/Marta for anexplanation inthisthesis, appears even of fiction borders the investigating Though fictionality. some maintain to action an authorial writing, such as the essay, especially where the characters267 are mentioned by their first name, rather as not my state and my city. I wasn’t bornbased Croatian newspaper, where thefollowinghere.” sentences appear: “This country is Drakuli biographical characteristics asIvekovi characteristics biographical Drakuli Radmila Lazi Radmila “an old man passed me by […] ‘Where are you from?’ he asked me. When I told him that I was from Interpreting the reasons for this solution is better to avoid in a half fiction half non-fiction piece of piece non-fiction half fiction a half in toavoid isbetter forthissolution the reasons Interpreting , 32-33. A striking difference of Drakuli ü ü ü herself finding the article in is that the refusal of the nation states and the emigration is not as , The Balkan Express ü , Letter from Belgrade, August 1992.InIvekovi August Belgrade, , Letterfrom ü the main issue is the loss of individuality in the war. When 269 speaking in the well-known us–them dichotomy. Drakuli , 143. ü , when shespeaks aboutthefaceless refugees, who Vreme ü ü and even wrote an article for a forBelgrade article evenwrote an and 82 , compared to the texts of Ugreši insensible of the horrors of the wars. ü etal.1994,272. ü uses a pseudonym for her ü would rather belong to a to belong wouldrather ü , 268 ü The Balkan , one of 270 Inthe ü and The 267 ü CEU eTD Collection 273 272 homeland” and she “believed “Overcomethat borders, as well by as Nationhood”,nationalities,mentions existed onlythat beenin at “the theborn whole beginning there,territorynew nation – instead of refusing it as her country, her city, refusing even to have or ofinstead ex-Yugoslavia of the of choosingessay was [her] which to be “other”was quoted or “no one”in this –, she paragraph, still 271 right”. Dubrovnik one cannot “tear off the shirt of the suffering nation”, “it wouldn’t be reduction of herself to“one of 4.5 million Croats”, she thinks that after Vukovar and war and the attackmetaphor on Croatia.is used, which For allowsIn the lackspite for of choiceno choice.of andall the At violent herleast, natureinner as Drakuli of the resistancenational ideology even to a war-accept the nationality, by changing it arbitrarily: over one’s body by war, but also by the loss of the control control”. over the choice of the the same”,belonged to me, that“it it was me, but my perceptionfelt of my theown bodybath, was noshe longer has likethe feeling that her bodyAfter watchingan news on the TV in 1991is December, the author-narratornot is sittinghers alienin any more: “I knew all that body moving mechanically, no longer in my bare blood and flesh, the relationship to the own body becomes central for Drakuli break-out of the war, which broughtexplained to the alongWestern colleaguesa new approach with the help of a self-drawnto the humanmap, and by bodythe as ibid., 52. ibid., 51. ibid., Drakuli 273 The control over the body is lost not only by the relativisation of the control of the the relativisation by only not lost is body the over control The The individuality problems awoke by the break-up of the homeland, am not aperson any more. I am one of 4.5 million Croats. to us, reducing us to one dimension: the Nation.national […] homogenization I am withinnobody Croatia itself. because That is what the war wasI doing but and bytheoutsideFederal pressure formSerbia the Armyonly by not – of nationhood wall the to pinned was I Croats, of millions with Along ü 271 On the other hand, although she is more inclining to accept Croatia as her , The Balkan Express , 48. 83 272 ü interprets the ü . CEU eTD Collection this difference is completelyvolume this in Bloc, Soviet the in ignored.countries communist the from different respects This experience is presented by Ugrešiof the mostbasic, commonplace remarks on Yugoslavia that itwas inmany change in the approach to Yugoslavia magazineand its place in Europe, sincefounded while Europeit to writeis articles forone the by Gloria Steinem. This might be a reason for the paradigm American publisher and the idea came after Drakuli theidea cameafter American and publisher book with memories and education. ideologies in the new democracy, for dissidentmovement, thusevenher responsible for success the of the undemocratic it is also a cultural and personalwhich identity, did not allow space for the development a civil sphere or a democratic else.” sentiments, as if her “whole life has been wrong, one big mistake, a lie and nothing though she feels deprived of her past,borders, her childhood since and education, “there memories is no andway back” and the new borders “teach a new reality”, 277 276 275 274 comments concern national identity. They are ambiguous [and] flat.” and other matters with an air of a child or an uninformed outsider. Many of her forced Croat identity, however destructive Drakuli nationality. quoted the 1.5 million people who in thecensus in 1980 marked “Yugoslav” as their remembers the Yugoslav times as an age when nationality did not matter and blood. Later merelyin the volume, constructed, in an epistolary without essay realwritten weight, to her daughter,until it shebecame a matter of flesh and people’s heads.” Drakuli Ivo Banac,“Misreading theBalkans,” 129. ibid., 50. ibid., 277 How We Survived Communism The communistThe Yugoslavia ispresenteda different perspective from in the In Although she is several times critical about the communist state, as one ü , Balkan Express Balkan The Balkan Express 275 As Ivo As Banac comments on these texts: “She comments on those 274 It seems that for Drakuli , these statements about Yugoslavia mix with theaccepted , 57-58. Foreign Ms. . The essays in the book were written for an magazine, an important American feminist Policy 84 93 (Winter 1993/1994): 178. 