ReportNo. 21060-IS Israel Gulf of AqabaEnvironmental Action Plan Public Disclosure Authorized November6, 2000

EuropeanUnion-Taba-Eilat-Aqaba-Macro Area (TEAM) Project Preparedin Partnershipwith: the Governmentof Israel,the Municipalityof Eilat,the EuropeanUnion and the World Bank

RuralDevelopment, Water and EnvironmentDepartment Middle Eastand North Africa Region FOROFFICIAL USE ONLY

** ** Public Disclosure Authorized * ** Public Disclosure Authorized

Public Disclosure Authorized Documentof the EuropeanUnion and the WorldBank

Thisdocument has a restricteddistribution and may be usedby recipients only in the performanceof their official duties.Its contentsmay not otherwise be disclosedwithout EuropeanUnion and World Bankauthorization. CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Currency unit = Shekel (Shk) US$1.00 = Shk 4.07 Shk 1.00 = US$0.25

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES m meter km kilometer km2 square kilometer m3 cubic meter

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

EEPC Eilat Environmental Protection Committee EIS Environmental Impact Statement EREU Eilat Regional Environmental Unit EU European Union GAEAP Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan GOI Government of Israel LMP Local Masterplan ME Mtmicipality of Eilat MOE Ministry of the Environment MOI Minristryof the Interior NGO Non-Governmental Organization NMP National Masterplan NRNPA Nalture Reserves and National Parks Authority RMP Regional Masterplan

Regional Vice-President: Jean-Louis Sarbib Sector Director: Doris Koehn Sector Manager: Salah Darghouth Task Tearn Leader: Nicole Glineur FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan (GAEAP) is the result of a partnership between the Government of Israel, the Municipality of Eilat, the European Union and the World Bank, during the period May 1997 through November 2000.

The preparation of the GAEAP was coordinated by Mr. Ram Aviram, Director of Multilateral Peace Talks, Coordination and Water Issues, in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Instrumental support was provided to the preparation team by Mr. Gabi Kadosh, Mayor of Eilat and the higher staff of the Municipality, including Mr. Jacob Storch, Head of Strategic Planning and Information, Ms. Osnat Post, City Engineer, and Mr. Yehiam Shlezinger, Head of the Regional Environmental Unit, as well as in the Ministry of Environment in Jerusalem by Mr. Dror Amir, Director, Division of International Relations and Special Projects and Mrs. Valerie Brachya, Head of Planning. In Eilat, valuable collaboration was extended by Messrs. Avi Baranes, Jonathan Erez, Amazia Ganin and Anton Post from the Inter-UniversityInstitute; Hillel Gordin, Noam Mozes and Amoz Tandler from the National Center for Mariculture; Rami Klinger from the Port Authority; and Aharon Dekel from the Eilat Hotel Owners Association.

This exercise was led by Mr. Anthony Knott, Principal Administrator, Technical Unit for Mediterranean, European Commission, Brussels. The report was drafted by a team lead by Ms. Nicole Glineur, Task Manager, Senior Environmental Specialist in the Middle East and North Africa Region of the World Bank, and including Mme./Messrs. Isabel Braga, James Harrington, Jean-Pierre Villaret and Philip Warburg, consultants. The GAEAP is based on the findings of the Baseline Report, prepared by a local team headed by Mr. Aharon Zohar and presented in an Annex of the GAEAP report.

The peer reviewer in the Bank is Mr. Stephen Lintner, Lead Specialist in the Environment Department. The GAEAP preparation process benefited from the advice and support of Mr. Salah Darghouth, Sector Manager, Water and Environment, Ms. Marjory-Anne Bromhead, Principal Natural Resources Economist, and Mr. Sherif Arif, Regional Environinental Coordinator, in the Rural Development, Water and Environment Department of the Middle East and North Africa Region. Administrative and secretarialassistance was provided by Ms. SyviengxayCreger.

This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not be otherwise disclosed without World Bank authorization.

THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTALACTION PLAN, ISRAEL

TABLEOF CONTENTS

Page no. FOREWORD EXECUTIVESUMMARY ...... i-v I. CONTEXTOF THEGAEAP ...... 1 H. EXISTINGAND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS ...... 2 III. LEGISLATIONAND REGULATIONS ...... 3 IV. INSTITUTIONALRESPONSIBILITY ...... 4 V. STRATEGYFOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ...... 6 VI. THEGULF OF AQABAENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN ...... 8 A. Strengtheningof the Local EnvironmentalCapacity ...... 8 B. Improving the Legal and RegulatoryFramework ...... 9 C. Environment-SupportingInvestment Projects ...... 11 Cl. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources ...... 11 C2. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sources...... 11 C3. Management of the Nature Reserve Areas...... 11 C4. Monitoring and Research...... 1I C5. Public Awareness in EnvironmentalMatters ...... 12 C6. TransboundaryEnvironmental Cooperation...... 12

TABLES Table 1: Summary of Actions, Responsibilityand Priority. iii-v Table 2: Process for Updating the StatutoryMasterplans .13-14 Table 3: Monitoring and Research Program.15 Table 4: CorrespondingReferences in Baseline Report .16

ANNEX TO THE GAEAP, ISRAEL: BASELINE REPORT

MAPS Location Map (IBRD 30250) Map 1: Land Use Map for the Eilat Region (IBRD 30251) Map 2: Nature Preservation and Tourism (IBRD 30252) Map 3 Eilat Region - Infrastructure(IBRD 30253) Map 4: Eilat's Ports (IBRD 30254) Map 5: Eilat Region - EnvironmentalConflicts (IBRD 30255)

FOREWORD

The Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan (GAEAP) represents for the Government of Israel a step towards achieving the national environmentalobjectives outlined in its legislation. The proposed actions, both curative and preventive, will protect the Gulf's land and water interface and ensure conservation of natural resources within a framework in which economic development can take place. The Israeli GAEAP is a component of the Taba-Eilat-Aqaba-MacroArea (TEAM) project which is sponsored by the European Union (EU) within the framework of the Regional Economic Development and Environment Multilateral Working Groups of the Middle East Peace Process. The preparation of the GAEAP was funded by a European Union grant of US$200,000. The Israeli GAEAP is the result of a cooperative vision between the Government of Israel, the Municipality of Eilat, the European Union and the World Bank. As part of GAEAP preparation, a comprehensiveBaseline Report on all environment-relatedissues on the Israeli coast of the Gulf of Aqaba has been assembled by an Israeli consulting team lead by Mr. Aharon Zohar to provide the detailed description of the background situation and proposed actions. The Baseline Report is presented in an Annex to the GAEAP. Table 4 hereafter indicates the sections of the Baseline Report relevant to each action proposed under the GAEAP as summarized in Table 1.

Links With National and Regional Initiatives

In addressing existing threats and preventing further damage to the environment of the Gulf of Aqaba, the GAEAP will support priorities outlined in the relevant Israeli master plans. In addition, it will provide for integrated management of environmental issues affecting the Israeli coastal area of the Gulf of Aqaba. The proposed plan will also complement existing efforts to combat water pollution in the Gulf of Aqaba supported by the Oil Spills ContingencyPlan co-financed by EU.

Regional Importance

All the riparian governmentsrecognize that effective environmental managementand pollution control programs are needed to protect the Gulf of Aqaba's natural resources, especially its valuable and vulnerable coral ecosystems,while allowing for development of the region's trade, industry and tourism. They also recognize that some environmentalproblems may not be contained by national boundaries and that regional environmentalprotection mechanisms are required.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. The Israeli portion of the Gulf of Aqaba is limited in size (14 km of the shoreline) and includes a unique but limited and fragile set of natural resources, including sand beaches, clean waters, coral reef and desert inland. 2. These sensitive ecosystems are under pressure from the booming economic activities in the Eilat region, all competing for use of the limited natural resources. In addition to tourism, Eilat's economic base includes oil import and mineral and chemical exports through the commercial port, navy operations, fish farming, lagunas and hotels, all of which generate marine pollution and/or risks of toxic spills. 3. The rapid expansion of tourism (1.3 million tourists recorded in 1995, a 57% increase over a five-year period) and the associated growth of the city of Eilat constitute the dominant economic activity and pose a major threat to the environment from unsustainable pressure on the marine and desert ecosystems. Under current plans, hotel capacity and resident population are projected to double during the next ten years, from 9,000 to 17,000 rooms and 40,000 to 80,000, respectively. 4. Without enhanced environmental protection measures, the carrying capacity of the natural resources on which Eilat's economy is based may be exceeded, with adverse consequences for the environment and the tourism industry. 5. Although a comprehensive set of legal instruments exists and measures have already been taken to conserve a significant portion of the coral reef, environmental protection is insufficiently articulated, in both central and local governments, to reverse the increasing environmental deterioration. The main cause is the lower priority given to environmental matters by the Municipality of Eilat, coupled with inadequate budgetary allocation, insufficient communication with the central government levels, inadequacy of the statutory masterplans, and continuous pressure of private interests. 6. To address the environmental issues, the GAEAP would implement a strategy including the strengthening of the local capability for environmental protection, revision of the statutory masterplans on the basis of a precise determination of carrying capacity of the natural resources, completion of the proposed declaration of additional marine and terrestrial natural reserves, and implementationof environment-relatedprojects, in particular for pollution control. 7. In this connection, the GAEAP proposes institutional strengthening measures (para. 9.a thereafter), development of the regulatory framework (para. 9.b) and environment-related projects (para. 9.c to 9.h). Details are provided in Table 1 thereafter and in section VI of the Report. 8. Total cost of the GAEAP is estimated at US$28 million, of which US$18.5 million for the priority program (category-I actions in Table 1). ii

9. The GAEAP would include the following activities: (a) strenghtening the local environmental capacity, by re-activating the Eilat Environmental Protection Committee and the Eilat Regional EnvironmentalUnit; (b) developing the legal and regulatory framework, through (i) updating the relevant statutory national, regional and local masterplans, in order to fully integrate environmental considerations; (ii) adopting economic and administrative incentives supporting environmental protection; and (iii) completing declaration of the proposed additional nature reserves; and (c) implementing environment-orientedinvestment projects, aimed at: * preventing marine pollution from land-based sources, through investments in wastewater and solid wasle management,and control of mineral dusts and chemical spills; * preventing marine pollutiionfrom marine-based sources, through oil spill control at sea, transfer of fish farming (mariculture) to land-based ponds and improvement of marina managementpractices; * enhancing management orthe protected areas, by expansion of the existing nature reserves and implementationof an integrated coral reef management plan; * implementinga monitoring and research program on environment-relatedissues; - increasing public particip,ationin environmental matters, through establishment of a local committee and promotion of environmental education and public awareness; and * developing transboundary cooperation in protecting the environment of the Northern Gulf of Aqaba. iii

GAEAP ISRAEL

Table 1: SUMMARY OF ACTIONS, RESPONSIBILITY AND PRIORITY

ACTION COST RESPONSIBILITY PRfORTY ITAITI US$ /I LEVEL12 13

Al Re-activating the Eilat Environmental Protection CommitteeoEEPC) within ME I the Municipality of Eilat A2 Re-activating and re-staffing the Eilat Regional Environmental Unit (EREl 150,000 ME, EREU 1 TA+TR and stren hening of itselanning, paptcith dut(n enforcement and modring

B. Revision and updating of all national, regional and local masterplans 00,000 PI,ME to Eilat regional development with a view to better integrating enviro a d economic considerations B2 Complete declaration of Nature Reserve areas ME, EREU,NRA B3 Adoption of the "polluteras psprinciple and other required environmental MOE, EREU 2 regulatory measures

Cl. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources 13.6 million Cl .a Construction of a modern waste water treatment plant (in progress) 10,500,000 ME I I Cl.b Moving the existing sanitar land fill 1,700,000 MOE, NME I Cl.c Control of phosphate and potash dust (in progress) 1,100,000 PS I CIA. Survey and repair of the wastewater conveyance system 200,000 NME 2I Cl.e Improve handling of solid waste 80,000 ME 2 Cl.f Prohibit dumping construction debris in the Gulf ME, EREU,NRA2 C1 .g Transfer parking from east of the southern shore road 30,000 ME, NRA 2 C1l.h Review decision to transport phosphoric acid through Eilat MOE,MOT 2 iv

GAEAP ISRAEL

Table 1: SUMMARY OF ACTIONS, RESPONSIBILITY AND PRIORITY

ACTION COST RESPONSIBILITY PRIORITY TAITR/I -______!US$ /1 LEVEL/2 /3 C2. Prevention of Marine Pollutionfrom Marine Sourees 6.9 mIllion ____:_i; C2.a Develop Israeli participation into the EU-supported Oil Spill Contingency 2,325,500 MOE I TA Plan C2.b Implement the pilot project for land-based mariculture 4,390,000 NCM 2 I+TA C2.c Improving infrastructure in the North marina 130,000 ME I I C2.d Re-examining the lagoon concept 65,000 MOE,ME, RI 2 TA

