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Appendices for Chapter 6

Appendix A: Public Memory and Memorialization of

Appendix B: Narrative Therapy

Appendix C: Analysis Prompts for Text-Based and Visual Sources

Appendix D: The History of Blackbirding

Appendix E: Modern Wage

Appendix A: Public Memory and Memorialization of Blackbirding

Sources 1-4

Appendix A: Source 1

Prereading Prompt: This art, which Helen Stacey Bunton (third author of this chapter) created using digitally layered historic images and text, is entitled Recruiting South Seas Labourers. The captain of a slaving ship, W.T. Wawm, painted the original watercolor. Meaning is conveyed through the intertwined imagery and primary source extracts, which bond Sources 6, 7, and 8. Helen Stacey Bunton’s selection of a club’s handle as an artistic border illustrates the violence associated with recruitment. Pay close attention to how the text connects with the image.

Embedded Sources:

Image: Wawm, W. T. (1892). Recruiting labourers in the south sea islands, watercolour, V*/col L R/1, Mitchell Library, State Library of NSW.

Texts:

Towns, E. R. (1863). Letter, 29th May, : ‘To any missionary into whose hand this may come.’ In F. H. L. Paton (1885). The kingdom in the Pacific (pp. 22-25). United Council of Missionary Education.

Wawm, W. (1885). The Royal Commission report (as cited in F. H. L. Paton’s (1885, p. 24.) The kingdom in the Pacific. United Council of Missionary Education.).

N.A. (n.d.). The Kanaka labour traffic, in James Paton (Ed.). (1891). John G. Paton: Missionary to the (n.p.n.).

Note: A cartographer and mariner, commanded labour trafficking vessels between Australia and the Pacific Islands from 1875-1894.

Border: Carved staff (detail), New Hebrides, c.1870s. Bunton F.H.L. Paton Collection.

Thinking Prompt: What is the artist trying to convey? What meaning can be extracted from each of the three primary source extracts? In the image? In the borders? How are the messages expressed in the art in its entirety greater than the sum of its elements (i.e., primary source extracts, image, and borders)?

Appendix A: Source 2

Prereading Prompt: This song, which was created by David Bunton (second author of this chapter), memorializes Blackbirding. Artists encode messages through instruments, lyrics, and, in this case, imagery. David articulated the personal and historical significance in the accompanying Composer’s Statement.

Bunton, D. (n.d.) Australian islander tribute (Pacific version). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a-NTtH1p-a0&feature=youtu.be

Thinking Prompts: How do the descendants contextualize and express the historical significance and modern meaning of Blackbirding? What is the artist trying to convey? How did he encode messages visually, textually, and musically?

Appendix A: Source 3

Prereading Prompt: These are three journalistic attempts to document one little-known aftermath of Blackbirding. The first two are newspaper articles and the final is an accompanying video reporting how descendants of orphaned Australian Aboriginal children taken back to Pacific islands with the Blackbirded laborers in the early 1900s search for long-separated family in Australia.

Graue, C. (2018, May 4). ‘They call us Australians’: descendants of search for long lost family. ABC News: Pacific Beat. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-05/descendants-of-indigenous-australians-in- vanuatu-seek-reunions/9726102

Elston, R. (2018, October 5). ‘Tears of joy’: Indigenous descendants from Vanuatu begin family search. SBS News. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/tears-of-joy-indigenous- descendants-from-vanuatu-begin-family-search

Elston, R. (2018, May 14). ‘Tears of joy’: Indigenous descendants from Vanuatu begin family search.” SBS News. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zn8Tbp2pNRE

Thinking Prompt: How do the descendants contextualize and express the historical significance and modern meaning of Blackbirding?

Appendix A: Source 4

Prereading Prompt: The final source, from State Library of ’s CitizenJ project, contains archived oral histories from descendants of nine Blackbirding victims.

The CitizenJ Project (n.d.). Australian 150 years: What does it mean? Exploring the Future in Journalism. http://citizenj.edgeqld.org.au/megastories/australian- south-sea-islanders-150-years-what-does-it-mean/

Sinnamon, M. (2019, March 24). Australian South Sea Islanders having a voice. State Library of Queensland. http://blogs.slq.qld.gov.au/assi/2019/03/24/australian-south-sea- islanders-having-a-voice/

Thinking Prompt: How do the descendants contextualize and express the historical significance and modern meaning of Blackbirding?

Appendix B: Narrative Therapy

Note: David Bunton’s (second author of this chapter) narrative therapy to the aforementioned Reverend Dr. John G. Paton.