1993/1994): 93(Winter ü , nationality and homeland were ü finds that. Sheaccepts the new ü travelled allaround Eastern 276 ü by a CEU eTD Collection 279 against Westernme, feminism writing (though her resistancethat being totheory and peoplealsotheorised islike aremarkto a thesis in the about bookmatter” andanswer the questions, “because they areallwrong”. it heris a asWestern a feminist,discourse, Critical Theory, etc., the answer ofDrakuli feminist, this who,book stanceas about sheEast takes European is not women.only For her questions about essentialism, public 278 American journalist/academic colleague turns to Drakuli to turns colleague journalist/academic American becomesit clearinthe Letteressay “A from theUnited States”, where the vague stories about cooking/shopping/chatting women also stand for this aim, but remarkable is the very strong stance towards theorising feminism. Probably these text moreannoyingthe than enjoyable. Theelement which makes thebookmore makes This themselves. deconstructing constantly are differentiation, of sign any about women, which pretend to present them as individuals, eventually diminishing available in Eastern Europe, then it must be rather before the changes. The stories suspect that if the time of thewith narrated storiesthe is whenmost sanitarybetween all the countries in Eastern Europe. The time basicis not specified either,napkins one were notmemories aboutwith thelack of basicproducts like sanitary napkins. the late usually very1980s traditional ones: cooking, speaking about their husbands, struggling and earlystories about individual women all over Eastern Europe, in everyday situations, 1990s bookcan about Eastonly European women ridiculous,enterprise of an American she journalist does or academicexactly woman (this theis not clear) same. to edit a She tells themselves moreWestern,civilised. more Balkans, although before the war Yugoslavs had all the reasons to consider narration of a trip to Moscow as a citizen from the country in the gloomy, dirty Drakuli Ugreši However, in this book there is no difference between these women and ü ü 1996,77. , How We Survived , 1993,127-128. 85 278 While Drakuli ü is the refusal to“discuss this ü with her idea about the about idea her with ü herself finds the 279 Besides the fact CEU eTD Collection 283 assumption of theessay suggests, nationalism. One of these is the radical one, and these, as the declared basic 282 of women’sparticipate place in nationalism it is in a inrelationshipless violentrelation form.” to the ‘Other’ the is different to from thatnationalism, of men, hence even when women Ivekovi explication in the essay published in the feminist journal 281 are born pacifists”. from the 26 is letter (the out broke just war which the about news the and calls phone keys, War” the war.the Ivekovi of the various women’s groupsattitudes and women canorganisations have to war, and what is represented also in the largetaking variety Thesevarious positions towardslines are trying to explain somethingfemale reader – gives a short analysis about this relation: epistolary essayabout addressed to her daughter – so, in a text with a female author theand complicated system of 280 Ivekovi general. shown by Drakuli Ivekovi Letter from Paris, 26 Ivekovi Drakuli othering 281 In the letter already quoted here, Ivekovi It is fascinating to compare the feminism of Drakuli republics‘radical ’ at the end of the twentieth century operative in the of the former Yugoslavia are both mechanisms of binary, dual support, lobby and work against it. exercise orders, helpNot and workas for women,warwomen – ordon’t they participate, protest, give butor conductboycott, or asdecide withdraw birth. aboutcitizens.At bottom, war isa man’s game.wars, Perhaps it ismuch easier to kill ifyoubecause don’t they do.But I Asam citizensreluctant they to contribute, say what should support, follow hail, from this: that addresses the same issue. ü ü ü ü , when they write about the same topic, women and war. Drakuli , 1993,113. 1993. The Balkan Express th ofwomen by nationalist discourse, stating that “women’s identity and June 1991). The relationship between women and war receives a real ü , once inthe letters and inher most famous essay “Make Love Not ü th , attempts it in her ignorance), but also against theorisation in 282 June 1991. Ivekovi June1991. Thesentence is between many other thoughts about house , 134. ü etal.1994,15. 