C3 .a Complete declaration of the protected areas (see B2) - ME. FREI J, NRAA C3.b Implemenitationof a land use scheme along the seashore 100,000 PI, ME 2 I C3.c Preparation of an integrated coral reef management plan 900,000 NRA 2 TA C3.d Increase enforcement - GM, ME, EREU, NRA 1 (A.f Monitvorin:gZandR 3 million __ :______C4.a hnplementation of a comprehensive monitoring and research program 3,200,000 EREU,NRA, NCM, 1111 2 TA (see Table 3) I

C5.a Establish a committee for public participation in environmental matters - ME, P 1 C5.b Promote environmental education and public awareness 200,000 ME, EREU, MOE,NRA, I I+TA

C5.c Establish a visitor center 400,000 MOE,NRA, EREU,ME 2 I+TA

C6.a Cooperate in establishing a regional environmental strategy - MOE, ME, EREU |_2 _TA C6.b Coordinate emergency response to oil spills MOE I TA v

GAEAP ISRAEL

Table 1: SUMMARY OF ACTIONS, RESPONSIBILITY AND PRIORITY

/I Responsibility EAPC - Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Co. MOE - Ministry of the Environment PI Planning Institutions GM - Government Ministries RA - Nature Reserves Authority PS -Private Sector ME - Municipality of Eilat NCM - National Mariculture Center RI -Research Institutions MOT - Ministry of Transport P - Public EREU -Eilat Regional Environmental Unit

/2 Priority Priority I - For immediate action Priority 2 - To be accomplished within the medium term

/3 TA Technical Assistance TR: Training I Investment

I. CONTEXT OF THE GAEAP

GeographicalBackground

1.1 The Gulf of Aqaba is a marine environmentenclosed by arid lands that experience extremes of temperature and exceedingly low levels of precipitation. These conditions have led to the evolution of unique, and hence internationally important, coral reef and marine ecosystems that are particularly susceptible to damage from pollution or other forms of environmentalimpact. The Gulf of Aqaba also represents a natural resource of major economic significance to the four riparian countries (Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia) in terms of access to sea transportation and development of tourism and other industries along its shores.

1.2 Israel's shoreline on the Gulf of Aqaba, approximately 14-km, is the smallest among the riparian countries. The entire shoreline lies within the municipal limits of the city of Eilat.

Economic Activities

1.3 A large number of diverse activities have been concentrated along the shore or within a short-distanceinland, resulting in the highest density of developmental activity currentlyalong the Gulf s coast.

1.4 Activities now existing along the Israel Aqaba coast include hotels and tourist attractions; shopping areas; bathing beaches; coral reef reserves, military, oil and commercialport facilities; lagunas and commnercialfish farming operations. The city of Eilat and its associated facilities and infrastructureare located behind the beachfront and directly impact the marine and coastal environment.

1.5 Tourism provides the major economic activity in Eilat. At present, there are more than 9,000 hotel rooms in Eilat and more are under construction. The expansion of the tourist economy has induced continual rapid growth in the city that currently has a population of 40,000, half of which is engaged in the tourism industry.

1.6 Coral reef attractionsdraw a large number of divers - over 250,000 dives per year is estimated, in additionto snorkelers and reef-viewingcruise boats. The reefs along the Israel coast, which were heavily damaged in the past, are intensely managed, with controlled entry points, offshore patrols and markers designatingthe reef areas.

1.7 Other economic activities along the coast include the operations of the commercialport, mainly export of phosphatemineral and derivativesand import of crude oil, marina managementand fish farming. 2

II. EXISTING AND POTE NTIALENVIRONMENTAL THREATS

2.1 Current and potential threats to the environment of the Gulf of Aqaba arise principally from tourism and associated activities, population growth in the city of Eilat induced by tourism expansion, and - to a less extent - maritime activities associatedwith ship traffic, port operations and fish farming.

TourismIndustry

2.2 Tourism is the principal economic activity in Eilat. Some 1.3 million tourists were recorded in 1995, a 57% increase over a five-yearperiod, generatinga gross revenue of US$200 million or 20% the total country revenue from tourism. There are now over 9,000 hotel rooms in the city, 60% of which are located along the 3-km north shore, which has a very narrow strip of beach for bathing. As a result, the linear shore per hotel room in this area is currently less than 0.6 meter, far below the international standard of 1.0 meter. Approximately 40% oi- all tourist nights are for foreign visitors. The attractions for tourists are primarily the Gulf waters and coral reefs, as well as the surrounding desert environment.

2.3 The Municipality of Eilat seeks to increase foreign and local tourist visitation. The most conservative plan envisions almost doubling the number of hotel rooms up to 17,000 by year 2010. Expansion of tourist visitation of this magnitude will pose the potential for significant adverse impacts on the reef and will add to the already crowded condition of the limited beach areas. Both impacts, if not properly regulated, would seriouslyundermine the future of the tourism industry. A more ambitious growth of the hotel capacity might exacerbate the environmental pressures beyond controllable levels and make the future of the tourism industry even more questionable.

PopulationGrowth

2.4 Continued expansion of the tourist accommodationswill necessitate expansion of the city population, as the need for workers to serve the new tourist facilities grows. Estimates based on current Regional Master Plan goals suggest that Eilat's population, currently40,000 after sustaining a 6.4% annual growth over the last ten years, will more than double in the next 12 years under the most conservative development projection. Such a trend will generate increased pressures on water supply, wastewater treatment and solid waste management facilities, ancl other infrastructureneeds, in particular highways and airport. At the same time, access to the Gulf beaches for the local population is already limited and any significant population increase will exacerbate pressures on the already crowded shoreline. 3

Activities Impacting on the Gulf's Waters

2.5 Cargo throughput at the commercial port - about 1.5 million tons per year - is stable or declining in volume. There remains, however, a major potential threat to the coral reefs from oil spills at, or near the port, which is located close to the major reef formations and bathing beaches. In addition, the handling of phosphate and potash minerals causes significant air pollution and threat to the coral reefs through sedimentation while the handling of phosphoric acid and crude oil remains a potential threat of toxic spill.

2.6 Fish farming is concentrated off the north shore of Eilat, near the major tourist beaches. Although it provides a very modest contribution to Israel's supply of fish, this activity is currently expanding in response to the demand from the tourism industry. There are already evidences that the fish farming industry has a marked adverse impact on adjacent waters from nutrient release and potential local eutrophication. Sewerage still presents a problem in the northern lagunas due to obsolescenceof the collection system.

Current EnvironmentalDeterioration and Protection Initiatives

2.7 Results of Government surveys on the shoreline indicate a reduction of the number of coral colonies up to 56% between 1968 and 1990, with some stabilization since then due to recent protection measures.

2.8 In addition to adopting a number of legal and regulatory instruments (see Section III), the government has taken three important initiatives aimed at effectively protecting the marine environment, including: (a) declaration of the Coral Reserve on about 30% of the total coastline, which prohibits development of urban and tourism infrastructure and carefully monitors visitor access to the waters (167,000 visitors in 1996) - further expansion on additional sensitive areas is proposed but still not approved; (b) creation, equipment and support of the Marine Pollution Control Station, as part of the EU-supported Regional Oil Spills Contingency Plan; and (c) encouragement to applied research on marine biology through the Inter-UniversityInstitute (IUI) and the National Center for Mariculture (NCM).

III. LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS

Legislation

3.1 A set of laws dealing with environmentaland nature protection provides the legal framework. These are supplemented by specific laws and regulations dealing with preparation and enforcement of Environmental Impact Statements (EIS), water quality, 4 wastewater treatment and solid waste management, air quality and all aspects of marine pollution.

3.2 With EIS requirements contained only in regulations of the Ministry of the Environment, legislation mandating the use of EIS would be helpful in ensuring the full application of these guidelines to all new development projects. Moreover, a strengthened commitment to enforcing existing laws and regulations would help protect valued environmental resources in ard along the Gulf.

Master Plans

3.3 A hierarchy of planning instruments exists, with National Master Plans (NMP) prepared, or in process, for all activities pertinent to the Gulf coast area. These NMPs establish guidelines for comprehensiveland use and resource management, and provide a background for more detailed Regional Master Plans (RMP) and local master plans. There is a multitude of subordinate single-issue plans covering various aspects of development and land use in Eilat. All master plans are statutory binding.

3.4 Of particular relevance to the GAEAP is NMP no.13, specifically regulating the use and development of the Eilat shoreline with the objective of supporting urban development, increasing the bathing beaches area and concentrating port activities. NMP no.13 is still under preparationl and could, therefore, accommodate the GAEAP recommendations. RMP no. 4 of the Southern region, still not approved, was prepared in 1994 and mainly defines regional lard use. The local masterplan for Eilat was prepared between 1975 and 1980 and needs updating.

IV. INSTITUTIONALRESPONSIBILITY

4.1 The key institutional responsibilities for environmental issues lie with the Ministry of Environment and the M;nistry of the Interior at the national and regional level, and the Municipalityof Eilat at :he local level.

Ministry of the Environment

4.2 The Ministry of the Enviromnent (MOE), created in 1990, is responsible for defining national policy and priorities for environmentalmatters. These include laws and standards for enforcement, and requirements and procedures for EIS. MOE also exercises authority over prevention of marine pollution and pollution from land-based sources. A district office of MOE, located in Beersheva, has responsibility for supervising local environmentalunits and ensuring that municipalities fulfill their environmentalprotection responsibilities. The district office also represents MOE in regional planning and building committees. 5

4.3 A unit of MOE in Eilat, the Marine Pollution Control Station, operates the spill cleanup functions, conducts marine and coastal surveillance and inspects vessels and shore terminals.

4.4 The Nature Reserves and National Park Authority (NRNPA) is a department of MOE. A district office in Eilat has jurisdiction over the Coral Reef Reserve, the Eilat Mountain reserves and other natural reserves in the district, and exercises this jurisdiction through reserve managers for each designatedreserve.

Ministry of the Interior

4.5 The Ministry of the Interior (MOI), as chair of the National Planning and Building Board, plays an important role in environmentally sound planning. The Planning administration within the Ministry is responsible for preparing national, regional and local masterplans. Through district planning and building committees, the Ministry oversees regional and local level planning and building programs.

Other Central Agencies

4.6 Other national agencies represented in Eilat include the Ministry of Tourism, the Ministry of Housing, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Transport through the Shipping and Ports Authority (responsible for safety inspection of all Israeli tankers) and the Ports Authority (in charge of the managementand operations of the Port of Eilat), the Ministry of Finance, through the state-owned Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company (which operates an oil terminal at the Port of Eilat) and the Ministry of Defense (through the Navy port facility).

Municipalityof Eilat

4.7 Local administration of environmentalprotection and planning functions is by the Municipality of Eilat. The Municipality, in addition to all other normal municipal functions, is the senior partner and immediate supervisor of the Eilat-Regional EnvironmentalUnit (EREU). This Unit functions as a branch of the Municipalityand the Municipal council sets its budget. The unit has responsibility for environmental monitoring, inspection and enforcement of environmentalregulations, acts as an advisor to local policy and decision-makers, and participates in the planning and building decisions. EREU also serves as secretary of the Eilat Environmental Protection Committee (EEPC) chaired by the mayor and including 15 voting members nominated by the municipal council.

4.8 Of major concern to the GAEAP is the EEPC inactivity and the lack of budget for the EREU, which was funded, until recently, jointly by the Municipality, the Eilot Regional Council and the Ministry of the Environment. In response to reduced funding from MOE and local budgetary problems, the Unit is now virtually unstaffed. 6

Research and Non-GovernmentalOrganizations

4.9 The Inter-University Institute of Eilat provides an institutional setup for investigation and collaboration by scientists from five Israeli universities and offers educationalprograms in the marine sciences. The National Center for Mariculture, as a branch of the Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, serves as a research institute specializingin the area of fish farming propagationand production.

4.10 The most active non-governmentalorganization (NGO) operating in Eilat is The Society for the Protection of Nature. Other active NGOs with programs relevant to the GAEAP include The Israel Union for EnvironmentalDefense, the Eilat Hotel Owner's Associationand the Israeli Diving Federation.

V. STRATEGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

EnvironmentalIssues

5.1 The fragile marine ecosystem, in particular the coral reef, is currently under the mounting pressure of economic activities competing for limited land and fresh and marine water resources. Strong protection measures are needed to stop further environmentaldeterioration.