Appendix C: Analysis Prompts for Text-Based and Visual Sources

Source # Text-Based Sources

Who wrote this? Why was it written? Who is the audience? What did the author want to convey to the audience? What is are most important aspects of this? Why was this assigned? Where do you see connections between this and other sources? Source # Visual Sources

Why was it created? What is the creator trying to convey? How did the creator encode messages? What is are most important aspects of this? Why was this assigned for you to examine? Where do you see connections between this and other sources?

Appendix D: The History of Blackbirding

Sources 5-16

Appendix D: Source 5

Prereading Prompt: Secondary sources are written long after the event or era. This secondary source, which was created for this inquiry by the authors, contextualizes Blackbirding on a timeline of chattel slavery and quasi-slavery.

Chattel slavery’s beginning is often traced to 1619 when the Dutch brought captive Africans to Jamestown, Virginia. Over three centuries, between 10 and 20 million enslaved humans were taken from Africa. Britain abolished the , but not chattel slavery, in 1807. Chattel slavery continued unabated for decades in British colonies until 1833. Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation (1863) and Blackbirding—enslavement via deceit or seizure—in the Pacific emerged around the same time: Blackbirding on a small scale in 1847 and large-scale from 1863. In 1865 in the , slavery officially ended, though white Americans’ reactionary resistance intimidated, marginalized, and regulated formerly enslaved citizens. In the Pacific over the next 40 years, more than 50,000 islanders—mostly male youths and adults—were captured or deceptively hired as workers whose hard labors resulted in death rates of nearly one-third. Blackbirding, though ostensibly contractual, resulted in quasi-slavery to the victims and in untethered communities to those women and children left behind. History has obscured the impact of Blackbirding on Vanuatu, the and and other locales that many readers, particularly American students, might fail to locate on a map. Blackbirding did not formally end for decades. In the early 20th century, most formerly enslaved—or Blackbirded— were deported under a . As readers will see, the remnants of Blackbirding remain both inside and far beyond Australia. Interested classes can watch the video of prominent scholars speaking on Blackbirding (linked below). Clive Moore, a history professor, spoke about the history of Blackbirding. Reid Mortensen, a law professor, spoke about Blackbirding in 1860s-era Australian courts. Paul Malai Mae, who is from the Solomon Islands, spoke about the community experiences relating to Blackbirding.

Source: Davis, E. M. (2014, September 19). Courting Blackness symposium: The University of Queensland, St Lucia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=9&v=9GuXApw-7cw

Thinking Prompt: What new information did you learn? What questions do you have?

Appendix D: Source 6

Prereading Prompt: This primary source is an artistic representation of a Blackbirding vessel. Pay attention to the date and details within the artistic rendering.

Source: Seizure of the Blackbirding schooner “Daphne” and its cargo by the Her Majesty’s Ship (HMS) “Rosario” in 1869. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3503946

Thinking Prompt: What must it have taken to keep so many people captive?

Appendix D: Source 7

Prereading Prompt: This primary source is a photograph of Blackbirded field workers. Pay attention to the title and date.

Source: South Sea Islanders working in a field, c 1870-1900. Queensland State Archives, Digital Image ID 22994. https://www.sea.museum/2017/08/25/australias-slave-trade

Thinking Prompt: What must it have taken to force so many people to work for meager or no pay?

Appendix D: Source 8

Prereading Prompt: This oral history shares the boat working experiences of a victim of Blackbirding. Pay attention to who experienced and who shared the story along with how this oral history connects to the previously-analyzed documents.

“He was only a boy at the time, just a teenager. He and his friends were all playing on the beach. And these white men came and said, ‘Come in and have a look at the boats.’ So, they went onto the boat, and they took them down below the deck, and the next thing they were gone, out to sea! A lot of them still got away even when they were way out to sea. A lot of them got out and dived over the side. But with no land in sight, the poor fellows must have drowned. That is how my father told me.”

Source: Moore, C. (1979, p. 15) The forgotten people.

Thinking Prompt: How are the claims in this oral history corroborated by other sources? Considering how this oral history aligns with and is connected to other texts, is this second-hand oral history credible?

Appendix D: Source 9

Prereading Prompt: This oral history shares the boat and subsequent working experiences of Kanakas, a pejorative for Blackbirded Islanders. Pay attention to who experienced and who shared the story along with how this oral history connects to the previously-analyzed documents.

“…And when they came on the ship, they grabbed them and threw them down the hold. My Grandma said that by the time the ship had gone around all the Islands, you could be on board for three months. There were many in the hold of the ship, and it was very rough in the storms and cyclones. A lot died in the hold and they just took them and threw them overboard. Those who were too sick just lay in the hold, cramped in the hold, there was not room to move or turn around. They had no sanitary conditions or anything like that and the food was just pushed down into the hold. Not much food because they said it was a waste of time to give the Kanakas much food in rough weather because they would just retch it up. She said they had a very bad journey out. They were glad to get out of the ship onto the Australian coast, but she said the conditions were just as bad out there when they had to work.”