86 280 ü hastily pronounces that “women 283 ü Inaddition to the analysis defines several types of Hypatia ü and the feminism of . Ivekovi ü looksat ü in her CEU eTD Collection the free travelling and constant commuting between therepublics, by the mixed family and married a Bosnian man and the basic experience of whom was Ivekovi For Yugoslavia. of conceptualisation the extent higher even an to avoid authors two other the that seems replaced by a new one, so will the attachment to the former country disappear. It 285 284 regardlessbelieve that women are the ofonly victims [ofsex, war]; the“none ofwhole this [her arguments aboutpopulation the anti-femininity of war] should induce us to is regardlessa victim, patriarchal nature of war and nationalism. Nevertheless, Ivekovi ofpopuli nation.” childhood she thins about the country is indeed nostalgic. The symbol of Yugoslav unity Erwartungshorizont visible, though the political strength and in this way the Koselleckian almost confederative variance.Yugoslavia. It is Ugreši Definitions varysufferings when they become victims of war. from the federalnot change either their possibilities to chose a position in relationstate to war or their of thenationalism, they agree that bothYugoslav sexes have a citizen-side too, where gender does nationcompletely to the different betweentools them, even under the second Yugoslavia. While shefor and Drakuli showing the differentnationalism oftherepublics, hereshe acknowledges theunderlying animosities attitude of women to war and The argumentation goes on with theories on letters and the essay is the vision of Yugoslavia: although Ivekovi ibid., 119. ibid., 116. ibid., , theories and interpretation of castration and further proofs for the It is not easy to draw an overall picture about the three authors’ concept of advanced phase of a previous from of nationalism. nationalism’oppositions and that they invariably led to war in theI longmean run. By ‘radical either a very belligerent nationalism and/or an po þ etnica becomes diminished by her own acknowledgement that the way , a created common culture, and as the old 87 ü 285 , by whom the most coherent notion is ü , who was born in aCroatian–Serbian born in was , who Interesting difference between the guerre fratricide 284 , murder of the po ü ü emphasises that þ still opposes the etnica has to be ü have is her is pater CEU eTD Collection concept, manage to go against the the past and expressing the need for havethe a reading maintenance audience with a certain of the concept at leastletters, novels and publishing as them, a the texts step into play on another field. They of such a statecase of theis three notauthors, leavesan theoption the realmplace of these of concepts political too. The concept of Yugoslavia,action,any as it is dealtwhen with in more.thethe possibilitycomparison. However, The combinationto andof by thewhichby theoriesthey arewriting defined ofcan beKoselleck significantlyauthors can be called pro-Yugoslavdifferentand andof feminist, the Jaußconcepts they evenconstantly refer theinhelp a synchronic us toessays, see state. communist nationality,memory”-type of approach to the references to mixed whilemarriages or a census about already all of writetheseappearance of the borders, Yugoslavia ceasedit to standexist. In the above,texts of Drakuli opposed we see a tocomplete the very confusion, roughly drawnfrom thefailed “childhood and This chapter has hopefully managed to show that although all the three Erwartungshorizont Erwartungshorizont 88 and destabilise it. , and by turning towards by turning , and ü , as I CEU eTD Collection 287 286 female”. was continuously centred around “the power relations between male and a lesser degree, to men, and therefore can and should be changed” pleasure, power, and sensibility are socially created, detrimental to women, and, to In both periods,political contexts, while their corethe concept or core definition remained unchanged.feminist counter-discursive position twostandpoint completely in different rulingdiscourses andsocio- wascounterdiscourse givenperiods. As seen, inthe wehave feminism preserved its that the “genderformer Yugoslavia brought upseveral concepts structuring thedivisions feminist Comparingof work, two periods of theConclusion in the successor states of the social good. social convinced that their conceptbetween of equality guarantees men allcommunists understood itas otherthe end of the class struggle, the feministsand asequality types of womenequality andthe in communist all spheresexample is the term “equality” in the communist period,party when both feminists and ofstate life.was also a politicalpromoted struggle Moreover, over the meanings of certainthe thediscourse concepts. A paradigmaticconcept,and the agendaboth organised only not ofconcepts central the both hand, other On the these. within those feminism of in withpower them and the feminists’,different were butcounterdiscourses there meanings.There were various concepts also organising both the mainstream- and the The different from words in theof sense thattwo they have a discourse-arrangingperiodstheir significance. capability. of Yugoslav and post-Yugoslav history, and Freeden, 1996,491. Freeden, 1989, 234-235. Ruddick In Koselleck’s approach, on which I relied to a great extent, concepts are 287 However, the concepts which define these relations have changed in 89 286 and feminism and CEU eTD Collection dominant discourse. those who have the right for usagedivision and definition, betweenof the refusal the By feminism appropriation. this