Journal of Dracula Studies Volume 7 2005 Article 4 2005 Dracula and the Afterlife: A Psychological Explanation Jack D. Maser University of California, San Diego Follow this and additional works at: https://research.library.kutztown.edu/dracula-studies Part of the English Language and Literature Commons, Feminist, Gender, and Sexuality Studies Commons, and the Film and Media Studies Commons Recommended Citation Maser, Jack D. (2005) "Dracula and the Afterlife: A Psychological Explanation," Journal of Dracula Studies: Vol. 7 , Article 4. Available at: https://research.library.kutztown.edu/dracula-studies/vol7/iss1/4 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Research Commons at Kutztown University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Dracula Studies by an authorized editor of Research Commons at Kutztown University. For more information, please contact [email protected],. Dracula and the Afterlife: A Psychological Explanation Cover Page Footnote Dr. Maser, Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychiatry, UCSD, has published numerous scientific articles and edited nine books. He previously taught at Tulane University and worked at NIH This article is available in Journal of Dracula Studies: https://research.library.kutztown.edu/dracula-studies/vol7/ iss1/4 Dracula and the Afterlife: A Psychological Explanation Jack D. Maser [Dr. Maser, Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychiatry, UCSD, has published numerous scientific articles and edited nine books. He previously taught at Tulane University and worked at NIH.] Until relatively recently, the primary psychological approach to understanding Bram Stoker’s Dracula and the folklore of vampires has been psychoanalysis. Maurice Richardson asserted in 1956 that Dracula must be seen from a Freudian standpoint, since “from no other does the story really make any sense” (427). However, the psychoanalytic approach shares little with modern, scientifically based psychology. Fascinating though it may be, psychoanalytic theory has almost no measurable attributes and may itself be as mythical as vampires and an afterlife. Rather, psychoanalysis is a creative theory of human cognition and behavior that can be neither proven false, objectively replicated, nor used to predict novel, testable insights. As Clive Leatherdale, having presented such a reading of Dracula, concedes, “psychoanalysis has been to some extent dismissed as a literary fad whose time has come and gone” (190 n1). This paper presents an alternative psychological theory that explains how vampirism has captured the imagination of so many people in so many cultures. This theory is called Existential Projection to an Afterlife (EPA) and it incorporates a number of well-studied psychological factors: Object constancy, generalization, fear and conditioning. Some background is needed to see how EPA theory provides a psychological mechanism for humans to reduce existential terror when contemplating death, i.e., non- existence of the self and nothingness. Fear is reduced by the comforting illusion of an afterlife. Leatherdale states that “The concept of the vampire is founded upon two precepts: the belief in life after death, and the magical power of blood” (13). This paper will address both precepts, but with the major focus on the psychology of belief in life after death. Neither belief in vampires nor belief in an afterlife has any basis in objectively observed fact, yet belief in an afterlife is essentially universal in human society and belief in vampires is well established in the folklore of many cultures. The former is related to a deep need to perpetuate the self when the body dies, the latter to a method of doing so. The notion of an afterlife is linked to concepts of religion, God, good and evil, and while not all are related directly to EPA theory, this paper will touch upon those links. 1. The Self Concept To have the mental capacity of reflecting on one’s own thoughts, to be aware of being aware, is to have a concept of self. Not all species are capable of self reflection, and they manage to survive quite well. However, for a species that has this ability many possibilities emerge. Two clear realities emerge in humans: belief in a God or gods, and belief in a continued existence after death of the corporeal self, of that entity that reflects on our own thoughts. We shall call that entity the “self.” Although we may be sure that this entity is not a little homunculus, its nature is poorly understood. Religions often speak of the soul, but that concept is even less well defined than the self, and it is not clear if they are equivalent concepts. While no data exist on the number of people who believe that the self continues in existence after the body dies and decays, the number probably includes most of humankind. Nor is there data on my informal observation that when asked, “What if there is no afterlife?” the response is often that life would be meaningless or that this just can’t be all there is. Most often the respondent falls back on religious teachings and faith. In nearly all societies, organized religion has co-opted the afterlife notion, primarily 28 by taking on the role of gatekeeper. If you are a member of a religion and follow its doctrines, continuation of the self in some form is said to be possible. Although no method of inquiry has proven that any form of an afterlife exists, religion has become the accepted pathway and has filled a powerful need in our species. It can be argued that the vampire legend has resulted at least in part from the same psychological needs and underpinnings as religion. Vampirism is an alternative to the afterlife that religion provides and even might be considered a competing concept. It can also be expected that religion and vampirism are not merely competitive but hostile toward each other.1 The need for self-continuation is so strong that it finds expression in folklore and numerous aspects of culture (e.g., vampire stories, ancestor worship, guardian angels, gods, ghosts, belief in mediums), literature (e.g., Carmilla, A Matter of Conscience, Lovely Bones, Dante’s trilogy, Interview with the Vampire) and movies (e.g., Nosferatu, The Sixth Sense, What Dreams May Come, Heaven Can Wait). The fact that books and movies on the subject continue to make money for their producers reveals that the afterlife is a theme that people can and will buy into. Moreover, the belief that dead relatives watch over the living may be a precursor to ancestor worship, a practice that is common in Chinese and Japanese cultures as well as some African tribes and Pueblo Indians, to name a few. If one merely wishes to honor one’s ancestors an afterlife is unnecessary, but if one worships an ancestor, that entity should exist in some form somewhere. 2. Self-Awareness in Others: Theory of Mind Given for a moment the fact of self-awareness, humans rapidly intuit that others of their species have the same ability, even though no proof exists to confirm that suspicion. For example, I know that I am aware of my own thoughts, but I do not actually know if readers of this paper have the same or even a similar ability. Nevertheless, I assume you do and with that assumption a wide range of behaviors that few other species appear to possess become possible: bluffing at poker, humor, deception, counter-deception, empathy, bargaining, sympathy, sorrow, role playing and “putting myself in your shoes.” There is no sense in my bluffing in a poker game unless I believed that you would react to my bluff in a particular way. A good bluffer “reads” the mental state of those on the other side of the table. Of course, the person being bluffed is also trying to place himself in the mental state of the bluffer and may move to counter- deceive. Similarly, telling a joke would make little sense if I did not think that you would see the humor as I do. Not only is timing important to a joke-teller, but so also is an accurate estimate of the mental state of the person being told the joke. The psychological principles underlying the belief that other organisms and entities have a self- concept are those of generalization and object constancy (OC). “Response generalization” can be defined as follows: After an organism learns to respond in a particular manner to a stimulus (his own thoughts in his body), other stimuli (i.e., other living beings with attributes similar to his own) are effective in eliciting similar responses. Thus, at some point in infancy we learn that we can think about our own thoughts (response) and begin to transfer that ability to other organisms and entities (stimuli with similar responses). “Object Constancy” is learning that the essence of objects does not change even when beyond the immediate perception of our senses. “Projection” is a psychodynamic mechanism in which one’s own thoughts, beliefs and abilities are attributed to external persons or objects. “Anthropomorphism” is a form of projection in which we attribute human-like behaviors and their causes to animals. In effect, generalization of the self-concept means that you are able to use your experience to model the mental state of another person. If I see you in a situation that I have encountered previously, I am 1 For a more complete discussion of the relationship between Christianity and vampirism through the centuries, see J.Gordon Melton, The Vampire Book, 117-119. 29 likely to assume that your subjective experience will be similar to mine. Self-awareness opens the door for us to infer knowledge about the mental states of others; inferences that we make about what other people may (or may not) know or what they intend to do presupposes a comparable mental states in others.