5.2 The main issues impacting on -nvironmentalprotection include:

(a) the number and volume of economic activities competing for a drastically limited space, which causes difficulty in ensuring an environmentally- sound development, with worrisome pollution from residential and recreationalareas, port activities,lagunas and fish farming;

(b) the rapid expansion of the tourism industry, the driving force of the regional growth, which requires effective regulatorydecisions;

(c) the fragmentationof institutionalresponsibilities and planning instruments (masterplans)directing regionaldevelopment;

(d) the limited communicationon environmentalaffairs both at the central and local levels; and

(e) the insufficient enforcement of existing legislation and widening lack of support to environmentalprotection at the local level. 7

The EnvironmentalDilemma

5.3 Rapid growth of the tourism economy in Eilat has induced increasingpressures on the natural resources - the Gulf waters, beaches and coral reef - which have been important factors in attracting tourists to the area. Continued economic growth will exacerbate these pressures. The challenge is to encourage high-value growth that appropriately reflects the limited resources in the area, in such a way that the tourism economy can flourish economicallyin an environmentallysustainable manner.

5.4 The environmental dilemma for the Israel coast of the Gulf of Aqaba is that of allocating and regulating the uses of limited land and water area between competing users, in such a way as to ensure protection of the natural and environmentalresources that underliethe tourism industry,the main economicbase of the city.

Objective

5.5 The Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalAction Plan for Israel (GAEAP) will focus on strengthening existing protection of the coral reef and marine ecosystems, while promoting further economic development that can be sustained economically without degradingthe natural and enviromnentalresources that support this development.

Future Development

5.6 The principal threat to the environmentof the Gulf of Aqaba in Eilat stems from expansion of the tourism economic base and the population growth induced by that expansion. The challenge of meeting this threat is to manage this growth in a manner that is economicallysound and environmentallysustainable.

5.7 Comprehensive planning, embodying financial feasibility and natural and environmentallimitations on tourism growth, should be the major tool in meeting this challenge. Completion of planned nature reserve designations and strengthening local envirortnentalenforcement capabilitiesare also of critical importance.

Strategyfor GAEAP

5.8 Based on the assessment of current strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, the strategy recommended for the GAEAP includes the following four areas of action: (a) first, updating the cluster of planning instruments impacting on Eilat regional development, namely the relevant national, regional and local masterplans, with the objective of carefully ensuring consistency of economicdecisions with the region's carrying capacity; 8

(b) second, strengthening local capabilities and central support for environmental coordination, monitoring and enforcement; (c) third, completing actions necessary to expand the nature reserves and protected areas; and (d) fourth, targeting specific investments at environment-related projects oriented toward protecting Gulf's water quality through oil spill combating, land-based fish farming, and modem wastewater collection and treatment.

VI. THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN

Content

6.1 Consistent with the above mentioned strategy (para. 5.8), the GAEAP would support three categories of measures dealing with: (a) institutional strengthening by activating the local environmentalcapacity; (b) development of the regulatory framework by updating the planning instruments; and (c) implementationof environment-supporting projects aimed at preventing water pollution, managing the nature reserves, supporting research and monitoring, increasing public awareness and encouraging transboundary environmentalcooperation.

Total Cost

6.2 Total base cost of the proposed action plan is estimated at US$26 million, of which US$16.5 million is for priority projects. Total costs including contingencies (about 12 %) are US$28 million and US$18.5 million, respectively. Works already in progress have been valued at their full base cost and represent an aggregate US$11.6 million. Details are presented in Table I of the Executive Summary.

A. Strengthening of the Local EnvironmentalCapacity (US$0.15 million)

6.3 Upgrading the local capacity to coordinate environmental matters is a prerequisite to GAEAP implementation. This would be achieved through two immediate measures to be taken by the Municipalityof Eilat, namely:

(a) reactivating the existing Eilat Environmental Protection Committee (EEPC), (which has not met over the last two years) to oversee environment-relatedactivities and, in particular, GAEAP implementation;

(b) restaffing and reactivating the Eilat Regional Environmental Unit (EREU), to oversee planning, design, enforcement and monitoring of all regulatory 9

activities associated with environmental protection and, in particular, GAEAP implementation,and act as Secretaryto the EEPC.

B. Improving the Legal and RegulatoryFramework (US$0.5 million)

Summary

6.4 The cluster of existing National and Regional Masterplans (NMP and RMP) relevant to the development of the Eilat region would be updated as appropriateby MOI, in coordinationwith MOE and the Municipality. The objective for the Government is to have the environmentalconsiderations fully integrated in all statutorymasterplans, with particular attention to: (a) the detailed zonine of physical developments (for tourism facilities and transport infrastructure, in particular); (b) the arnount of budget appropriations required for the capital-intensive public investments in municipal infrastructure(such as wastewater collection and treatment) and transport infrastructure (highways, ports, airport and railway); and (c) the identification of regulatory measures and economicincentives required to enhancingenvironmental protection.

6.5 Subsequently,the existing Local Master Plan (LMP) for Eilat would be updated as appropriate by the Municipalityunder MOI and MOE guidance. The objective is for the Municipality to have the adequate, comprehensive and enforceable regulatory instrumentrequired for GAEAP implementation.

6.6 The updated LMP would also define appropriate regulatory measures, such as tariff schedules and fee structure, to enforce and finance the environmentalprotection in the context of the LMP, incorporating the "polluter-paysprinciple" as an economic instrumentfor further pollution control.

6.7 As an immediate measure, the Government and the Municipality would implement the proposed - but still not approved - expansion of the existing Nature Reserve Areas to protect additionalsensitive marine and terrestrial zones.

Process for Updatingthe PlanningInstruments

6.8 The cornerstone in updatingthe planninginstruments (NMP, RMP and LMP) is to define the optimum economic expansion compatible with the natural and environmental assets of the region. Therefore, the updating of the masterplans would be contingent upon the identification,review and evaluation of comprehensivedevelopment alternatives designed to adequatelyintegrate environmentaland economic considerationswith a long- term perspective. The process of updating the statutory masterplans would be implementedin three steps as described in the following paragraphs and summarized in Table 2. 10

6.9 SteP 1: Implementation of a Preparatory Study to help selecting the optimum solution to be embodied in the statulory masterplans. The Study would include: (i) the assessment of the environmentalcarrying capacity of the ecosystems of the Eilat Region; (ii) the determinationof the environmentalassets affected by the current land use patterns and economic activities, as well as those to be affected by future development; (iii) identification and analysis of the economic development alternatives; and (iv) selectionof the optimal alternatixe.

6.10 The Studywould take into considerationthe tolerance of the marine ecosystemsto the pressure resulting from the existing and planned economic activities and the type and level of protection measures ensuring nature conservation under increased pressure. It would include the review of the set of sectoral projections supporting the regional economic growth, such as tourism expansion, population growth, urban development, port and industrialactivities, transport infrastructuredevelopment, etc. The review would determine, in particular, the siting anc. cost of public and private investmentinvolved, the environmentallysensitive areas to be affected by such investments, the assessment of their environmentalimpact and the type and level of required conservation measures. A number of sectoral projections already exist, for tourism in particular, and would be reviewed and updated or revised as appropriate.

6.11 The Study would identify several development alternatives and select the optimal one ensuring the maximum economic growth in a financially and environmentally sustainablemanner. Each alternative would be evaluated to assess: (a) its impact on the natural and environmental resources of the Eilat area, with particular emphasis on protecting the marine and desert ecosystems;(b) the costs of infrastructurerequirements, with focus on the amount of public investments for urban and transport infrastructure; and (c) the type, level and cost of the associatedconservation measures.

6.12 The process of implementing the Preparatory Study would be overseen by the EEPC with EREU as coordinator, under the MOI and MOE guidance. All major stakeholders, representing the leading economic and non-economic activities of the region, would be involved in the preparation process, with the objective that all conflicting interests be clearly prese lted and a wide consensus reached before final decision-makingby MOE, MOI and the Municipality.

6.13 Step 2: Adopting modifications of the statutory masterplans. This would include: (i) the review and final approval by MOI and MOE of the modifications to the NMP and RMP recommended by the Preliminary Study; and (ii) the review and final approval by the Municipalityof Eilat of the proposed modificationsto the LMP.

6.14 Step 3: Developing additional regulatory instruments. The objective is to put in place regulations to appropriately support and enforce the conservation measures reflected in the updated Masterplans The focus would be placed on economic incentives 11 contained in appropriate tariff schedules and fees structures implementing, in particular, the "polluter/user-pays"principle

C. Environment-SupportingInvestment Projects

C1. Preventionof Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources (US$13.6million)

6.15 The main action to be taken under the GAEAP is the construction of a modem wastewatertreatment (in progress), associatedwith the improvementof the main sewage collectionnetwork.

6.16 Additional important measures would include: (a) the transfer of the sanitary landfill to a more appropriate site; (b) the control of dust emissions from phosphate and potash handling (in progress); and (c) the transfer of phosphoric acid handling to a Mediterraneanport.

C2. Prevention of Marine Pollutionfrom Marine Sources (US$6.9 million)

6.17 Israel would continue participating in the development of the EU-supported Regional Oil Spill Contingency Project aimed at combating major oil spills from collisionsor groundingsat sea.

6.18 To reduce pollution from the expanding fish farming industry,the GAEAP would support implementation of a pilot project for conducting fish farming in land-based ponds.

6.19 The infrastructureof the marina would be improved to properlycollect and evacuateall liquid and solid wastes from docking boats.

C3. Managementof the Nature Reserve Areas (US$1.0 million)

6.18 Further to expanding the coastal Nature Reserves area (see para. 2.8 and 6.7), a comprehensiveintegrated coral reef protection plan would be prepared and approved for. implemention. In parallel, the enforcement of protection measures in the Eilat Mountain Reserve would be strengthened.

C4. Monitoring and Research (US$3.2 million)

6.19 A comprehensivemonitoring and research program would be implemented. The main research themes would include fish farming ("mariculture")and impacts on marine 12 ecology and coral reef management. Monitoring would focus on seawater and air quality, coral reef destruction/regeneration,and fish farming.

C5. Public Awareness in EnvironmentalMatters (US$0.6 million)

6.20 A visitor center would be installed to raise public awareness about both marine and desert ecosystems. In addition, the GAEAP would support selected public education programs and promote participation of environment-orientedNGOs.

C6. TransboundaryEnvironmental Cooperation

6.21 The GAEAP would support. (a) the preparation of a strategy addressing the regional environmental issues of the Gulf of Aqaba, such as sea water pollution and protection of fragile ecosystems; (b) a coordinated emergency response to any environmentaldisaster such as accidental oil spill or hazardous material release. 13 Table 2

GAEAP - ISRAEL

PROCESS FOR UPDATING THE STATUTORY MASTERPLANS

(See Section V1.B in Text and Section B in Table 1)

Steps Activities Responsibility

l(i) Determine the environmentalcarrying capacity of the Eilat Region: (a) identify/delineatecritical natural areas, shoreline and offshore areas.for which conservation measures are needed; (b) evaluate the assimilative capacity of the Gulf of Aqaba waters and shoreline in the vicinity of ERECU, Eilat; MOI, (c) evaluate the ambient air quality in the Eilat Region for any constraintswhich may affect MOE, human health; ME (d) determine appropriate limitations on traffic/occupancyof environmentallysensitive desert lands; and (e) other carrying capacity evaluations.

1(ii) Identify and evaluate the environmentallimitations:

(a) that are affected by current land use patterns and economic activity; and.

(b) that will affect, or be affectedby, future development,such as EEPC, - water, waste water capacity; EREU - shoreline areas, beach access, offshorereefs; ME, PS - assimilative capacity of the Gulf of Aqaba in proximity to Eilat; - air quality limitations;and - other.

1(iii) Identify and analyze economic development alternatives: (a) analyze population impact and infrastructure cost of each alternative; EEPC, EREU, (b) analyze environmentalimpact of each alternative; MOI, (c) correlate each alternative with applicableNMP; and MOE, (d) identifyand evaluate alternativeson the basis of adverse environmentalimpacts and PS economic cost-effectiveness.

I(iv) Select optimal alternativeto be incorporatedin the Masterplans as minimizingthe adverse MOI, MOE, environmentalimpact while supporting sustainableeconomic activities. ME

(Continued next page) 14 Table 2 (continued)

PROCESS FOR UPDATING THE STATUTORYMASTERPLANS

(continued)

2(i) Modificationsto statutory National and Regional Masterplans: (a) review the alternativeproposed by preparatory study against applicable National and Regional Masterplans and propose modificationsto the existing Masterplans as necessary; MOI, (b) select optimal alternative; and (c) obtain approval of NMP and RMP modifications.

