Aviation Security Management Praeger Security International Advisory Board Board Cochairs Loch K. Johnson, Regents Professor of Public and International Affairs, School of Public and International Affairs, University of Georgia (U.S.A.) Paul Wilkinson, Professor of International Relations and Chairman of the Advisory Board, Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence, University of St. Andrews (U.K.) Members Anthony H. Cordesman, Arleigh A. Burke Chair in Strategy, Center for Strategic and International Studies (U.S.A.) Thérèse Delpech, Director of Strategic Affairs, Atomic Energy Commission, and Senior Research Fellow, CERI (Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques), Paris (France) Sir Michael Howard, former Chichele Professor of the History of War and Regis Professor of Modern History, Oxford University, and Robert A. Lovett Professor of Military and Naval History, Yale University (U.K.) Lieutenant General Claudia J. Kennedy, USA (Ret.), former Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence, Department of the Army (U.S.A.) Paul M. Kennedy, J. Richardson Dilworth Professor of History and Director, International Security Studies, Yale University (U.S.A.) Robert J. O’Neill, former Chichele Professor of the History of War, All Souls College, Oxford University (Australia) Shibley Telhami, Anwar Sadat Chair for Peace and Development, Department of Government and Politics, University of Maryland (U.S.A.) Fareed Zakaria, Editor, Newsweek International (U.S.A.) Aviation Security Management VOLUME 1 THE CONTEXT OF AVIATION SECURITY MANAGEMENT Edited by Andrew R. Thomas PRAEGER SECURITY INTERNATIONAL Westport, Connecticut • London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aviation security management / edited by Andrew R. Thomas. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978–0–313–34652–1 ((set) : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978–0–313–34654–5 ((vol. 1) : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978–0–313–34656–9 ((vol. 2) : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978–0–313–34658–3 ((vol. 3) : alk. paper) 1. Airlines—Security measures. I. Thomas, Andrew R. HE9776.A95 2008 363.28'76068—dc22 2008018728 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2008 by Andrew R. Thomas All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008018728 ISBN-13: 978–0–313–34652–1 (set) 978–0–313–34654–5 (vol. 1) 978–0–313–34656–9 (vol. 2) 978–0–313–34658–3 (vol. 3) First published in 2008 Praeger Security International, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.praeger.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Preface vii Chapter 1 The Early History of Aviation Security Practice 1 Gary Elphinstone Chapter 2 Aviation Security Practice and Education: 1968 Onward 9 John Harrison Chapter 3 Air Transportation in Evolving Supply Chain Strategies 25 R. Ray Gehani and G. Tom Gehani Chapter 4 Tangible and Intangible Benefi ts of Transportation Security Measures 41 Barry E. Prentice Chapter 5 The Human Element in Aviation Security 50 Mohammad Karimbocus Chapter 6 The International Civil Aviation Security Program Established by ICAO 65 Moses A. Alemán Chapter 7 How the Hijackers on September 11 Approached American Aviation Security and Evaded It 77 Stephen E. Atkins Chapter 8 Modern Terrorist Threats to Aviation Security 98 James J. F. Forest vi Contents Chapter 9 Aviation Security and the Legal Environment 122 Mary F. Schiavo Chapter 10 A Chronology of Attacks against Civil Aviation 142 Mary F. Schiavo Financial Condition and Industry Responses Affect Competition 261 Index 275 About the Editor and Contributors 285 Preface Because of September 11, 2001, there is an almost universal recognition that aviation security is a deadly serious business. Yet, still, today around the world, the practice of aviation security is rooted in a hodgepodge of governmental rules, industry traditions, and local idiosyncrasies. In fact, seven years after the largest single attack involving the air transport industry, there remains no viable framework in place to lift aviation security practice out of the mish- mash that currently exists. The purpose of this three-volume set is to begin to change that. It is my sincere hope that this work, written from a truly global point of view, will be the fi rst of many on this most important topic. The fact that over half of the contributors to this set come from outside of the United States is no coincidence. Although roughly 40 percent of all air transport today takes place within the United States, the long-term trend is for dramatic increases in global system usage, driven by high-growth emerging markets like China, India, Russia, and Brazil. It is widely estimated that the total volume of passengers and cargo moved via the international air transport system will nearly triple in the next 25 years. Although