against go to had body, this of definition strongly those opposed who the violatefield the bodyfor bodyastheprimary the as individualsand of women concept abode bythe still (ofthe women practices and ofnation the wasnation) impossible, ofsinceand Rape onepower cannotas domestic rape one’s overownviolence body.for the concept The offeminists, rape,orwomen, butas strictly a crime onlywho by the exclusion thecommitted nation itself.of certain The appropriationand meanings of the concept of ofby it.the body alsothus someonemeant the claim body fromstill within the propagatedconsequence of the war, the violations on the country became violations on the for a there- conceptualisationundefined and for the re-conceptualisation of which they fought for. The struggle control the female body. That concept, which the feminists in the 1970s found still discourse, their language contested the feminist one for theof power to define and the bodyrelations betweenmenand womenbecame more valorised for mainstreamthe influencedalso meant that rape, as the sharpest and most physical opposition in the power othermotherhood. Thus, conceptsits meanings by mostlydefined meanings, towards other was shifted or materiality, for nature were expanded onto asthe bodywere well. alsoof thereplaced nation. by other This onesAs in the earlya 1990s. The body, which so farmainstream discourse. stood redefinition of the body also meant a reinterpretation of the Marxist tradition of the conditioned by itsthe relationship body Revolutionto became central due to natureits misuse in the term “sexual revolution”, while was and materialism. definition for feminists thein the counter-discursive period of the 1970s and 1980s. Atultimate the same time, the defining principle of “men” and “women”, pre- of the nation, and since the country had already became a nation state, thus With the change of the mainstream discourse, the previous core concepts Revolution and the body were the further important concepts with contested 90 CEU eTD Collection 288 there, in the second period thispresent feminism became in a grassroots and formedmovement. Two of by intogroups,themselves stood upandprotested. the academiacontested concepts influencing their andown individual lives, they did organise intellectual women and some men protest, as the CZŽŽR’s letter also argues,of the statealso the controlallowed over who can be raped by whom. Since the democratic constitution womento the “nature” to of theorganise conceptbodies. This concernedof not only the controlthe over the reproductive rights,body which, due of the themselvesnation, wasbody already central, politics butintoand philosophy, and the space for individualgroups, self-expression was literature, the of standtheextent. While in the 1970snation andup 1980s genderand equality wasmainstream an issue of highstate politics discourse demandedto the contributed democratisation not been control duringto communism,the a structuralgrassroots mass movement. overThis isof onlychanges partly the due the atinstitutions, least SKJ, was attacked and representedindividual in the “witch-trial” as a feminist. to the same member of any thefeminist groups, female changefor her membership andcollaborators of previous the regime. Thisactive ishow Jelena Lovri participationof core in the conceptsthe formainstreamMarxism. In the thenew discourse, exactly for the attempts to redefine the concepts of representativesfeministswere enemies in theeyes of communistthe state, theywere seen as of discoursediscourse, theya fought against. By the attemptsWestern to re-appropriate concepts, thebourgeois new counter-definitions ofthe conceptsdiscursive of the mainstream, ideologystate-controlled discourse, in whichfeminists hassituation nothing to do withof thewere 1990s seenmarked theirand commitmentrepresented to the as the “Letter of the CZŽŽR to Vera Stani toVera CZŽŽR ofthe “Letter Therefore, while the first period of feminism examined here was primarily In the second period, from the early 1990s on, feminism became what ithad The central concepts of feminism in the previous period, which were ü ,” 2003. 91 288 and since the same power, the state ü , who has never been CEU eTD Collection individuals in their personal narratives. of also but discourse, impersonal anof activity a communal only not is concepts On theexamples ofthe threeauthorsbecomes it visible how the fight over ofYugoslavia. break-up the herworkby appeared in feminist modality and political text, has never participated in feminist movements, but a more straightforward feminist texts. On the other hand, Dubravkacontact with the grassroots movements, but kept on supportingUgresi it and writing the most significant founding mothers, Slavenka Drakuli 92 ü , the third major figure in this ü and Rada Ivekovi ü lost CEU eTD Collection Anniversary issueof thejournal Anniversary Women’s Information Centre [Ženska Infoteka]. Information Centre [Ženska Women’s of the conference world “The answer”; as political “Feminism ‘no’”; means – that ‘no’ says a woman “If as woman”; with herposition confrontation andthe author “Woman of Feminism”; years No. 10.