2(ii) Updatingthe statutory Local Masterplan: (a) review relevant updated NMP and RMP and prepare the LMP; and MOI, MOE, (b) approve proposed LMP. ME, PS

____ N WIN ___ _ Develop appropriate regulations,such as tariff schedules and fee structures,to support and enforce MOI, MOE, appropriate conservationmeasures as reflected in the updated Masterplans ME

LMP Local Masterplan NMP National Masterplan RMP Regional Masterplan

MOI Ministry of the Interior MOE Ministry of the Environment ME Municipality of Eilat EEPC Eilat EnvironmentalProtection Committee EREU Eilat Regional EnvironmentalUnit PS Private sector 15 Table 3 GAEAP ISRAEL

MONITORING AND RESEARCH PROGRAM

(See Section C4 of Table 1)

Item Responsibility' Cost (US$)

Evaluation of phosphate release associated with EREU 46,000 loading operations

Evaluation of seasonal concentrationsof dissolved EREU 60,000 phosphate

Sedimentphosphate evaluation EREU 25,000

Evaluation of petroleum hydrocarbon concentrationsin EREU 50,000 water

Equipment of two monitoring stations EREU 200,000

(Coralreef damage evaluation NRA 26,000

Artificial reef generation study NRA 30,000

Assembling a Gulf of Aqaba biological database EREU 25,000

Monitoringof environmentalimpact from fish farming. NCM 1,750,000

Implementing a trilateral (Egypt-Jordan-Israel) IUI 900,000 program for research and monitoring for ecological management of the coral-reef ecosystems of the Gulf of Aqaba

"Responsibility IUI - Inter-University Institute NRA - Nature Reserves Authority EREU - Eilat Regional EnvironmentalUnit NCM - National Center for Mariculture 16 Table 4 GAEAPISRAEL

CORRESPONDINGREFERENCES IN BASELINEREPORT (*)

Section of GAEAP in Table BASELINEREPOR T

Al Activating of the Eilat EnvironmentalCoordination Council (EECC) within the 6.1.2.1 - 9.1.9 Municipality of Eilat A2 Reinstatementof the Regional EnvironmentalUnit and strengthening of its 1.2.4.2 - 6.1.2.2 - 7.3.3 - enforcin and monitoring ca aci 9.4.9

BI Preparationof a regional statutory master plan (see Table 2) 6.2.2 B2 Com lete declaration of Nature Reserve areas 7.2 - 9.3.4.2 B3 Ado tion of the " olluter pays" rinci le 8.7 - 9.4

C l .a Construction of a modem waste water treatment plant (in progress) 3.3.7.2 - 4.2.1 - 9.3.3.1 Cl .b Moving the existing sanitary land fill 3.3.8 - 9.3.3.2 C 1.c Control of phosphate and potash dusts (in progress) 3.3.4.1 - 4.2.2.1 - 9.3.3.1 C l.d Surveyand repair of the sewage collection system 3.3.7.1 - 9.3.1.1 CI .e Improve handling of solid waste 3.3.8 - 4.2.4 -9.3.3.2 Cl .f Prohibit dumping construction debris in the Gulf 4.2.2.6 - 9.3.1.5 CI.g Transferparking from eastof the southernshore road 4.2.5.1.2- 9.3.1.3 C I.h Review decision to trans ort phosphoric acid throue Eilat 4.9.3 - 9.3.1.4

C2.a Develop Israeli participation in the EU-supportedOil Spill ContingencyPlan 9.2.4.1 - 9.8.1 C2.b Implement the pilotproject for land-based mariculture 3.5.1.1- 4.3.4 - 8.5 - 9.3.2.2 C2.c Improving infrastructurein the north marina 3.3.4.4 - 4.2.5.2 - 9.3.2.3 C2.d Re-examinin the la oon concept 4.2.5.2. - 9.3.2.4

C3.a Completedeclaration of the protectedareas (see B2) 7.2- 9.3.4.2 C3.b Implementationof a land use scheme along the seashore 7.1 - 9.3.4.1 C3.c Preparation of an integrated coral reef managementplan 7.3 - 9.3.4.3 C3.d Increase enforcement 7.3.1.1.1 - 9.3.4.4

C4.a Im lementation of a monitorini and research ro am see Table 3 9.5 - Annexes I to 6

C5.a Establish a committee for public participation in environmentalmatters 9.6 C5.b Promote environmental education and public awareness 9.7 C5.c Establish a visitor center 9.7

C6.a Establisha regionalenvironmental strategy 3.5 - 4.5 - 9.8.1 C6.b Coordinate emergency response to oil spills 9.8.3 Annexto THEGULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTALACTION PLAN ISRAEL

BASELINEREPORT

June 22, 1999

Aharon Zohar Regional and Environmental Planning Carmei Yosef, Israel

Abbreviations

CZM Coastal Zone Management EAPC Eilat AshkelonPipeline Co. EIS EnvironmentalImpact Statement GAEAP Gulf of AqabaEnvironmental Action Plan ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone ManagementPlan fUED Israel Union for EnvironmentalDefense IUI Inter-UniversityInstitute MOE Ministry of the Environment MOT Ministry of Transport MPCU Marine PollutionControl Unit NCM National Center for Mariculture NIS New Israeli Shekel, $1 U.S. = 3.5 NIS NMP National Master Plan NPBB National Planning and BuildingBoard NRA Nature Reserves Authority REU RegionalEnvironmental Unit SPNI Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel TIDF The Israel DivingFederation WWTP Waste Water TreatmentPlant Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to all those who h.ve played a part in the productionof this report: * Isaac Diwan, who assistedme with research, writing and editing. * MichalKidron, who drew the maps. * RosanaMilshtein, who assistedin translation. Thanks are also due to allthose who provided support and information: Gabbi Kadosh, Osnat Post, Yehiam Shiezingerand Jacob Storch from the Municipality of Eilat; Valerie Brachya,Ellik Adler, Liora Golob from the Ministryof the Environment; Ezri Alon, Noam Meshi and Roni King from the Nature Reserves Authority; Jonathan Erez, Avi Baranes, Anton Post and Amazia Ganin form the Inter-UniversityInstitute of Eilat; Amos Tandler, Noam Mozes and Hillel Gordin from the National Center for Mariculture; Aharon Dekel from the Eilat Hotel Owners Association;Rami Klinger from the Ports Authority; Alon Tal from the Israel Union for EnvironmentalDefense; and Sigal from Architect Uri Shitrit. Special thanks are extended to Philip Warburg, consultant, for his assistance and contribution

ii Table of Contents EXECU VE SUvARY ...... E-1

1. BACKGROUNDAND OVERVIEW...... 1l 1.1. BACKGROUND...... 1...1 1.2. OVERVIEW...... 1 1.2.1. Dilemma of Developmentin the Gulf of Aqaba - the Case of Israel .1 1.2.2. The Gulf of Aqaba Coral Reef Ecosystems:a Global Concern .2 1.2.3. TransboundaryConcerns .3 1.2.4. Institutional and Legal Issues .3 1.2.5. Boundaries .4 1.2.6. Objectivesof the Gulf of AqabaEnvironmental Action Plan .5 2. SINGULARITYOF THE EILAT REGION .6 2.1. TERRESTRIALENVIRONMENT ...... ,, 6 2.1.1. Base rock...... ,..,,,,,,,....,,,..,,,,,..6 2.1.2. Variegated rock...... ,. . , , , , . 6 2.1.3. Varied landscapes...... 6 2.1.4. Fauna and Flora .7 2.1.5. Level of environmentaldegradation .7 2.2. THEMARINEENviRONMENT...... I ,, ,,,,,,,8 2.2.1. Hydrographyof the Gulf of Aqaba...... , . , . 8 2.2.2. Coral reefs...... , , , , .... 8.,8 2.2.3. Level of marine environment degradation .9 3. EXISTING AND FORESEENDEVELOPMENT . 10 3.1. TouRism.10 3.1.1. Tourism DevelopmentTrends .10 3.1.2. Beach-Front Development.13 3.1.3. Tourist Activities...... ,14 3.2. MuNICIPALDEVELOPMENT ...... 17 3.2.1. DemographicTrends .17 3.2.2. Economy and Manpower.18 3.2.3. Housing ...... ,,, 21 3.2.4. ArchitectonicDesign ...... 21 3.3. INFRASTRUCTURE.21 3.3.1. Road Network .21 3.3.2. Railway.... 23 3.3.3. Airports...... ,,... 23 3.3.4. Seaports.24 3.3.5. Power Supply...... 29 3.3.6. Water Supply...... 30 3.3.7. WastewaterTreatment .... 30 3.3.8. Solid Waste...... 35 3.4. OTHERECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ...... 36 3.4.1. Mariculture ...... 36 3.4.2. Industry...... 37 3.4.3. Agriculture...... ,,,.... 38 3.4.4. Quarries...... 38 3.5. PROPOSEDREGIONAL PROJECTS .. . 40 3.5.1. Short Term Projects...... 40 3.5.2. Long-TermProjects ...... 42

iii 4. EXISTING AND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS ...... 43 4.1. NATURALHAZARDS...... 43 4.1.1. Flood Control...... 43 4.1.2. Earthquakes...... 44 4.2. LAND-BASEDPOLLUTION ...... 44 4.2.1. Wastewater...... 44 4.2.2. Air Pollution...... 46 4.2.3. Hazardous Substances...... 49 4.2.4. Solid Waste...... 49 4.2.5. Other Enviromnental Impacts...... 50 4.3. . MARINEPOLLUTION ...... 51 4.3.1. Oil Spills...... 51 4.3.2. Ballast Bilgeand Water...... 53 4.3.3. Wastewaterfrom Vessels...... 53 4.3.4. Mariculture...... 54 4.4. TOURISTACTIVITIES ...... 54 4.5. POTENTIALTRANs-BouN)ARY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PROPOSEDREGIONAL PROJEcTs.56 4.5.1. Industry and Energy Procluction ...... 56 4.5.2. Transportation ...... 57 4.5.3. The Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (RSDSC) ...... 58 5. CONFLICTS ...... 59

6. INSTITUTIONS AND LLGISLATION ...... 60

6.1. CURRENTINSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK - INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES . . 60 6.1.1. The National and Regional Level ...... 60 6.1.2. The Local Level ...... 63 6.1.3. Research Organizations ...... 64 6.1.4. Non-Governmental Organizations ...... 66 6.2. LEGISLATIONAND REGULATIONS...... 68 6.2.1. National Level Instruments - Laws and Regulations ...... 68 6.2.2. Masterplans ...... 75 6.2.3. Relevant International Conventions ...... 79 6.2.4. Inte rnationalCooperation ...... 1...... l 7. CZM AND NATURAL PESOURCE MANAGEMENT ...... 83 7.1. ZONATIONSCHEMES ...... 84 7.2. LEGALSCHEMES ...... 85 7.3. MANAGEMENTSTRATEGIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ...... 85 7.3.1. The Nature Reserves Autiority ...... 85 7.3.2. The Marine Pollution Control Unit ...... 899...... 7.3.3. The Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit ...... 89 7.3.4. The Israeli Diving Federation ...... 89 8. OPTIONS FOR ENVIRCNMENTAL MANAGEMENT ...... 90 8.1. TRENDSOF TOURISMDEVsLOPMENT ...... 90 8.1.1. Growth of the tourism sector ...... 90 8.1.2. Level of tourism developmnent ...... 92 8.2. ECONOMICDIVERSITY ...... 92 8.3. EILAT's GROWTHDIRECTION ...... 93 8.4. INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELCPMENT ...... 93 8.4.1. Ports ...... 93 8.4.2 Airports...... 94 8.4.3. Roads ...... 95 8.4.4. Trains ...... 95 8.4.5. Border crossings ...... 95

iv 8.4.6. Drinking water supply...... 95 8.5. MARICULTURE ...... 95 8.6. FLOODCONTROL ...... 96 8.7. EcoNoMicINSTRUMENTS ...... 99 9. GULFOF AQABAENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN...... 100 9.1. PRINCIPLESOFTHE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN ...... 100 9.1.1. Long-TermPreventive Perspective...... 100 9.1.2. Prevention of Further Environmental Degradation...... ,,,,.,.,.,.,.,,.100 9.1.3. Resource Conservation...... ,101 9.1.4. Promotion of Developmentthat Minimizes Damage to the Coastal and Marine Enviromnent 101 9.1.5. Reductionof Pollution at the Source.101 9.1.6. Removal of Polluting Activitiesfrom the Urban Area.101 9.1.7. Concentration of Similar Activities.101 9.1.8. Adoption of Economic Incentives.101 9.1.9. StrengtheningLocal Capacity.102 9.1.10. TransboundaryResponsibility and InternationalEquity .102 9.2. DEVELOPMENTTRENDS OF THE EILAT REGION.102 9.2.1. Tourism Development GrowthRate .102 9.2.2. Level of Tourism Development...... 102 9.2.3. Economic Diversity.102 9.2.4. Direction of Urban Growth...... 102 9.2.5. Regional InfrastructureTrends .103 9.3. POLLUTIONPREVENTION .104 9.3.1. Preventionof Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources.104 9.3.2. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sources.106 9.3.3. Preventionof Pollution from Other Sources.107 9.3.4. Nature Preservation...... 107 9.3.5. Conservation...... ,109 9.3.6. Local EnvironmentalAdministration Strengthening.110 9.4. ADOPTIONOF ECONOMIC MECHANISMS .111 9.5. MONITORINGAND RESEARCH .111 9.5.1. Monitoring Programs ...... , , .111 9.5.2. Research Programs ...... ,113 9.5.3. DataManagement ...... 114114 9.6. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION...... 114...,,,,,,,,,,,,,,...... ,114 9.7, EDUCATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS...... , . , , , ,, .. 115 9.8. TRANSBOUNDARYENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION . 118 9.8.1. Regional Environmental Strategy ...... 118 9.8.2. Regional Environmental Coordination Council . 118 9.8.3. Coordinated Emergency Response ...... , ., . , . , , .. 118 9.9. MONITORING ANDEVALUATION OF THE PLAN...... 118