Source: Moore, C. (1979, p. 15) The forgotten people.

Thinking Prompt: How are the claims in this oral history corroborated by other sources? Considering how this oral history aligns with and is connected to other texts, is this second-hand oral history credible?

Appendix D: Source 10

Prereading Prompt: This letter is from an owner of vast amounts of farmland who hired, or enslaved, victims of Blackbirding. Pay attention to how the writer describes the benefits of Blackbirded labor. Attend to what the writer says and, also, does not say.

“my emigration (returning them every six or twelve months) will do more towards civilising the natives in one year than you (missionaries) can do in ten. . . . the poor unsuspecting natives . . . have nothing to fear…”

Source: Towns, R. E. 1863 letter (as cited in Frank H. L. Paton’s (1885, p. 23.) The kingdom in the Pacific. United Council of Missionary Education.).

Thinking Prompt: Considering everything, is this a credible source? What are the limitations to this source? How does this source connect with other sources?

Appendix D: Source 11

Prereading Prompt: This is a government report. Pay attention to the use of the words “seduce” and “forcibly kidnapped.”

“Natives are seduced on board by false pretences [sic], some were forcibly kidnapped…the nature of their engagement was never fully explained to them.”

Source: N.A. (1885). The Royal Commission report (as cited in F. H. L. Paton’s (1885, p. 24.) The kingdom in the Pacific. United Council of Missionary Education.).

. …the method of recruitment [for Blackbirding] was cruelly deceptive and altogether illegal.”

Source: N.A. (1885). The Royal Commission report (as cited in N.A. (n.d.). The Kanaka labour traffic; or Slavery in the South Seas, in J. Paton (Ed.) (1891). John G. Paton: Missionary to the New Hebrides (p. 457)).

Thinking Prompt: Considering everything, is this a credible source? What are the limitations to this source? How does this source connect with other sources?

Appendix D: Source 12

Prereading Prompt: This is a report detailing how Kanakas, a euphemism for Blackbirded Pacific Islanders, were a cost-efficient labor force when compared to workers of European descent. Fourpence was a meager amount at the time; a shilling was worth 12 pence.

“In Queensland they wrought for fourpence per day...white labour for the same would cost at least five to eight shillings a day. The white man works eight hours a day, the poor Kanaka toils on for ten to fourteen.”

Source: N.A. (n.d.). The Kanaka labour traffic; or Slavery in the South Seas, in James Paton (Ed.) (1891) John G. Paton: Missionary to the New Hebrides (p. 455)).

Thinking Prompt: Considering everything, is this a credible source? What are the limitations to this source? How does this source connect with other sources? With 12 pence to a shilling, how many times greater were the wages of white laborers?

Appendix D: Source 13

Prereading Prompt: The Reverend Dr. John G. Paton was a missionary to the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), witness to Blackbirding, and tireless adversary of Blackbirding.

“The [Blackbirding labour] Traffic is steeped in deception, falsehoods, and shocking crimes. Defend it who may, and as they may, Heaven’s curse must rest upon it and all engaged in it.”

Source: Langridge, A. K., & Paton, F.H.L. (1910, p. 108). John G. Paton, later years and farewell. Hodder & Stoughton.

Thinking Prompt: How credible is Reverend Dr. Paton’s account? How might different demographic, religious, social, and political groups—in the 19th, early 20th and 21st century— respond to Reverend Dr. Paton’s judgment?

Appendix D: Source 14

Prereading Prompt: The Reverend Frank H.L. Paton, son of Dr John G. Paton, was also a missionary to the New Hebrides and a later witness to Blackbirding.

“Only those who live here [on the Islands after a Blackbirding shipment has left] know the bitterness and sorrow left behind by [a] labour vessel. Old men and boys left alone to guard the villages, fall an easy prey to their enemies and often the Kanakas return…to find their villages gone…charred stumps in a tangle of scrub.”

Source: Paton, F.H.L. (1885, p. 33) The kingdom in the Pacific. United Council of Missionary Education.

Thinking Prompt: How credible is Reverend Frank Paton’s account? How might different demographic, religious, social, and political groups—in the 19th, early 20th and 21st century— react to Reverend Paton’s observations?

Appendix D: Source 15

Prereading Prompt: Pay attention to the name of the newspaper, the year of publication, and the locations mentioned within the article. What do these details suggest?

Source: N.A. (1892, December 22). “Black-birding” by wholesale: Slave trade between the and . New Times (1857-1922). https://search.proquest.com/docview/95020582?accountid=10705

Thinking Prompt: What are the limitations to this source? How does this source connect with other sources?