“20 Appendix I Kruh ruže , commemorating the 1978 conference. Text on the title page: Text onthe conference. the 1978 commemorating , 93 CEU eTD Collection The Appendix II. Globus -article from 11 from -article th December 1992 94 CEU eTD Collection © Globus 95 CEU eTD Collection Crocker, David A. Cockburn, Cynthia. “The Anti-Essentialist Choice: Nationalism and Feminism in the ý “Cry For Help.” (news program) CBS, producer. English language. 14 min. 4 Deleuze, Gilles and Michel Foucault. “Intellectuals and Politics.” In Cerjan-Letica, Gordana. “Ameri Carver, Terrel. “Discourse Analysis and the ‘Linguistic Turn’.” Calling the Ghosts / Prozivanje Duhove Butler, Judith. Brownmiller, Susan. Bosanac, Gordana. “Blaženka Despot.” “Blaženka Gordana. Bosanac, Blaževi Black, Max. Blagojevi ______. Bal, Mieke. Banac, Ivo. “Misreading the Balkans.” “Misreading Ivo. Banac, Andri Bibliography uvalo, Ante. uvalo, ü , Iris, Djordje Mati No. 4(2000): 611–629. Interaction betweenTwo Women's Projects.” Conflict in the former Yugoslavia Container list: Video cassettes VHS) cassettes Video list: Container Yugoslavia former the in Conflict Former inthe Conflict the to Relating Law Institute Rights Human International the YugoslaviaFebruary 1993. OSA 304-0-16: 15 (HU OSA 304-0-16 Fonds 304: Records of 1983. (IHRLI)Markovi Series 16: Video Recordingsmovement). Relating to the 1977. 205-217. Counter-Memory, and Practice, UP, 1990. Science min. Croatia, 1996. Jelincic. Original language: English, Serbo-Croatian. Subtitles: English. 63 New York: Routledge, 1993. Schuster, 1975. 3-20. 45-48. Women's Studies, Research and Communication, 1994. Ourselves: East European Feminist Conference Ithaca and New York: Cornell UP (Cornell Paperbacks), [1984] 1993. Cornell UP, 1962. 182. Rende, 2005. by Christine van Boheemen. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, c1997. ü , Dunja “Idealna žena” (Ideal, Dunjažena” woman), “Idealna ü , Marina, Daša Duha The National Question inYugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative of Theory the to Introduction Narratology: Models and Metaphors: Studies in Language and Philosophy. The Croatian Nationalist Movement 1966–1972. Vol. 2. No. 1(2002): 50-53. ü Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. and Stojanovi and Praxis and Democratic Socialism: The Critical Social Theory of Žena Against Our Will. Men, Women and Rape. ü Vol. 34. No. 5(1976): 60-65. , Vladimir Arsenijevi ü þ . þ ek and Jasmina Luki New Jersey: Humanity and Sussex: Harvester, ki feministi ed. Donald F. Bouchard. Ithaca: Cornell UP, Foreign Kruh iruže 96 . Directed by Mandy Jacobson, Karmen þ ü kipokret” (The American feminist . ed. Policy Književne novine No. 16(Autumn/Winter 2001): Leksikon YU-Mitologije. Nations and Nationalism 93 (Winter 1993/1994): 173- ü . ed. . Belgrade: Center for What can We do for New York: Columbia London: Simon and , 2 European Political 25March 1980. nd ed London and . Translated Language, , 3 Ithaca: Zagreb: Vol. 6. rd ed. th CEU eTD Collection Feldman, Andrea. “Uz dvadesetgodina neofeminizma u Hrvatskoj” (To twenty years “Društvena svijest, marksisti svijest, “Društvena ______. “Žena i seksualna revolucija” (Women and sexual revolution). ______. “Spolni odgoj i seksizam. Marijan Koši ______. ______. “Egy keleti feminista Nyugaton. Feminizmus ésdemokrácia” (An Eastern Drakuli ______. ______. ______. Drakuli Djoki Djilas [ ______. “Žensko pitanje u socijalisti ______. Despot, Blaženka. “Women and Self-Management.” ______. “Semiology and Rhetoric.” In Derrida, Jacques. de Man, Paul. “Autobiography as De-Facement.” In ü , Dejan. ed. of neofeminism in Croatia). Žena – today). emancipation women’s and theory Marxist consciousness, (Social No. 13. Vol. 2(1980) 45-50. education Zagreb, 1972” (Sexual education and sexism. Marijan Koši (Mortal Sins of Feminism. Essays on Testicology). Zagreb: Znanje, 1984. Penguin, 2001. (First published: Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora], 1988.) 2000, Feminist in the West. Feminism and Democracy). Translated by Dóra Puszta. Parts translated by Maja Soljan. London: Hutchinson, c1993. Feral Tribune, 1999.) [1994] 1995. (First published: [1992] 1993. Zagreb: Grafi London: W.W. Norton & Co., 1992. (FirstHurst, 2003. published:Petrovich. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, c1962. published in published and socialist self-management) Zagreb: Cekade, 1987. A Yugoslav Monthly. University of Chicago Press, c1981. New York: Columbia UP, 1984. 67-81. question in the socialist self-management) In 1979. 3-19. Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust ü ü -Ili , Slavenka. Ĉ ilas], Milovan. ü S.: A Novel about the Balkans Marble Skin Žensko pitanje i socijalisti [Drakuli Vol. 40. No. 2-3 (1982): 44-91. Holograms of Fear of Holograms How We Survived and Even Laughed 1995. No. 5. 42–45. . Textbook Yugoslavism: Histories of a Failed Idea, 1918-1992. Socijalizam þ Balkan Express: Fragments from the Other Side of the War Dissemination ü ki zavod Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora], 1987.) ], Slavenka. . Translated byGreg Mosse. New York: Harper Perennial, Conversations with Stalin. March 1981. 34-38. , Zagreb, 1972). þ ka teorija i emancipacija žena – danas” (Debate) danas” žena emancipacija – i ka teorija , Belgrade, No. 11. 1984. 1859-1870.) . Translated by Ellen Elias-Bursa . Translated by Barbara Johnson. Chicago: byBarbara Johnson. . Translated Kruh iruže Kruh Smrtni grijesi feminizma. Ogledi u mudologiji þ Kao dema nema ko samoupravljanje. 