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Sino-British Negotiations and the Search for a Post-War Settlement, 1942-1949: Treaties, Hong Kong, and Tibet Zhaodong Wang Doctor of Philosophy University of Edinburgh 2019 Declaration I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where it is stated otherwise by reference or acknowledgement, the work presented is entirely my own. Zhaodong Wang September 2019 i Abstract Despite the vast research by scholars on international history during the era of the Pacific War, comparatively little has been written about the bi-lateral relationship between the Chinese Nationalist government and the British government and their discussions during 1942-1949 over a post-war settlement in Asia. These were dominated by two underlying themes: the elimination of the British imperialist position in China and the establishment of an equal and reciprocal bilateral relationship. In particular, these discussions focused on three matters: treaties (the 1943 Sino-British treaty and the discarded Sino-British commercial treaty); the future of Hong Kong; and the political status of Tibet. Drawing on archival sources in Britain, the United States and China, the thesis demonstrates that negotiations over a post-war Sino- British settlement had an encouraging start in 1942-43 but by 1949 had failed to reach a satisfactory settlement. Not only did they fail to rebuild the two countries’ commercial relations on an equal and reciprocal basis (as in the aborted commercial treaty) but they also did not terminate the informal British empire in China (with regard to Hong Kong and Tibet). The reasons for the failure were complex, encompassing both internal and external factors, including the powerful influence of the United States. iii Lay Summary The relationship between China and Britain had developed on an unequal and non- reciprocal basis after the Sino-British Treaty of 1842. This relationship incorporated many British imperial interests and privileges in China, such as extraterritoriality, treaty-ports system, concessions and settlements. The Pacific War and the consequent alliance between Britain and China, offered the Chinese Nationalists an opportunity to end these inequitable arrangements and rebuild the bilateral relationship on an equal and reciprocal basis. Indeed, the British were forced to abandon extraterritoriality and other treaty rights in 1942-1943. Nevertheless, the abolition process was far from complete by the time. First whilst a Sino-American commercial treaty was agreed in 1946, a Sino-British counterpart was aborted. Second, the status of Hong Kong remained an issue of contention between the two countries and remained so until the 1980s. Third, the status of Tibet was also left unresolved and this question was given a further twist after an independent India inherited British treaty rights in Tibet in 1947. Through a detailed examination of Sino-British negotiations between 1942 and 1949 over three key issues (treaties, Hong Kong, and Tibet), the thesis endeavours to explore the reasons for the failure of Nationalist China and Britain to arrive a satisfactory post- war settlement. As the thesis reveals, the reasons were complex, encompassing both internal and external factors, including the powerful influence of the United States. v Acknowledgements The thesis would not have come to fruition without help from many hands. First and foremost, I must express my thanks to my family, particularly my wife, Wuyao Liu. Without their understanding and support, this PhD would not have been completed. I also owe a debt of gratitude to the Collaborative Innovation Centre for Territorial Sovereignty and Maritime Rights at Wuhan University, and to the Chinese Scholarship Council. These institutions funded my doctoral studies at Edinburgh and allowed me to focus my time and energy on preparing this thesis. My gratitude also extends to Professor Dekun Hu at Wuhan University who five years ago re-ignited my passion for study abroad. The initial idea for this PhD topic derived from him. I am extremely grateful to my supervisors at the University of Edinburgh - Dr Felix Boecking and Dr Jeremy Crang - for their excellent and cooperative supervision. The thesis has benefited significantly from their expertise and professionalism in their respective fields of Chinese and British history. This has encouraged me to seek to balance in my discussion between Chinese and British perspectives. Dr Crang has also offered me enormous help and advice in relation to the thesis structure and my written English. This thesis incorporates significant archival research. I am indebted to the Simon Fennell Award, and to Research Student Support Fund, in the School of History, Classics and Archaeology at Edinburgh which helped finance two visits to London to work in the National Archives and the British Library. Further thanks are due to Dr Xuelei Huang in the School of Literatures, Languages and Cultures at Edinburgh, and to Professor Li Zhang at the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, Taipei. They helped to facilitate my research trip to Taipei, for which I am very grateful. Last but not least, I want to express thanks to Dr Francesca Kaufman, now on academic staff at the University of Manchester, who proofread most my original drafts and provided valuable suggestions and criticisms - not least how, as a Chinese student, one can write for a western readership. vii Abbreviations AH Academia Historica, Taipei BAAG British Army Aiding Group BDFA British Documents on Foreign Affairs BO Burma Office BT Board of Trade CAB Cabinet Office CASS Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing CCP Chinese Communist Party CHAR Churchill Archive Records CNP Chinese Nationalist Party CO Colonial Office DBPO Documents on British Policy Overseas DO Dominion Office FRUS Documents of Foreign Relations of the United States FO Foreign Office GRC Guomindang Revolutionary Committee HKPU Hong Kong Planning Unit HO Home Office IMH Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, Taipei IO India Office IOR India Office Records ix ISBMAC Statistics Bureau of the Military Affairs Commission, the Republic of China MFN Most Favoured Nation ML Ministry of Labour MT Ministry of Transport MTAC Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, the Republic of China OSS Office of Strategic Services, the United States SLCB Zhonghua Minguo Zhongyao Shiliao Chubian (Kangrizhanzheng Shiqi): Zhanshi Waijiao [Preliminary Compilation of Important Historical Scources relating to the Republic of China (the Period of the Anti-Japanese War): Wartime Diplomacy] SLGB Jiang Zhongzheng Zongtong Dang'an: Shilue Gaoben [Draft Papers of Chiang Kai-shek] SOE Special Operations Executive, Britain TBL British Library, London TFB Tibetan Foreign Bureau TNA National Archives, Kew, London TRP Tibetan Revolutionary Party UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation WO War Office x List of Maps Map 1: Britain in China, 1 January 1927 Map 2: Map of Hong Kong Map 3: Tibet Map 4: The negotiation process of boundary problems between Tibet and China in the Simla conference Map 5: Respective Route Proposals Map 6: The British-Proposed Pack Route Map 7: Two Buffer Belts Map 8: The Sino-Indian Boundary Dispute Map 9: The Eastern Himalayas, c. 1943 Map 10: Dzayül, Loyül, Monyül and the McMahon Area Map 11: Main Places in the McMahon Area Map 12: The Proposed Changlam Road xi Note on the Text In this thesis, the term Chinese Nationalist government (1927-1949) is used interchangeable with that of Chinese government. Similarly, Guomindang is used interchangeably with the Chinese Nationalist Party. The regime that the Chinese Communists established is referred to as the Chinese Communist government or regime. Romanisation Pinyin romanisation is used for Chinese names, except for those of Chiang Kai-shek (蒋介石) and Sun Yat-sen (孙中山), as this style is more widely recognised than their pinyin names: Jiang Jieshi and Sun Zhongshan. With regard to Tibetan names, I have adopted the style that is commonly used in English language works. For the convenience of readers with a Chinese-language background, the Romanised Chinese and Tibetan names are supplemented by a Chinese-language or Chinese-translated term in brackets when they are cited in the text for the first time. xii Table of Contents Declaration .................................................................................................................... i Abstract ....................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ..............................................................................................................