10. ANNEXES ...... 1

II. REFERENCES ...... ,13

V List of Tables

TABLE 1. VISITS ANDBED OCCUPANCYIN EILAT 1990-1996 (THOUSANDS)...... 11 TABLE 2. FORECAST OF HOTEL ROOM CONSTRUCTIONIN EILAT...... 14 TABLE 3. TOURIST AyrRACTIONS IN EILkT ...... 15 TABLE 4 ATrRACTIONS ON THE OUTSKIRTSOF EILAT.1.,,,,,...... ,,.,,.,,,, 16 TABLE 5. HIKING TRAIL VISITSPER DAYIN THE EILAT MOUNTAINS RESERVE...... 16 TABLE6. IMMIGRATIONANDEMIGRATIONRATES FOREILAT- 1993 TO 1995 ...... 17 TABLE 7. FISCAL REPORT OF THE MUNICIPALITYOF EILAT, 1996. (1000 NIS) ' ...... 20 TABLE 8. PROPERTY TAXESAPPLIED TO )IFFERENTSECTORS N 1996 IN EILAT...... 21 TABLE 9. CARGO TRAFFIC IN EILAT PORT. 1985-1994 ...... 26 TABLE 10. NUMBER OF VEHICLESTRANSPORTED THROUGH THE PORT OF EILAT...... 27 TABLE 11. QUANTITY OF HAZARDOUSStUBSTANCES IN CONTAINERSAND TONS ...... 27 TABLE 12. DAILY QUANTITIES OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCESIN CONTAINERS AND TONS AT THE EILAT PORT (SAMPLEDAYS, 1996) ...... 27 TABLE 13. DESALINATIONUNITS SERVING EILAT ...... 31 TABLE 14. DOMESTIC WATERCOST ...... 32 TABLE 15. DESCRIPTIONOF EILAT'S SEWAGEPUMPING STATIONS ...... 33 TABLE 16. DESCRIPTION OFEILAT'S SEWAGECOLLECTION PIPELINES ...... 33 TABLE 17. VOLUME OF EILAT'S TREATEDWASTEWATER USED IN AGRICULTURE-1986-1992 ...... 3 5 TABLE 18. PROJECTED DAILY AND ANNUAL QUANTITIES OF SOLID WASTE GENERATED IN EILAT AND THE SOUTHERNARAVA 2000-2030 (TONS)...... 36 TABLE 19. QUARRIESIN THE EiLAT AREA...... 39 TABLE 20. ISRAELI ENVIRONMENTALLAWS ANDREGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO THE GULF OF AQABA.k...... 70 TABLE 21. NATIONAL MASTERPLANSAPPLICABLE TO EILAT AND THE GULF OF AQABA ...... 75 TABLE 22. INTERNATIONALTREATIES ANYDCONVENTIONS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENTRATIFIED BY ISRAEL.80 TABLE 23. ENFORCEMENTOF NATUREASSETS REGULATIONSALONG THE RED SEA COAST OFEILAT, 1990-1995...... 86 TABLE 24. PROJECTED NEWHOUSING DISTRIBUTIONIN EILAT...... 92 TABLE 25. LAND BASEDMARICULTURE FACILITY AND EQUIPMENTREQUIREMENTS ...... 98 TABLE 26. METHODS FOR ADVANCING PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION AND AWARENESS FOR DIFFERENT TARGETPOPULATIONS ...... 117

vi List of Figures

FiGuRE 1. NUMBEROF VISITORSAND OVERNIGHT VISITs IN EILAT1990-1994 ...... 11 FIGuRE2. FOREIGNTOURIST VISITS TO EILAT,BY MONTH (PERCENTAGE) 1996 ...... 12 FIGURE 3. TOTAL MONTHLY NUMBEROF ISRAELI VACATIONERSAND FOREIGN TOURISTS TO EILAT BY MONTH, 1996...... 12 FIGURE4. NUMBEROF HOTEL ROOMS IN EILAT: 1985 - 1996...... 13 FIGURE5. POPULATIONMIGRATION TO ANDFROM EILAT - 1993-1995...... 17 FIGURE6. AGEDISTRIBUTION - EILAT AND ISRAEL ...... 18 FIGURE 7. INTEGRATEDPOND SYSTEMSCHEMATIC DIAGRAM ...... 97

List of Maps

MAP 1. LANDUSE MAP FOR THE EILAT REGION ...... 119 MAP2. NATURE ANDPRESERVATIONTOURING MAP ...... 120 MAP 3. EILAT REGIONINFRASTRUCTURE MAP ...... 121 MAP 4. EILAT PORTS...... 122 MAP 5. EILATREGION ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICTS MAP ...... 123

Annexes ANNEXI.EVALUATION OFTHE IMPACT OF EILAT'S DEVELOPMENT ON THEENVIRONMENT. ANNEX 2. PROJECTS PROPOSED BY THE EILAT-EILOT REGIONALENVIRONMENTAL UNIT. ANNEX 3. PROJECTSPROPOSED BY THE INTERUNIVERSITYINSTITUTE FORMARINE SCIENCES. ANNEX 4. PROJECTSPROPOSED BY THE NATIONAL CENTER FORMARICULTURE. ANNEX 5. PROJECTSPROPOSED BY THE NATURE RESERVESAUTHORITY. ANNEX 6. MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENTREQUIREMENTS FOR COMBATINGMARINE POLLUTION.

ANNEX7. THE RED SEA PARTNER-SHIP.

vii

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

1. Background Israel's shoreline is notable for being the shortest among neighboringstates bordering the Gulf of Aqaba. However, because of the concentration of diverse activities in a limitedarea, Israel's shore and natural environmentface significantpotential threats. Israel's coastline combinesbathing beaches, three ports, two marinas, and numerous hotels, tourist amenities,coral reef reservesand commercialmariculture activities. The city of Eilat and its associated facilities and infrastructure, such as pipelines, the airport, and the wastewater treatment plant, are located behind the beach-front and directlyimpact the marineand coastal environment. The principal objective of the GAEAP-Israel is to ensure sound integrated managementof all marine and coastal resources, and of activitiesthat impact them, by allowing sustainabledevelopment and multiple human use of the marine and coastal zones. 2. Existing and PotentialEnvironmental Threats The central conflict in the Eilat region exists between economic growth and environmentalconservation, and gives rise to most other existingconflicts. The major threats to the environmentare: a) Tourism. The economy of Eilat is based on tourism whose developmenthas caused an increase in the size of the city, its population, and its labor force (See Chapter 3). At present, there are more than 9,000 hotel rooms in Eilat. Foreign tourists comprise approximately30% of the total visitors (around 1.3 million in 1995), and 40% of all bed occupancies. Eilat has a population of approximately40,000 inhabitants with a natural annual growth rate of 6.4%. Approximatelyhalf of Eilat's inhabitantslive there for 5 years or less. The high growth rate of the population requires continued expansion of housing and infrastructure.In the year 2000, approximately64% of the workers in Eilat will be employedin the tourism industry. Each additionalhotel room adds an average of 2 to 3 workers. Most of the workers in tourism are young: The 20-29 age group makes up 24% of Eilat's population compared to 15% nationwide. These workers are characterizedby their transientnature and lack of attention to the natural environment. According to the Eilat Regional Master Plan, adopting the controlled development alternative of 17,000 hotel rooms by the year 2010 will result in controlled growth of the city populationto 81,000 inhabitantsby 2010. This will also reduce the number of temporaryworkers, and slow the rate of expansionof the city (See Chapter 8.1). This scenariowas not evaluated from point of view of environmentalprotection. At present the length of linear shore per hotel room in Eilat lags behind the internationalstandard of one room per linear meter of beach. There is 0.56 meter of linear shore per hotel room along the north shore, and 0.16 meter per room along the

E-1 south shore. These data do not take into considerationthe needs of Eilat's inhabitants and the 2,500 hotel rooms located in the city (See Chapter 3.1.2): Eilat's coral reefs endure hundreds of thousands of divers every year. These are responsiblefor damage caused by stepping on the reefs and suspension of sediments. Boat activitynear the reefs can catusedamage to the reef through breakage by anchors and suspensionof sediments(See Chapter 4.4). b) Land Based Pollution Major sources of land-basedpollution are (See Chapter 4.2): * WastewaterAlthough Eilat's wastewateris no longer dischargedto the Gulf, the wastewater treatment plant is not in satisfactorycondition. The Municipalityhas approved the construction of a modern wastewater treatment facility whose constructionwill be completed in the near future. A central environmentalissue is the uncontrolledflow of untreated wastewater to the Gulf followingbreakage from old or worn out pipes in the municipal sewage system. * Phosphate dust released during the ship loading operations at the cargo port. Dust will drop dramaticallyfollowing the installationof a choke feeder in the near future. * The marina on the north shore is the source of ongoing environmentalpollution. Because of a lack of appropriate infrastructurefor collection of wastewater, used oil, bilge water, and garbage, lhese pollutantsare discharged directly from cruise boats into the Gulf The remaining sources of pollution are less important. Air pollution sources include gas turbines, exhaust from vehiclesand airplanesand dust releasedfrom quarries. Accidents involvinghazardous materials also need to be addressed. These accidents can occur during use, transport, and handlingof hazardous materials, mainlyto and from the cargo port. c) Marine Pollution There are three main sources of marinepollution (See Chapter 4.3): * Oil Spills. Althoughenforcement and inspectionshave dramaticallydecreased the number of marinepollution incidents involving oil, a mediumto large sized oil spill will cause severe damageto marinebiota and the tourism industry. * Mariculture. Research has shown that the quantities of nutrients released from mariculturecages may cause significantdamage to the marineenvironment. * Sanitarywastes, oil, and garbage.Cruise boats discharge sanitarywastes, oil and garbage to the Gulf because of a lack of collectionsystems at the marina. d) Potential Trans-BoundaryEnvironmental Impacts The maintransboundary environmental impacts are air pollution, marine pollution of the Gulf from land and marine sources, elevation of the groundwater level and groundwater pollution in proximity to the wastewater treatment plants, and visual disturbances.The major potential ;ources of pollution consist of industry and energy

E-2 production facilities, port operations, transportation sources of various kinds and tourism (See Chapter 4.5). 3. Institutionaland Legal Issues Israel has a well developed institutional and legal framework for environmnental protection. The Mnistry of the Environmentand the Ministryof the Interior are the main national-levelgovernmental bodies that establish environmentaland development policy, while other ministries are partially or wholly responsible for environmental aspects of activitiesthat fall within their realm (See Chapter 6.1). The need to strengthenlocal environmentaladministration is in absolute contradiction to the decision of the Municipalityof Eilat to dismantlethe RegionalEnvironmental Unit followingcutback of half of its financialsupport received from the Ministryof the Environment. Planninglegislation includes environmentalguidelines and addresses the whole range of issues such as environmentalimpact assessments;air quality; water quality;marine pollution control; solid wastes; hazardous wastes; and nature preservation (See Chapter 6.2.1). Nationalmasterplans establish guidelines for comprehensiveland use and resource management(See Chapter 6.2.2). NationalMaster Plan No. 13 for Eilat Gulf Shore is currentlyunder preparation(See Chapter 7). Althoughregulations specify the kinds of projects for which an EnvironmentalImpact Statement (EIS) is mandatory,any planningauthority may require an EIS. The EIS has proved to be a highly effective tool for a limited number of projects in which severe environmentalimpacts are anticipated, but not as an appropriate tool for checkingsmall planswhose cumulativeenvironmental impact may be significant,such as hotels (See Chapter 6.2.1.2). The institutionaland legal issues associatedwith environmentalprotection in the Gulf of Aqaba are absence of a local environmental administration, overlapping responsibilities,and inadequateenforcement. 4. CoastalZone Managementand NaturalResource Management The main dilemma of CZM is how to make the best use of the limited shoreline, allowing maximum public access to the sea. Israel currently does not have an approvedCZM plan for the Gulf of Aqaba. In actuality,each stakeholdermanages his own share of the shoreline,and is influencedby a narrow outlook (See Chapter 7). Because of the uniquenatural resources,nature reserves consistof 36% of the region's land area. Paradoxically,the areas that are consideredto be problematicsince they are threatenedby future developmentfall under the categoryof proposed nature reserves. The management of common marine and coastal zone resources falls under the responsibilityof three main bodies, each with enforcementauthority for specificlaws: The Nature ReservesAuthority, the Marine PollutionControl Unit, and the Eilat-Eilot RegionalEnvironmental Unit. The main strategiesused to protect the coastline and its natural resources are (See Chapter 7.3. 1):