97 Mramorna koža. Allegories of Reading: Figural Language in þ . Translated by Marko Ivi kom samoupravljanju.” (The woman Žena No. 10 (Winter 1999): 3-8. . New Haven: Yale University Press, University Yale Haven: . New , Vol. 37. No. 1 (1979): 65-70. þ ek: . NewYork: Harper Perennial, Socialist Thought and Practice. and Thought Socialist The Rhetoric ofRomanticism Translated by Michael B. Žena Društvoi Spolni odgoj Spolni [As if I wasn’t there] Split: Zagreb: Grafi Zagreb: (The woman question Hologrami straha. Hologrami ü . New York and . Skolska knjiga ü 39-47. (First þ . New York: London: C. ek: þ ki zavod ki Dometi Sexual , . . CEU eTD Collection ______. “Neofeminism in Yugoslavia. A Closer Look.” In Yugoslavia.” in New Feminism “The Barbara. Jancar, ______. Ivekovi ______. “Women, Nationalism and War: ‘Make Love not War’.” ______. “Tudni éscselekedni –válaszúton an Ženska Infoteka, “How the “Herakway ofTrial emancipation Part 1 and In 1945-95.” Writers Women “Croatian Celia. Hawkesworth, Part 2.” (trialand organising proceedings) Court of womenTV, producer. in English ______. “Studije______. “Što je to feminizam?” (What is feminism?), interview by Vivijana o Ženi i Ženski Pokreti” (Studies on women and women’s Ivekovi Hacking, Ian. ______. Genette, Gérard. ______. Freeden, Michael. “Concepts, Ideology and Political Theory.” In Pedro Ramet. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1985. 200-223 Antkowiak et al. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1993. by Translated andBarbara Nationalism). WomenaboutWar between 1994. (The Wind Goes to the South and Turns to the North). Belgrade: Radio B92, (1988): 1-30. jug iobr No. 4(Fall 1993): 113-126. Belgrade, No. 8-9, 1981. 5-48) Ilona Sirkó. Ilona women Translated Hungarianby atto act: into (To knowand crossroads). http://www.zinfo.hr/engleski/pages/faq/organiziranjezena.htm Croatia developed?” Video cassettes VHS) Recordings Relating to the Conflict in the former Yugoslavia Container list: Relating to the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia (IHRLI) Series 16: Video 0-16 Fonds 304: Records of the International Human Rights Law Institute language. 78 + 57 min. 23 MacMillan–UCL, 2001. 256-278. European Women’s Writing Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, c1995. movements). In Radman. Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora], 1988. Republika 24 May 2007) Lewin. Cambridge: CUP, 1997. http://www.zinfo.hr/hrvatski/stranice/faq/organiziranjezena.htm ClarendonPress, 1996. Dutt. Heidelberg: Winter, c2003. 51-63. Begriffsgeschichte der ü ü , Rada, Jovanovi Biljana , Rada. “Filofozija Luce Irigaray” (The philosophy of Luce Irigaray). Briefe von Frauen über Krieg und Nationalismus Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Sporost–oporost Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory ü e senasjever /Veter gre, protipoldnevu inseobra Kruh iruže No. 7-8 (1985): 80-94. Paratexts: Thresholdsof Interpretation Létünk Žena Društvoi No. 5 (1982): 737-748. No. 9(Summer 1998): 36-44. (Challenging the history of concepts). ed. Carsten (Slowness–roughness). Zagreb: Grafi ü , MarušaKrese and Radmila Lazi April 1993. OSA 304-0-16: 27-28 (HU OSA 304- . ed. Celia Hawkesworth. London: Palgrave 9-28. (First published in 98 Ę k /Znati imo Yugoslavia inthe 1980s Women & Politics . Translated by Jane E. A History of Central ü Marksizam usvetu Herausforderungen i: žene u procjepu” (Correspondence ü Hypatia þ . a protipolno ; Vjetar ide na (Accessed þ ki zavod Vol. (8)1 Oxford: Vol. 8. , ed. þ , . i CEU eTD Collection Leys, Ruth. “The Real Miss Beauchamp: Gender and the Subject of Imitation.” In ______.______. “Nije lipornografija cini “A Response to Catharine MacKinnon's Article ‘Turning Rape Into ______. ed. ______. “Women in the Yugoslav National Liberation Movement.” In Kristeva, Julia. “Women’sKoselleck, Reinhart. Time.” Translated by León S. Roudiez. In “Letter of the CZŽŽR to Vera Stani Kodrnja, Jasenka. “Seksualna revolucija (Marginalije na temu)” (Sexual revolution. Jakobovi Lanser, Susan Sniader. “Toward a Feminist Poetics of Narrative Voice.” In ______. “Žene o ženi” (Women on women) ______. Jancar-Webster [Jancar], Barbara. [Jancar], Jancar-Webster ______. “Muslim Women, Croatian Women, Serbian Women, Albanian Women.” Kesi Lejeune, Philippe. “The Autobiographical Pact.” In Autobiographical “The Philippe. Lejeune, Katunari Jauss [Jauß], Hans Robert. “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory.” Kalanj, Radeand Kalanj, Željka Šporer. ed. Judt, Tony. ü , Vesna. “Confessions of a ‘Yugo-Nostalgic’ Witch.” In Feminists Theorize the Political. Pornography: Postmodern Genocide’.” Postmodern Pornography: August 1982. 32-33. No. 2(Summer 1994) 276-277. Politics in the Western Balkans Western the in Politics by Keith Tribe. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, c1985. [Marginaliato the topic]). 32. Later. Ten Years Republika I. Bjeli Katherine Leary. Reader No. 9(Summer 1998): 33-35. Zaborski. don’tone”), interviewbyKristina I tobe intend and In 1997. 195-200. in Eastern Europe Death). Zagreb: Naprijed, 1984. 1992. 3-24. of Authority: Women Writers and Narrative Voice. 