America will remain the single largest player, the surge will come from emerging markets. This evolving reality mandates that aviation security management be viewed not merely on a country-by-country basis but as a global endeavor, where best practices—regardless of where they originate—are integrated into a new paradigm that is truly global in scope and scale. With that in mind, Avi- ation Security Management is intended to serve as a foundation for researchers, practitioners, and educators around the world who are looking to develop new knowledge and pass it along to the next generation of aviation security managers. viii Preface Dishearteningly, however, there is only a handful of academic programs— currently less than a dozen—where someone can actually study transporta- tion security management. The number of schools where an aviation security management curriculum is available is even smaller. Such a lack of educa- tional opportunities means that unless something is done quickly, the tens of thousands of new aviation security mangers who will join the profession in the coming years will not have had the opportunity to learn the best in transpor- tation security management research and practice. To professionalize the fi eld of transportation security management in gen- eral, and aviation security management in particular, several requirements need to be met. First and foremost, there must be a body of knowledge and a repertoire of behaviors and skills needed in the practice of the profession, knowledge, behavior, and skills that are not normally possessed by the non- professional. To date, very little of that body of knowledge and repertoire exists in a clear and cogent format. While many researchers and practitioners across multiple disciplines have been engaged in their own worthwhile pur- suits, there remains a defi ciency in the availability of clearinghouses for that knowledge. Bluntly asked, where does one go to learn about the emerging ideas, thoughts, technologies, and best practices in transportation and avia- tion security management? Clearly there is neither the need nor the desire to provide those who seek to harm transportation networks with information they can use against us. As researchers, practitioners, and educators, we must be ever vigilant, striving to balance the need for open knowledge with the necessary parameters of sensi- tive information. I am certain we can do both—that is, provide cutting-edge knowledge to a growing body of well-intentioned researchers and practi- tioners while maintaining the integrity needed to ultimately make transporta- tion more secure. Which brings us back to those clearinghouses. This set of volumes and the recently founded Journal of Transportation Security are intended to be some of the fi rst building blocks of a much more extensive foundation, which will ultimately serve to prepare for the arrival of a true profession: transportation security management. This fi rst volume takes a penetrating look at the context in which global aviation security management has been carried out in the past and will likely be carried out in the coming decades. In chapter 1, long-time aviation security practitioner Gary Elphinstone briefl y traces aviation security practice from its inception up to the late 1960s. John Harrison then takes the reader through the evolution of aviation secu- rity management and education from 1968 to the present. R. Ray Gehani and G. Tom Gehani provide readers with a broader under- standing of the role air transport plays in the global supply chain. Barry E. Prentice then takes this to the next level when he explores both the tangible and the intangible benefi ts of aviation security measures. Preface ix Although technology often seems to dominate many conversations about the effectiveness of aviation security, Mohammed Karimbocus from Mauri- tius reminds us that it is the human element that has always dominated the responses to threats and attacks. The role of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in global aviation security management and practice seemingly gets less attention than it deserves. Moses A. Alemán—who worked with ICAO for many years— details the international aviation security program established by ICAO. Historian Stephen E. Atkins revisits the tragic events of September 11, 2001, and answers the critical question as to how the hijackers on Septem- ber 11 approached American aviation security and were able to evade it. Then, James J. F. Forest of the Combating Terrorism Center at the U.S. Military Academy fully explores the modern terrorist threats to aviation security in the post–September 11 era. Next, Mary F. Schiavo, one of the foremost aviation attorneys in the world and former inspector general of the U.S. Department of Transportation, investigates how aviation security and the legal environment interface with each other.