E-3 * Direct strategies: enforcement. limit on use and controlled access and limit on number of visitors. * Indirect strategies: providing impact education, charging entrance fees, non- development of specific areas, providing alternative sites e.g., artificial reefs, to relievevisitor pressure on natural resources. 5. Public Participation,Education and Public Awareness Although public support for environmentalprotection becomes more essential with time, in Eilat, public participation is still in an incubatory stage. Limited public involvementin environmentalissues has been led by NGOs located outside of the Eilat region (See Chapter 9.6). Education and public awarenesseflorts shouldbe directed at Israeli vacationers (70% of the total hotel visitors), tourists (who stay longer than Israeli vacationers), tour operators, pupils, teachers, tourisrn industry workers, officials, and the media (See Chapter 9.6). 6. Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalAction Plan For a summary of actions, responsibilities, and priorities of the Action Plan recommendations,see Table a. For the entireAction Plan, see Chapter 9. 6.1 Principlesof the Plan - Long-termpreventive perspective. * Prevention of further environmentaldegradation. - Resource conservation. PPromotion of development thaLtminimizes damage to the coastal and marine environment. * Reduction of pollutionat the source. * Removalof pollutingactivities fi-om the urban area. * Concentrationof similaractivities. * Adoptionof economicincentives. * Strengtheninglocal capacity. * Transboundaryresponsibility and internationalequity. 6.2 RecommendedDevelopment Directions 1. Evaluation of the impact of the Eilat area's population growth and tourism developmenton the environment. Findingsof such an evaluationwill provide data necessary to update the city's fiuturedevelopment directions and to evaluate the current tourism growth forecasts. 2. Development of 4-star hotels represents the best combination of the number of workers per room (and therefore less population) and sufficientvariety of indoor and pool-side activities will relieve pressure from the beaches and natural environment(See Chapter 8.1.2).

E-4 3. Diversificationof economicactivity, especiallydevelopment of industry is necessary in order to attract a more stable population(See Chapter 8.2). 4. Extending the City of Eilat and its tourist industry in a northward direction along the Arava Valley,taking into account seismicconsiderations (See Chapter 8.3). 5. Arrestingtourism developmentalong the south shore in order to protect the natural resources there (See Chapter 8.3). 6. Decreasing the size of the ports and crowding them will liberate more shoreline, mainly for public beaches, and relieve developmentpressure from sensitive coastal areas (See Chapter 8.4.1). 7. Examiningthe possible removal of Eilat's airport. Removal of the airport will free the city from air and noise pollution and risks associated with air traffic (See Chapter 8.4.2). 8. Paving the Eilat Bypass Road and the SouthBeach Bypass Road will redirect heavy traffic to and from the port and internationaltraffic away from the city of Eilat, thereby decreasinglevels of air and noise pollution,and risk of hazardous substance accidents the densely populated area. In planning these roads, visual impacts and options for free passage of migrating animals should be addressed (See Chapter 8.4.3). 9. Removing the border crossings from Taba to Ein Netafim and from the existing Arava crossing north of the Aqaba airport will divert most of the intemational vehicular and tourist traffic, relievingthe city of Eilat from environmentalpollution and disturbances. 1O.Concentrationof linear infrastructure along the Arava Road and parallel to the Israeli-Jordanianborder (See Chapter 9.2.5.6). 11.Siting of industrial and infrastructurefacilities will concentrate projects that have the potential to pollute the environmentand impact the natural scenery, will place facilitiesaway from residentialareas and concentratethem into compact land areas (See Chapter 9.2.5.7). 12.Improvementof Eilat's skyline and the integration of the urban environmentto desert conditions(e.g., shading,use of insulatingbuilding materials, and appropriate structuralcover materials)(See Chapter 3.2.4). 13.Planning and establishingan operational system to manage flood hazards (See Chapters 4.1.1 and 8.6) 6.3 Preventionof Marine Pollutionfrom Land-BasedSources 1. Supervisionof the installationof the choke feeder, the unloadinginfrastructure, and the dust monitoringsystem at the cargo port (See Chapter 4.2.2.1). 2. Conductinga leakage survey of the wastewater conveyance system followed by repairs or replacement of defective pipes, and ensure ongoing maintenance (See Chapter 3.3.7.1).

E-5 3. Prevention of use of the area east of the southern shore road for parking vehicles through placementof barriers along the eastern side and establishingparking areas on the western side (See Chapter 7.3). 4. Wideningthe south beach by moving the road westwards into semi-openedtunnels (See Chapter 9.3.1.3). 5. Re-examine the plan to transport phosphoric acid through the port of Eilat (See Chapters 3.3.4.1 and 4.2.3). 6. Prevention of sediment caused by construction to be swept into the water (See Chapter 4.2.2.6). 7. Re-examinethe lagoon concept(See Chapter 4.2.5.2). 6.4 Preventionof Marine Pollutionafrom Marine Sources Prevention of marine pollution from marine sources can be encouraged by the followingactions (See Chapters 4.3 and 9.3.2). 1. Cancellationof bulk crude oil transport from Egypt to Israel through the Gulf of Aqaba, and use of subsidiesto redirect transport to Israel's Mediterraneanports or replacingthe old tankers by new anes. 2. Completionof equipmentneeds to combatmarine pollution. 3. Traininga larger team of specialiststo combat marinepollution. 4. Relocation of mariculture operations from the Gulf to land-based operations in ponds. 5. A set of actions shouldbe taken in the northern marina in order to prevent sewage, oil, and solid waste disposalinto r.heGulf (for details,see Chapter 9.3.2.3). 6. The Gulf of Aqaba shouldbe declared a "no dischargezone" by law. 6.5 Prevention of Pollution from CltherSources Prevention of pollution from other sources can be accomplished by (See Chapter 9.3.3.): 1. A survey to assess groundwater contamination levels around the wastewater treatment plant. 2. Closure of the Eilat sanitarylandfill and transfer of operations to the Nimra site. 6.6 Nature Preservation Nature preservationrecommendations are (See Chapter 7): 1. Implementationa 3 level zonation scheme: Complete protection zone, controlled protection zone, and developmentzone (See Chapter 7.1). 2. Completionof declarationof nature reserves(See Chapter 7.2). 3. Developmentof an integratedcoral reef managementplan. 4. Increased enforcement.

E-6 6.7 ResourceConservation Resource conservationwill includeimprovement of (See Chapter 9.3.5.1): 1. Water and wastewater conservation. 2. Energy conservation. 3. Solid waste reduction,separation, and recycling. 6.8 Use of EnvironmentallyFriendly Energy Sources Promote use of environmentallyfriendly energy sources: 1. Solar and wind energy 2. R&D in the area of solar energy use for wastewater treatment and seawater desalination. 6.9 Local EnvironmentalAdministration Strengthening Local environmentaladministration strengthening should include (See Chapters 6.1 and 9.3.6): 1. Expansion of the responsibilitiesof the Regional EnvironmentalUnit, fields of action and staff. 2. Significantincrease in the budget of the Unit, includinguse of money collected accordingto the "polluter pays" principle. 3. Taking responsibility for coordination of the different entities involved in environmentalprotection, includingthe Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalAction Plan. 4. Updatingthe local environmentalbylaws. 6.10 Economic Measures. The introduction of the Gulf of Aqaba Action plan should be accompanied by the following economic measures (See Chapters 8.7 and 9.4, and Table a for proposed economicmeasures for each action): 1. Establishmentof revenue generatingmechanisms. 2. Adoptionof "polluterpays" principle. 3. Provisionof a systemof positiveincentives for pollutionprevention. 4. Provision of incentives to entrepreneursfor establishingenterprises which would relieve visitor pressure from natural assets (e.g., artificial reefs) and increase the area of bathing beaches. 5. Cost sharing of monitoring and control operations in cases of transboundary pollution. 6.11 Monitoring and ResearchPrograms The plan suggests the followingmonitoring programs (for more details, see Table b, Chapter 9.5, and Annexes 1-3): 1. Evaluation of phosphaterelease associatedwith loading operations; 2. Evaluation of seasonalconcentration of dissolvedphosphate;

E-7 3. Sedimentphosphate concentrationevaluation; 4. Evaluationof petroleum hydrocarbonconcentrations in water 5. Addition of two air quality monitoringstations to the four that are planned for the cargo port. 6. Coral reef damage monitoring,including: * A coral reef damageevaluation; * An artificialreef generation study. 7. Noise monitoringaround the Eilat Airport (See Chapter 4.2.3.5). 8. Undertake research programs to assist in resolution of specific management problems. 9. Improve the environmental data management systems, among others, by the introduction of a GIS systemin the RegionalUnit. 6.12 Public Participation,Education, and Public Awareness Public participation, education, and public awareness recommendationsinclude (See Chapters 9.6 and 9.7): 1. Establishmentof an environmentalpublic committee. 2. Implementingeducational campaigns. 3. Directing education and public awareness efforts to specific target populations using courses, seminars,mass media, written materialsand other means. 4. Establishment of a Visitor Center and preparation of advertising material (See Annex 4). 6.13 TransboundaryEnvironmental Cooperation Transboundaryenvironmental cooperation should include (See Chapter 9.8): 1. Developmentof a regional environmentalstrategy. 2. Establishmentof an environmentalcoordination council. 3. Coordinatedemergency response. Finally, a monitoring and evaluation process is needed to ensure dynamic implementationof the Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalAction Plan.

E-8 Table a. Summary of action responsibilitiesand priorities.

Action 1 Responsibility, Priority2 | ProposedEconomic 3 l______I______I Measures A. DevelopmentTrends of the Eilat Region Decision regarding tourism GM, PI, ME 1 NA developmentgrowth rate Decision regarding levelof GM, PI, ME 1 1 tourism development Decisionregarding GM, PI, ME 2 6,8,9 economicdiversity Decisionregarding GM, PI, ME 1 NA directionof urban growth Decisionregarding GM, PI, ME, 2 NA decreasingthe area of the Ports ports and concentrating them Decision regarding GM, PI, ME, Civil 2 NA removalof Eilat Airport Aviation Administration Decisionon border GM, PI, ME 2 NA crossingremoval Decision on railroadto GM, PI, ME 3 8 Eilat Decision on concentration GM, PI, ME 1 NA of infrastructure Decisionon siting of PI, ME 1 NA industrialand infrastructure facilities B. Preventionof Marine Pollutionfrom Land-BasedSources Control of phosphate and Ports Authority, 1 3 potash dust REU Survey of, and repair of ME 1 1 wastewater conveyance system Prevention of parking east ME, NRA 1 5 of the southern shore road Relocationof the southern ME 3

E-9 Action Responsibility' Priority2 ProposedEconomic Measures3 shore road to a semi-open tunnel Review phosphoricacid MOE, MOT 1 3 transport through Eilat Port Flood control ME 1,2 NA Prevention of dumping ME. REU, NRA 1 5 constructiondebris into the Gulf C. Prevention of Marine Pollution from Marine Sources Prevention of oil spills MO:E,MOT, 1 3,5,8 EAF'C Land-based mariculture NCM 1 6,8,9 pilot plant Declaration of the Gulf of MOE-,ME 1 3,5 Aqaba as a "no discharge" zone Improvinginfrastructure in ME 1 2,3 the north marina(see Ch. 9.3.2.3) Reexaminationof the MOE, ME, RI 2 NA lagoon concept D. Prevention of Pollutionfrom Other Sources Constructionof a modem ME 1 1,2,3 WWTP Removingthe present MOE, ME 1 2,3,5 sanitarylandfill to the Nimra site E. Nature Preservation Implementzonation PI, VE 1 NA scheme along the seashore Completionof declaration NRA I NA of nature reserves Developmentof integrated NRA 2 3,10 coral reef managementplan Increased enforcement GM, 'ME,REU, 1 2,5

E-10 Action Responsibility' Priority, Proposed Economic Measures3 NRA Water conservation ME, PS, Public 2 1,5,6,7 measures Energy conservation ME, PS, Public 2 1,5,6,7 measures Handling of solidwaste ME, REU, PS 2 3,4,7 Use of environmentally MOE, ME, PS, RI 3 6,8,9 friendlyenergy sources F. Local EnvironmentalAdministration Strengtheninglocal ME, MOE 1 1,3 environmental administration Updating local ME, REU 1 1,2,3,5 environmentalbylaws J. Adoption of EconomicMechanisms Developinga plan to ME, REU 1 3 charge polluters according to the "polluter pay" principle H. Monitoring and REU, NRA, WI, 1-3 NA Research (See Table b) RI I. Establishmentof P 1 NA Public Participation Committee J. Education and Public Awareness Promote environmental ME, REU, MOE, 1 1,2,3,10 educationand public NRA, P awareness Establishmentof a visitor MOE, NRA, 3 2,10 center REU, ME K. Transboundary GM, ME, RI, 1 NA Environmental REU, P Cooperation

E-11 LEGEND 1. Responsibility: EAPC- Eilat AshkelonPipeline Co. GM - Govemment Ministries; Pi - Planning Institutions; ME - Municipalityof Eilat; MOT - Ministry of Transport; MOE- Ministry of the Environment; NRA - Nature ReservesAuthority; RI - ResearchInstitutions; REU - RegionalEnvironmental Unit; NCM- National MaricultureCenter, PS - Private Sector; P- Public. 2. Priority: 1. for immediateaction 2. to be accomplishedwithin the mediumterm 3. to be accomplishedin the long-term 3. Proposedeconomic measures: 1. taxes and surcharges; 2. price increases; 3. user fees (polluter pays, etc.); 4. deposits; 5. fines; 6. tax credits or reductions; 7. refunds; 8. subsidies; 9. R&D support; 10. technical assistance.