1987. Hrvatske, društvo Sociološko Zagreb: Dialogue) the Cultivating Society. and Translated by Elizabeth Benzinger. Denver, Colorado: Arden Press Inc., 1990. (Autumn 1970): 7-37. ü ü , Vjeran. “Nisam feminist niti to namejeravam biti” (I am not a feminist , Slavica. “Upit(a)nost ženskoga pisma” (Women’s writing in question). Balkan as Metaphor: Between Globalization and Fragmentationas Metaphor: Between Globalization Balkan Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945. Ženski eros i civilizacija smrti ü , ed. TorilMoi. Oxford: Blackwell, [1986] 1996. 187-213. and Obrad Savi Women Recollecting Memories: The Center for Woman War Victims No. 11-12 (1983): 4-6. Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time Zagreb: Center for Women War Victims, 2003. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, c1989. 3-30. , ed. Tanya Renne. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, ü . Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002. 311-322. Revija za sociologiju ü .” In þ Women & Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941-45. , 67-87. na?” (Isn’t pornography cynical?). Žena i Društvo. Kultiviranje dijaloge ed. Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott. London: Women Recollecting Memories, 99 (Female Eros and the Civilisation of Hastings Women's Law Journal New Literary History Kruh iruže Kruh On Autobiography. New York: Penguin, 2005. Vol. 5. No. 3(1975): 46-53. No. 10. Winter 1999. 28- Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell UP, Ana’s Land. Sisterhood Land. Ana’s Vol. 2 No. 1 Translated by Translated The Kristeva . Translated 189-190. Kruh iruže , ed. Dušan Start (Women Fictions Gender Vol. 5. 28 th CEU eTD Collection Pet Jasminka. Pešut, Papi Papi “No Justice, No Piece: Accountability for Rape and Gender-Based Violence in the ______. ed. “Who are the Women______. “Sexual Violence.” In Who Have Spoken?” and “A sample of their Nikoli Nave-Herz, Rosemarie. Mladjenovic [Mla MacKinnon, Catherine. “Turning Rape into Pornography: Postmodern Genocide.” In ______. “Women’s Writing and Dismemberment of the Ex-Yugoslavian Cultural Luki ______. “Átvonuló hadsereg, maradandó trauma: Az 1945-ös budapesti nemi Ę ü ü ü , Andrea. “Magyar n , Jasmina. “Women-Centered Narratives in Contemporary Serbian and , Žarana and Lydia Sklevický. “K antropologiji žene” (To the anthropology of , Žarana. “Women’s Movement in Former Yugoslavia.” In ü -Ristanovi women). http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00012/00016/23peto.htm Internationale Lettre Magyar (Hungarian[woman] authors 1968–1997.) Zagreb: Centar za Ženske Studije, 1998. women1968.–1997 and Russian soldiers. To tell or to remain silent?). Ourselves? East EuropeanFeminist Conference, [IHRLI] Series 3: Numbered Commission Document Files [''Bates File'']) Human Rights Law Institute Relating to the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia 024280-024416 (HU OSA 304-0-16 Fonds 304: Records of the International Croatian Information Centre” November 1992. HUOSA 304-0-3 Box 15 Group Former Yugoslavia.”(Washington, Materials, prepared by International Human Rights Law D.C., June 1993) and “Testimonies collected by the War: Wartime Victimization ofRefugees in the Balkans. Stories and their Letters.” (AppendicesPress, 2000. 1 and 2) in of Refugeesin theBalkans. Refugees in the Balkans. Politische Bildung, 1997. history of the women’s movements in Germany). Bonn: Bundeszentrale für Garland Publications, 2000. 247-274. Resistance, and Violence in Serbia.” In Mass Rape: The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina, against Women Rape: TheWar Mass Conference, In Milieu.” and Sibelan Forrester. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1996. 223-243. Croatian Literatures.” In Routledge, 1992. 167-214. Quoted in Ian Hacking, (Accessed 14 April 2007) http://epa.oszk.hu/00600/00617/00003/tsz99_1_2_peto_andrea.htm (1999) Remembering the1945 Budapest rapecases). 75. er 2007) Ę szak esetekemlékezete” (Army passage,in enduring trauma: ü Revija za sociologiju ÿ , Vesna. ed. enovi Ženska perspektiva – odabrana bibliografija: Radoviautorica bibliografija: –odabrana perspektiva Ženska 82-86. . (Women’s perspectives – selected bibliography. by . (Women’sperspectives –selectedbibliography. Works ed. Marguerite R. Waller and Jennifer Rycenga. New York: What Can We Do for Ourselves? East European Feminist ü ], Lepa and Donna M. Hughes. “Feminist Resistance to War Die Geschichte der Frauenbewegung in Deutschland Ę k és orosz katonák. Elmondani vagy elhallgatni?” Women, Violence and War: Wartime Victimization of Engendering Slavic Literatures, Translated by Borislav Radovi 41-78. Women, Violence and War: Wartime Victimization No. 1-2. Vol. 10 (1980): 29-45. Frontline Feminisms: Women, War, and 100 No. 32 (Spring 1998) 19-22. TörténelmiSzemle (Accessed 14 April Rewriting the Soul Women, Violence and 199-236. What Can We Do for ed.Pamela Chester ü . Budapest: CEU 73-81. No. 1-2 (The , 75- CEU eTD Collection Tax, Meredith. “The Five Croatian ’Witches’: A Casebook on ’Trial by Public Opinion’ Stiglmayer, Alexandra. ed. Slapšak, Svetlana. ed. ______. Sher, Gerson. Sklevický, Lydia. “Antifašiti ______. “Kad žena kaže ‘NE’ to zna Simi Scott, Joan W. “The Evidence of Experience.” In. Šafranek, Ingrid. “Ženska književnost i žensko pismo” (Women’s literature and Todorova, Maria. Rusinow, Sara. Ruddick, Dennison. “The Yugoslav Idea Before Yugoslavia.” In Tkalec, Jasna. “Žensko pismo – da ili ne?” (Women’s writing – yes or no?). Rose, Jacqueline. Ramet, Sabrina P. “Feminism in Yugoslavia.” In Yugoslavia.” in “Feminism P. Sabrina Ramet, Ricoeur, Paul. ______. ed. ______. “In Tito’s Time.” In ______. “Introduction." In ü , Andrei. “Machismo and Cryptomatriarchy: The Traditional Yugoslav Family.” http://www.wworld.org/archive/archive.asp?ID=157 as a Press, c1994. FormHerzegovina podiplomski humanisti ofStudies from Yugoslavia and Censorship and Intimidation. July 1, 1993.” 