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Re-Spatializing Gangs in the United States: an Analysis of Macro- and Micro-Level Network Structures

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Re-Spatializing Gangs in the United States: an Analysis of Macro- and Micro-Level Network Structures Old Dominion University ODU Digital Commons Graduate Program in International Studies Theses & Dissertations Graduate Program in International Studies Spring 2021 Re-Spatializing Gangs in the United States: An Analysis of Macro- and Micro-Level Network Structures Ryan J. Roberts Old Dominion University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/gpis_etds Part of the Criminology Commons, Geography Commons, and the International Relations Commons Recommended Citation Roberts, Ryan J.. "Re-Spatializing Gangs in the United States: An Analysis of Macro- and Micro-Level Network Structures" (2021). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dissertation, , Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/pktt-b486 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/gpis_etds/131 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Program in International Studies at ODU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Program in International Studies Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ODU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. RE-SPATIALIZING GANGS IN THE UNITED STATES: AN ANALYSIS OF MACRO- AND MICRO-LEVEL NETWORK STRUCTURES by Ryan J. Roberts B.A. May 2002, Bowling Green State University M.B.A. December 2004, University of Toledo M.A. May 2011, Old Dominion University A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL STUDIES OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY May 2021 Approved by: Jesse Richman (Director) Peter Schulman (Member) Randy Gainey (Member) Jingwei Huang (Member) David Earnest (Member) ABSTRACT RE-SPATIALIZING GANGS IN THE UNITED STATES: AN ANALYSIS OF MACRO- AND MICRO-LEVEL NETWORK STRUCTURES Ryan J. Roberts Old Dominion University, 2021 Director: Dr. Jesse Richman Despite the significant contributions from location-based gang studies, the network structure of gangs beyond localized settings remains a neglected but important area of research to better understand the national security implications of gang interconnectivity. The purpose of this dissertation is to examine the network structure of gangs at the macro- and micro-level using social network analysis. At the macro-level, some gangs have formed national alliances in perpetuity with their goals and objectives. In order to study gangs at the macro-level, this research uses open-source data to construct an adjacency matrix of gang alliances and rivalries to map the relationships between gangs and analyze their network centrality across multiple metrics. The results suggest that native gangs are highly influential when compared to immigrant gangs. Some immigrant gangs, however, derive influence by “bridging” the gap between rival gangs. Mexican Drug Trafficking Organizations (MDTOs) play a similar role and feature prominently in the gang network. Moreover, removing MDTOs changes the network structure in favor of ideologically-motivated gangs over profit-oriented gangs. Critics deride macro-level approaches to studying gangs for their lack of national cohesion. In response, this research includes a micro-level analysis of gang member connections by mining Twitter data to analyze the geospatial distribution of gang members and, by proxy, gangs, using an exponential random graph model (ERGM) to test location homophily and better understand the extent to which gang members are localized. The findings show a positive correlation between location and shared gang member connections which is conceptually consistent with the proximity principle. According to the proximity principle, interpersonal relationships are more likely to occur in localized geographic spaces. However, gang member connections appear to be more diffuse than is captured in current location-based gang studies. This dissertation demonstrates that macro- and micro-level gang networks exist in unbounded geographic spaces where the interconnectivity of gangs transpose local issues onto the national security consciousness which challenges law and order, weakens institutions, and negatively impacts the structural integrity of the state. iv Copyright, 2021, by Ryan J. Roberts, All Rights Reserved. v I dedicate this dissertation to the people in my life that never gave up on me. To my loving parents, Jim and Carol Roberts, whose guidance over the years taught me to persevere. Without their unwavering support, I would not be the man I am today. To my wife, Rachel Roberts, who saw to it that I remain steadfast in achieving this success. Know that you are my greatest adventure. Finally, to my brother, Kyle Roberts. I can’t imagine growing up in a house without you. Never let it be underestimated what our bond means to me. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to acknowledge the tireless efforts of my committee members in preparing me for the completion of this dissertation. Their mentorship has been indispensable in my development as a scholar. I would also like to acknowledge the Graduate Program in International Studies (GPIS) selection committee for allowing me the opportunity to study at Old Dominion University and the esteemed faculty with which I had the privilege of learning the skills necessary to be successful in academia. Finally, it was my work as a correctional officer that inspired my dissertation topic. I want to acknowledge the dedication of the men and women serving at Pasquotank Correctional Institute. Especially those officers that have lost their lives in the line of duty and the families that have had to endure. In particular, Wendy Shannon (EOW: 10/30/17), Justin Smith (EOW: 10/12/17), Veronica Darden (EOW: 10/12/17), and Geoffrey Howe (EOW: 11/02/17). vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................x Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1 2. HISTORY, TRANSFORMATION, AND THE THREAT OF GANGS ................................16 2.1 THEORIES ON GANG PARTICIPATION ................................................................20 2.2 HISTORY AND TRANSFORMATION OF GANGS ................................................28 2.3 MODERN GANGS AND THE CONTEMPORARY LANDSCAPE ........................36 2.4 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................51 3. WHAT IS A GANG? THE ROLE OF GANG TYPOLOGIES IN DEFINING GANGS ......55 3.1 DEFINING GANGS ....................................................................................................57 3.2 GANG TYPOLOGIES ................................................................................................63 3.3 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................89 4. CENTRALITY AND COMMUNITY DETECTION: A MACRO-LEVEL APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING THE NETWORK STRUCTURE OF GANGS IN THE UNITED STATES ...................................................................................................................92 4.1 SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS AND GANG STUDIES ......................................93 4.2 A MACRO-LEVEL NETWORK APPROACH TO ANALYZE GANG STRUCTURE ............................................................................................................103 4.3 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................106 4.4 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................118 4.5 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................148 5. RE-SPATIALIZING GANG MEMBER CONNECTIONS: AN EXPONENTIAL RANDOM GRAPH MODEL OF TWITTER DATA TO ANALYZE THE GEOSPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF GANG NETWORKS ................................................153 5.1 THE LOCATION-BASED PERSPECTIVE ON GANGS .......................................157 5.2 GANGS, THE INTERNET, AND SOCIAL MEDIA ...............................................162 5.3 SIMILAR STUDIES TO DETECT CRIMINAL GROUPS USING SOCIAL MEDIA ANALYTICS ...............................................................................................167 5.4 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................173 5.5 DATA COLLECTION RESULTS ............................................................................183 5.6 EXPONENTIAL RANDOM GRAPH MODEL (ERGM) ........................................197 5.7 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................204 viii Chapter Page 6. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................208 6.1 THE TRANSFORMATION OF GANGS .................................................................209 6.2 A MACRO-LEVEL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF GANG NETWORKS .........211 6.3 A MICRO-LEVEL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF GANG NETWORKS ...........214 6.4 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ON GANG NETWORKS .............................................................................................................217
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