Appendix D: Source 16

Prereading Prompt: This is Australian legislation. Pay careful attention to the date, the intent, the targeted individuals, and who benefits from this act.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION No. 17 of 1901. An Act to place certain restrictions on Immigration and to provide for the removal from the Commonwealth of prohibited Immigrants. [Assented to 23rd December, 1901.] BE it enacted by the King's Most Excellent Majesty the Senate and the House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Australia as follows: … 3. The immigration into the Commonwealth of the persons described in any of the following paragraphs of this section (hereinafter called "prohibited immigrants") is prohibited, namely:— (a) Any person who when asked to do so by an officer fails to write out at dictation and sign in the presence of the officer a passage of fifty words in length in an European language directed by the officer; (b) any person likely in the opinion of the Minister or of an officer to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution; (c) any idiot or insane person; (d) any person suffering from an infectious or contagious disease of a loathsome or dangerous character; (e) any person who has within three years been convicted of an offence, not being a mere political offence, and has been sentenced to imprisonment for one year or longer therefor, and has not received a pardon; (f) any prostitute or person living on the prostitution of others…

Source: Immigration Restriction Act 1901. Date of Assent 23 December 1901, Date of Repeal 01 June 1959 by Migration Act of 1958. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C1901A00017

Thinking Prompt: In the 21st century, would this legislation be considered racist? Does this legislation suggest an upcoming end to Blackbirding?

Appendix E: Modern

Sources 17-20

Appendix E: Source 17

Prereading Prompt: The Australian government started the Seasonal Worker Program in July 2012 to partner with nearby countries to spark economic development for all involved. In practice, the Australian horticulture industry hires workers from eight Pacific island nations and Timor-Leste to meet seasonal labor needs. This government report excerpt highlights the conclusions of an investigation into the mistreatment workers in the Seasonal Worker Programme.

10.1. Toward the end of the inquiry, the Seasonal Worker Programme received negative media coverage over the alleged mistreatment [sic] of seasonal worker participants.

10.2. These reports alleged [sic] that seasonal workers were underpaid, housed in substandard accommodation, refused medical access and pastoral care, and verbally abused and underfed [sic].

10.11 MADEC [Mackay and District Education Centre] Australia advised that there were some unscrupulous labour hire contractors within the industry…MADEC staff often hear of cases where employees are not being paid their full entitlement [sic]. We are told on occasion by a grower that the rate they are paying their contractor is far below a rate that could reasonably cover award wages and all statutory costs.

Source: Commonwealth of Australia, Parliament’s Joint Committee on Migration (2016, May 5). Inquiry into the seasonal worker programme: Report [Brief excerpt]. https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Migration/Seasonal_Worker _Programme/Report

Thinking Prompt: Look again at the date. How does this 2016 report have reverberations from the 19th and early 20th century?

Appendix E: Source 18

Prereading Prompt: This journalist reports an episode of modern slavery, which may be far more extensive than people realize. As you read this, consider the connections with historic Australia’s Blackbirding and modern Australia’s Seasonal Worker Programme.

Turner, R. (2017, August 25). Modern slavery has millions of faces—and Moe Turaga is one of them. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-25/slavery-did-not-come- with-chains-for-moe-turaga/8844188

Thinking Prompt: Look again at the date. How does this 2017 news article connect with the 2016 government report? Where do echoes from the 19th and early 20th century appear?

Appendix E: Source 19

Prereading Prompt: Pay close attention to the date of this article and the date in the Australian government’s investigative report above. As you read this, consider the connections with historic Australia’s Blackbirding and modern Australia’s Seasonal Worker Programme.

Staff Reporter (2017, December 18). 12 islanders die on Aussie farms. PNG Report. https://www.pngreport.com/health/news/1309891/islanders-die-aussie-farms

Thinking Prompt: This article talks about worker abuse. The previous article talked about modern slavery. How are they different? How are they similar? How does this 2017 news article remind you of Blackbirding in the 19th and early 20th century?

Appendix E: Source 20

Prereading Prompt: This journalist reports the discrimination that Australian Aboriginal descendants in Vanuatu—descendants of two orphaned children taken back to Pacific islands by Blackbirded laborers in the early 1900s —experience in the 21st century.

Fitzpatrick, S. (2018, April 27). Aborigines in Vanuatu living as second-class citizens, says South Sea Islander. The Australian. https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/aborigines-in-vanuatu-living-as-secondclass- citizens-says-south-sea-islander/news-story/b68e474a51d5bc642736f1d6a1dfea32

Thinking Prompt: Unlike the previous articles about Islanders brought to Australia, either during the Blackbirding period or under the modern Seasonal Worker Programme, this article concerns discrimination felt by descendants of Australian Aboriginals living in Vanuatu— seeking recognition by both the Vanuatu and Australian governments as a distinct ethnic group.