1996. No. 8.Vol. 9. 1977.) “no!”). In type” of woman). tipa’” (Antifascist Women’s Front –with cultural change towards a“new Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1977. 79-99. Christina Gilmartin andRobin Lydenberg. New York and Oxford: OUP, 1999. and Methodology: An Interdisciplinary Reader, women’s writing). Vol. 45. No. 3 (1987): 72-73. Histories of aFailed Idea, Women’s Press, 1989. 2005). David Pellauer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, c1983-1985. Ian Hacking, Duke UP, 1991. 197-211. the Sources and Meaning of the Great Transformation State UP, 1999. States Successor Yugoslav the and Yugoslavia Gender Politics in theWestern Balkans Konji, žene, ratovi Kruh i ruže Time and Narrative and Time Maternal Thinking: Towards a Politics of Peace. Gender Politics in the WesternBalkans: Women and Society in Praxis: Marxist Criticism and Dissent in Socialist Yugoslavia. Imagining the Balkans Sexuality in the Field of Vision. . Translated by Marion Faber. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Rewriting the Soul the Rewriting Gordogan War Discourse, Women's Discourse: Essays and Case- Republika No. 10 (Winter 1999): 16-21. (First published in ü ka front žena – kulturnom mijenom do žene ‘novog þ Gender PoliticsGender intheWestern Balkans Mass Rape:The WaragainstWomenin Bosnia- ni študij, 2000. (Horses, women, wars). Zagreb: Ženska Infoteka, Ženska Zagreb: women, wars). (Horses, Gender Politics in the Western Balkans Western inthe Politics Gender 11-26. . Vol. 3. Translated by Kathleen McLaughlin and , Vol. 6. No. 15-16 (1984): 73-111. No. 11-12 (1983): 7-28. , 75-75. . New York and Oxford: Oxford UP, 1997. 101 þ Russia. Ljubljana: ISH - Fakulteta za i ‘NE!’” (If a woman says “no”, it means , 11-29. Social Currents in Eastern Europe: London: Verso, 1986. Quoted in Feminist Approaches to Theory to Approaches Feminist . Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania ed.Sharlene Hesse-Biber, (Accessed 11 February Boston, Mass.: The . Durham–London: , 3-10. , 89-105. Yugoslavism: Pitanja Žena CEU eTD Collection ______. “Surovo žensko pismo” (Brutal women’s writing). Vukadinovi Ungváry, Krisztián. ______. Ženska______. Infoteka. “Witches from Rio” ______. Zlatar, Andrea. Zlatar, Zuppa, Jelena. “Žena pisac i sou Zubak, Marko. “The Croatian Spring: Interpreting the Communist Heritage in Post- ______. “Jer mi smo de ______. “How the way of emancipation and organising of women in Croatia Žmega ______. Ugreši ü ü Liber, 1980. Russian prose movement in the Russian-Soviet prose of the 1970s). Translated by Ladislaus Löb. New Haven: Yale UP, c2005. 5-6 (1988): 163-166. Hawkesworth. NY: New Directions, 1999. http://www.zinfo.hr/engleski/pages/faq/vjestice/VjesticeIzRia.htm 2003. November and December 1978.) Belgrade: Asocijacija za ženske inicijative, decembar 1978 [Biblioteka Zora], 1983.) bajka: Life] Zagreb: Grafi Zagreb: Life] Štefica Cvek u raljama života.Henry Patchwork story Heim. London: Dalkey Archiv Press, 2005. (Originally published as 1994): 30-35. No. 6(1980): 50-62. 24 May 2007) author and the confrontation with her position as awoman”). Croatia.” Communist 105-106. Heim. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern UniversityPress, 1993. developed?” (Accessed 23 May 2007) Ljevak, 2004. (Text,tear, trauma: Essays oncontemporary women’s literature) Zagreb: Hawksworth. London: Phoenix, 1996. http://www.zinfo.hr/hrvatski/stranice/faq/organiziranjezena.htm , Dubravka. , Viktor. “Letter to the Editor.” ü The Museum of Unconditional Surrender of Unconditional Museum The Lend Me Your Character. Nova ruska proza Nova ruska , Dragica. ed. , Dragica. Fording the Stream of Consciousness [metaterxies] Tekst, tijelo, trauma: Ogledi o suvremenoj ženskoj književnosti ženskoj osuvremenoj Ogledi trauma: tijelo, Tekst, http://www.zinfo.hr/engleski/pages/faq/organiziranjezena.htm The Siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II. The Culture of Lies: Antipolitical Essays. (Comrade-ess: retrospective press collection onOctober, þ þ ki zavod Hrvatske [Biblioteka Zora], 1981. and Zora], 1981. [Biblioteka Hrvatske ki zavod ki” (Because weare just kids). [Life isaFairy Tale] Zagreb: Grafi East Central Europe Central East Drug-ca: retro presarijum za oktobar, novembar i kretanja u ruskoj sovjetskoj prozi 70-ih godina 70-ih prozi sovjetskoj uruskoj kretanja þ enje s vlastatim položajem žene” (The woman as Translated by Celia Hawkesworth and Michael 102 Literatur und Kritik Vol. 32 (2005): 191-225. . Translated by Celia . Translated by Michael Henry [Steffie Speck in the Jaws of Kruh iruže Vol. 28 (April 1993): Republika Translated by Celia þ ki zavod Hrvatske No. 1(Spring Žena Vol. 44. No. (Accessed Vol. 38. Zagreb: Život je Život (New ;