E-12 Tableb. Summaryof projectsfor technicalassistance.

Action Responsibility' Priority Cost I LeveI2 (US$) Marine PollutionControl Comrletion of equipment needs MOE 1 2,325,000 Seawater Monitoring Evaluation of phosphaterelease REU 1 46,000 associated with loading operations Evaluation of seasonal concentrations REU 1 60,000 of dissolved phosphate Sediment phosphate evaluation REU 1 25,000 Evaluation of petroleum hydrocarbon REU 1 50,000 concentrations in water Air Quality Monitoring Two monitoring stations REU 1 200,000 Coral Reef Monitoring Coral reef damage evaluation NRA 1 26,000 Artificial reef generation study NRA 2 30,000 Research Gulf of Aqaba biological database REU 2 25,000 Monitoring of environmentalimpact NCM 2 1,750,000 from mariculture. Trilateral (Egypt-Jordan-Israel) IU I 1 900,000 Programfor Researchand Monitoring Aimed at EcologicalManagement of the Coral-Reef Ecosystemsof the GulfOf Aqaba _ Education and Public Awareness Coral reef protection visitor center INRA 12 | 400,000 Preparation of advertising material INRA 12 J 100,000 Management Data management REU 1 100,000 Hike coordination system NRA 1 5,000 Mariculture Pilot land-based integrated NCM 1 4,390,000 mariculture facility 2v,_602_00 Mariculturetraining center NCM 2 9,602,000 1. Responsibility: MOE - Ministry of the Environment. NRA - Nature ReservesAuthority. REU - Regional EnvironmentalUnit. NCM - National MaricultureCenter. IUI - InteruniversityInstitute. 2. Priority: I - for immediate action. 2 - to be accomplishedwithin the medium term.

E-13

1. BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW

1.1. BACKGROUND The Gulf of Aqaba is a branch of the Red Sea that is bordered by Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.The Gulf is of strategic and economicimportance to the region, and is host to unique marine ecosystemsand coral communities. The enclosed nature of the marine environment of the Gulf of Aqaba causes the sea to be particularly susceptibleto pollutionand other forms of environmentalimpacts. The riparian countries bordering the Gulf recognize that effective environmental managementand pollution control programs are necessary to protect the Gulf of Aqaba's natural resources. Furthermore, they recognize that such environmental managementmust be addressedby all the countriesthat border the Gulf. The Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalAction Plan for Jordan was developedin 1993, and represents the Government of Jordan's first steps towards achieving national environmentalobjectives and for regionalprotection of the Gulf of Aqaba. Regional protection of the Gulf of Aqaba cannot be achieved without addressing environmentaland developmentissues of the remainingriparian states. Therefore,the World Bank, in partnership with the European Union, has commissioned EnvironmentalAction Plans for Israel and Egypt. This documentis the Gulf of AqabaEnvironmental Action Plan for Israel. It addresses the environmentaland developmentissues that are unique to Israel's section of the Gulf of Aqaba, and offers alternativesfor environmentalmanagement and regional cooperation.

1.2. OVERVIEW

1.2.1. Dilemmaof Developmentin the Gulf of Aqaba - the Case of Israel Israel's shorelineis notablefor being the shortest among neighboringstates bordering the Gulf of Aqaba. As is the case with Egypt, the tourism industry is the primary factor to impact the environment. However,because of the limitedbeachfront, tourist activities are concentrated into a relatively small area, and their impact on the environmentis significant. Eilat's past importanceas Israel's south port has been replacedby its importanceto the boomingtourist industry. Eilat's combinationof desert and sea is an importanttourist attraction,generating an annualincome of some $200 million,or about 20% of Israel's total revenuesfrom tourism. Land use conflicts result from pressure of commercialinterests to develop tourism amenities contrasted against the need to maintain free access to the sea, and to conserve the valuable coral reef resources. Israel's coastline combines coral reef reserves, beaches, three ports, an airport, a marina, and numeroushotels and tourist amenities.

1 Eilat is a city that is characterized by its lack of significant industrial activity. Nevertheless, quarries in the outskirts of the city are a major cause of airborne dust. Mariculture activitiesin the Gulf have the potential to become a significantsource of pollutionin the form of nutrient input to the Gulf. Although shippingactivities have been on the wane, Eilat's port is used to transport a significantquantity of bulk chemicals- most notably phosphate, and the Eilat Ashkelon Oil Pipeline company terminal receives about 20 tankers of oil per year. Most prominentimpacts of the port activities are the fugitive release of phosphate dust to the air and marineenvironment during shiploading operations, and operational spillsof oil. In addition to nutrient pollution frem the ports and the mariculturecages, Eilat's coral reefs endure thousands of divers every year who are responsible for unintentional damage caused by stepping on the reefs, suspension of silt in the water columnn,and littering. Although the city of Eilat's wastewater no longer flows to the Gulf, the lack of wastewater collection facilitiesat the municipalmarina forces all pleasure boats to discharge their wastes to the Gulf Although this source has not been adequately investigated,its importancecannot be discounted.

1.2.2. The Gulf of Aqaba Coral Reef Ecosystems:a Global Concem The level of biodiversityand the number of endemic species are greater in the Gulf of Aqabathan elsewherein the world, and preservationof that region's marinebiological diversityis of global importance. Coral reef communities are important components of the Gulf of Aqaba's marine ecosystem. In addition the coral reef systems are important to maintaining and developingthe Gulf's tourist industfy. Pollutioncaused by developmentand activitiesalong the shores of the Gulf of Aqaba is endangeringthe existenceof marine ecosystems.The biologicaland economicvalue of the coral reefs may be lost as a result of poor planning or mismanagementof developmentand activitiesin the coastal zone. Excessive nutrient inputs to the Gulf coming from wastewater discharges, phosphate loading operations, and mariculturecages is also altering the balance of the coral reef ecosystems. In severe cases, nutrients can lead to localized or widespread eutrophic conditions, whereby excessive algal growth competes with, and displaces coral reef communities. Despite accordance of Nature Reserve status to a large part of the coral reef along Israel's shore, these reefs have been partly damaged,and are stressed by the effects of excessivetourist divingand snorkeling. Coral reefs are very sensitive to ckanges in the physico-chemicalenvironment. The three establishedmarine reserves (Ras Mohamedin Egypt; Eilat in Israel and Aqaba in Jordan) are all of limited size, and vulnerableto pollution taking place outside their borders. In addition, fragmentatiort of the reef caused by tourism and industrial activitiesserves to increasethese impacts.

2 Effective conservation of the Gulfs reef ecosystems will require a region-wide evaluation of sources of anthropogenicstressors, and preparation and applicationof regional-levelmanagement plans to reduce inputs of these stressors to the Gulf. Furthermore, design of protected coral reef reserves shouldbe designed in a manner that ensuresthat the systemsare of viablescale, and are affordedadequate protection.

1.2.3. TransboundaryConcems The main transboundaryenvironmental impacts are air pollution,marine pollutionof the Gulf from land and marine sources, and visual disturbances.The potential sources of pollution consist of industry and energy production facilities, port operations, transportationsources andtourism. Industrialactivity in Aqaba is far greater than in Eilat, and extends over a greater area. Some of the industrialplants are chemicalplants that anticipatesignificant expansion in the future. In addition,the existingheavy-fuel power station is now being doubled in capacityfrom 260 MW to 520 MW. Emissionsof pollutantsfrom Aqaba's industriesand power stationhave been shownto be in excess of internationallyacceptable levels. However, these pollutantsgenerally do not impacton Eilat becauseof the directionof prevailingwinds. Most of Aqaba's wastewater is treated at a wastewater treatment plant located north of the city, and the rest flows into pit latrines. Industrial wastewater is treated separatelywithin the industrialzone. The poor level of treatment of Eilat's wastewater results in odor nuisances. Infiltrationof wastewaterfrom treatment facilitiesinto the ground in Jordan and in Israel causes pollutionof groundwater and elevation of the groundwatertable. Dust dispersed from Aqaba's and Eilat's industrialplants, ports and power station settles into the Gulf. Without data regarding currents in the Gulf, it is difficultto estimatethe extent of the impactof these pollutantson the shores of the Gulf The fish cages operatedby the Israelis closeto the Jordanianborder represent another significantsource of pollution. Consideringthe importance of tourism to the region, an additional problem is the visual impactof industrialzones, ports and hotels on the naturalscenery. There are no significanttransboundary environmental concerns from Taba.

1.2.4. Institutionaland Legal Issues Israel has a well developed institutionaland legal framework for environmental protection. The Ministryof the Environmentand the Ministryof the Interior are the main national level governmentalbodies that establishenvironmental and development policy, while other ministries are partially or wholly responsible for environmental aspects of activitiesthat fall within their realm.

3 Planning legislationincludes envi-ronmentalguidelines and addresses the whole range of issues such as environmentalimpact assessments;air quality; water quality; marine pollution control; solid wastes; hazardous wastes; and nature preservation. National and regional masterplansestablish guidelines for comprehensiveland-use and resource management. The most problematicinstitutional issues associated with environmentalprotection in the Gulf of Aqaba are: overlapping responsibilities, weak local environmental institutions,lack of local control, and inadequateenforcement.

1.2.4.1. OverlappingResponsibilities The issue of overlappingresponsibilities results when several governmentalentities at the national,regional and local level are given responsibilityfor aspects of the same set of activities. For example, four cntities oversee oil unloading activities at the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline terminal: the Ministry of Transport, the Ports Authority, the Ministry of the Environment and the Eilat-AshkelonPipeline company. There is little to no interactionbetween these entities, each of which focuses on a limited aspect of the transfer process. As is often the case with overlappi;igresponsibilities, certain key environmentalaspects may fall by the wayside,if no entity see it as being within domain.

1.2.4.2. Local EnvironmentalInstitution Environmentalpolicy is established at the national level and implemented at the regionaland local level. Up to the present, the Eilat/Eilot Regional EnvironmentalUnit was responsible for local aspects of environmentalmanagement. This environrnentalunit, which is mainly funded by the Municipalityof Eilat and the Ministry of the Environment,has lost a major part of its backing because of budgetary cutbacks, and is in the process of being closed down. The future of environmentalprotection in the Eilat region is therefore unknown.

1.2.4.3. Enforcement Notwithstandingthe pending closLre of the Eilat/Eilot Regional EnvironmentalUnit, enforcementof environmentallaws in Eilat is not adequate because of a lack of trained inspectionand enforcementstaff.

1.2.5. Boundaries Determinationof the size and borders of the area to be addressed is one of the key decisionsin formulatingthe Gulf oi AqabaEnvironmental Action Plan for Israel. The borders must include all of the coastal and marine resources of interest and all of the activitiesthat are capable of affectingthese resources and the waters of the coastal zone. Such an approach would normallyresult in a zone that extendsinland to include the upper reaches of the watershedsand seaward to the limits of territorialjurisdiction. Because of the desert conditionsof the area, there is no surface water flow to the Gulf, except for rare flood run off. In addition, human activity is concentrated in city of

4 Eilat. Therefore, activitiesin the far upper reaches of the watersheds and the Arava Valley do not necessarilyresult in impactsto the Gulf The terrestrial boundariesof the area to be addressed in the Action Plan are limitedby the artificialborders with Jordan an Egypt on the one hand, and by the extent of human activityin Israel on the other.

1.2.6. Objectivesof the Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalAction Plan The objectivesof the plan are to: * Develop an overallvision to guide future developmentof the marine and coastal environmentof the Israeli shorelineof the Gulf of Aqaba. * Protect, preserve, restore, and enhancethe diversity,quality, quantity, functio..s, and values of the marineand coastal naturalresources. * Ensure sound integrated managementof all marine and coastal resources and activities impingingon them, by allowingfor sustainableeconomic development and multiplehuman uses of the marineand coastal zones. * Strengthen local management and enforcement capacities to improve the environmentalmanagement of the marineand coastalzones. * Coordinatedecision-making that affectsthe marineand coastalenvironmental at all levels,by establishingclear guidelines for their management. * Strengthenmonitoring and appliedresearch. * Make coastal managementprocesses visible,coherent, accessible,and accountable to the publicthrough encouragementof public participationin decisionmaking. * Increase public awarenessof the importance of protecting the marine and coastal environmental. * Encourageinternational regional cooperation on environmentalmanagement of the Gulf of Aqaba area. The principles of the GAEAP for Israel address these goals through long term preventivemeasures, preventionof continuedenvironmental degradation development and increased use in environmentally-friendlytechnologies, and promotion of developmentto minimizeimpact to the coastal and marineenvironment.

5 2. SINGULARITYOF THE EILATREGION The Eilat region is unique in its range of natural and scenic phenomenawhich are concentrated in a small geographic area and which typify the region. The region is dividedinto two parts: The terrestrial environmentand the marineenvironment.

2.1. TERRESTRIALENVIRONMENT The terrestrial environmentis cha-acterizedby a numberof factors:

2.1.1. Base rock The Jordan Rift Valley,which constitutespart of the Syria-AfricaRift, is unique in the given section, where base rock vwasmetamorphosed. This is the only place in Israel where pre-Cambriumbase rock is found on the surface, and constitutes part of the Arabo-Nubianmassif In the southernshore region of Eilat these rocks lie close to the sea shore and their combination with the deep blue sea color creates a unique landscape.

2.1.2. Variegatedrock The Eilat mountainsare notewor;hy for their varied geological history, during which various types of rocks were formed: Base rock, metamorphicrock, land sedimentary rock (colored sandstone) and sedimentaryrock. The different colors of these rocks and the manner in whichthey have eroded create a unique landscape.

2.1.3. Varied landscapes The interactionbetween the geologicaland geomorphologicprocesses creates a wide range of scenic phenomena: * Erosionfans. These erosion fans are formed by streams that run perpendicularto the Rift Valleyand drainthe Eilat mountains.Upon exitingthe mountains,the force of erosion and the carryingcapacity of these streams weaken considerably,and as a result most of their sedimentload formed from eroded base rock, limestone and sandstoneis deposited along the slopes of the mountains. The finer load continues in motion and is layeredon the lower reaches of the erosion fans accordingto size. As the river proceeds further towards the center of the AravaValley, so the erosion layer becomesthicker. * Salt lakes. Salt lakes are internal drainagebasins with no outlet. Three such lakes are found in the southernArava: Eilat salt lake, Evrona salt lake and Yotvata salt lake, The center of the lake is a moist zone, totally devoid of vegetation, where salt accumulateson the ground surface. The groundwater level is high below this surface. Sand and particulates accumulatealong the margins of the lake, and the area is covered with light, sparse bushes. * Base rock, metamorphicrocki and sandstone (Eilat Mountain Reserve). As stated above, the Eilat massif is unique because the base rock is visible above ground and is found in five clasters separated from one another by sedimentary

6 rock: Timna cluster, Amram cluster, Moon Valley cluster, Roded-Shahmoncluster and Eilat cluster. The rocks which form these clustersare base rock and metamorphicrock, which are conspicuousfor their dark coloring and lack of stratification. They create a cleft and serrated landscapetypified by steep slopes. In the area between Eilat mountains and the Arava Valley, there are layers of Nubian sandstone. West of the mountainsthere are limestoneridges datingback to the Cenomanian-Turonianperiod. Most of the rock types which make up the Arabo-Nubianmassif can be found in all five of the massif clusters.

2.1.4. Faunaand Flora The flora in the region is affectedby the availabilityof water and the type of stone or ground and is generally concentrated in the river beds. The river bed flora can be categorizedas eitherlow river bed flora or high river bed flora. In rainyyears the slopes are covered with an abundanceof vegetation. Animalsin the region include: Mammals * Rock Hyrax and Ibexwhich live on the cliffsand in the canyons. * Hyenas and foxes whichlive on the mountainslopes. * Hyrax and Negev deer which live in the river beds. Rodents Commonmouse, springhare and porcupinelive on the mountainslopes. Birds * Eagles, Egyptianvulture, golden eagle, rock doves make their nests on the cliffsand in the canyons. * White-wingedwheatear, desert lark, desert yellowhammer,and partridge all make their nests on the mountainslopes. * Large shrike,Palestine babbler, scrub warblerand blacktails make their nests in the river beds. * Other birds inhabiting the region: swallow, desert swallow, short-tailed crow, Chineserose-finch and black-belliedwheatear.

2.1.5. Levelof environmentaldegradation The environmentalsensitivity of the landscapeunits in the Eilat regionwere mapped by the Ministry of Environment,Nature Reserves Authority and the Society for the Protection of Nature (see Section 6.2.2.4.5). The main disturbanceto the terrestrial environmentin Eilat region is in the visual realm.Due to the desert nature of the region,the smallamount of precipitationand the absence of vegetation, the rate of rehabilitationof the landscapeis extremelylow and

7 any damage(mining and quarrying,vehicle tracks, etc.) remainsfor a long period. The main impact is seen as scars left by the intensive developmenton the land, such as quarryingin the naturalrock and strewingof solidwaste in the area. Development has irreversibly affected the areas habitats, particularly the natural vegetation and land texture. The different pollution levels, their sources, and their impact on the natural environmentare describedin Chapter 4.

2.2. THE MARINEENVIRONMENT

2.2.1. Hydrographyof the Gulf of Aqaba The Gulf of Aqaba constitutespart of the Rift Valley and the north-westernbranch of the Indian Ocean. The Gulf is an entity that is isolatedfrom the Red Sea by a shallow strait. This isolationcoupled with the high evaporationrate resulting from the extreme desert conditions (about 210 cm per year), and the absence of fresh water supply (except for winter flood waters) cause high salinityof the Gulf waters: 4.1% at the northern extremity. The Gulf of Aqaba is 180 km long and 20 km wide, and it is 1800 m deep in some parts. Water temperature reaches 23 degrees C. The high deep-watertemperature is explained by the presence of shallow straits (at Ab-el-Mandaband Tiran), which prevent the entry of deep cold witer currents from the Red Sea. High and low tides are limitedin extent, though occasionallythere is a significantlow tide. For example in September 1970 and March 1983, extensive reef areas were exposed,causing the death of corals. The limiteddimensions of the GLulfand the shallowstraits which links it to the Red Sea result in the fact that the slightest increase in pollution affects the fragile ecological balanceof the Gulf.

2.2.2. Coral reefs The coral reefs in the Gulf of Aqaba are unique in their wealth of species and proximity to the shore. The reefs of Eilat are of the fringingtype, and exhibitexceptionally high biodiversitywith over 900 species of fishes, hundreds of species of corals and about 200 speciesof molluscs. The coral reefs are made up of billionsof smallorganisms, most from the coelenterate system and others from the mollusca, worms and calcium algae. These organisms absorb calcium from the sea water and with the aid of a complex chemicalprocess, convert it into limeand form coral reefs. This process dependson the participation of mononuclearalgae which inhabitthe coral structure. Being a plant, the algae requires suitable light. In the absence of such conditionsthese algae are unable to interact with the coral. This explains why there are no coral reefs in deep waters (the Gulf of Aqaba:below 100 m). The Gulf of Aqaba coral reefs consist mainlyof stone coral. These organismslie close to the stone substrate and do not move from their location. The growth rate is slow and ranges between 1 to 5 cm a year.

8 The followingconditions are necessaryfor the formationof reefs: * Temperatureabove 18 degreesC. Reefs cannot surviveat temperaturesbelow 18 degrees C (mainly stone corals which form the reef). Temperature has a decisive effect on the metabolicprocess, the buildingand propagationof the flora and fauna in the reef. * Water clarity. The penetration of light is one of the factors that determinesthe proliferationof flora and fauna in the depths of the ocean. In shallow regions, the strongest photosyntheticprocesses take place, creating organic matter. The depth of the region in the Gulf reaches 80-90 meters, a range which provides optimal conditionsfor the formationof reefs. * Nutrient-poor water (nitrates and phosphates). In addition to a NaCl concentration of 4%, other mineralssuch as nitrate and phosphate in very specific concentrationsare necessaryfor the developmentof reefs. * Ocean currentswhich supply oxygen and food.

2.2.3. Levelof marineenvironment degradation Studies conducted along the Israeli coast of the Gulf of Aqaba clearly show that coral reefs have been severelyharmed by oil and phosphate dust (mainlyin the past) and as a result of visitor's impacts (the main cause of damage to coral reefs at present): between 1996-1968 the number of coral colonies in the area surveyed decreased by some 55%. Between 1983-1990 the number of coral clusters along the shore decreased by some 12%. Scores of fish species have totally disappeared from the southem coast and the abundanceof another 34 species diminishedduring these years. It should be noted that since the beginning of the nineties, damage to coral reefs has been halted and there is significant recovery of the reefs and the associated living organisms, as a result of education, control and enforcement efforts detailed in the report.

9 3. EXISTING AND FORESEEN DEVELOPMENT

3.1. TOURISM Since the early 1980's the tourisri industry has become the main contributor to Eilat's economy. At present, approximat:ely half of the workforce in Eilat is employed in the tourism industry. The tourism irdustry has been developed in Eilat due to temperate winter weather, relatively shor: travel distance from Western Europe, pleasant swimming beaches, and natural r',sources such as the combination of desert, sea, sun and coral reefs.

3.1.1. Tourism DevelopmentTrends The tourism industry in Eilat can be characterized by several trends: an increase in the number of tourists, seasonal fluctuations in the proportions of Israeli vacationers relative to foreign tourists, unchanging visit duration, and an increase in quantity of tourist accommodations.

3.1.1.1. Increase in number of tourists Since 1991, there has been a significant increase in the number of tourists and vacationers to Eilat (Table 1 and FJigure 1).

3.1.1.2. Proportions of foreign tourists to Israeli vacationers Foreign tourists to Eilat make up approximately 30 percent of the total number of visitors to Eilat, and 40 percent cf all bed occupancies. On a seasonal basis, foreign tourists are more common than ILraeli vacationers in the months of January through April, while the reverse is true for the rest of the year (Figure 2). The months of June through August show the peak number of visitors to Eilat (Figure 3).

3.1.1.3. Visit duration The average number of nights spent in Eilat by foreign tourists and by Israeli vacationers has remained stable from 1990 to 1996. Foreign tourists spend an average of 4.5 nights while Israeli vacation -rs spend an average of 2.8 nights in Eilat.

3.1.1.4. Number of hotel rooms The number of hotel rooms in Eilit has increased by 57% since 1990 (see Figure 4). In 1996, there were 6795 hotel rooms in Eilat.

10 Table 1. Visits and 8ed occupancy in Eilat 1990-1996(thousands).

Year Foreign Israeli Total Visitors Bed Visitors Bed Visitors Bed Occupancy Occupancy Occupancy 1990 165 756 516 1,445 681 2,201 1991 109 433 488 1,424 597 1,857 1992 202 846 461 1,291 663 2,137 1993 243 1,077 598 1,697 841 2,274 1994 335 1,518 706 1,964 1,041 3,482 1995 n/a 1,668 n/a 2,379 1,272 4,039 1996 nfa 1,688 nla 2,830 n/a 4,518 Source: Municipality of Eilat

Figure 1. Number of Visitors and Ovemight Visits in Eilat 1990-1994.

3500 - 4Tourist* -Visitors --Tourlsts-Overnights 3000 A- Israeli- Visitors ssraeli- Ov rnights Total- Visitors 2500 ---- Total -Overnights_

S~~~~~~~~~~~~~ X 2000-

1500

1000

500

0 I 1990 1991 1992 1993 , 1994

Year

Source: Municipality of Eilat

11 Figure 2. Foreign tourisit visits to Eilat, by month (percentage) 1996.

70-

60-

U

- _40

30- 20 - - - [ 10-

3 F M A M J J A S 0 N D 1M1onth Source:Eilat Hotel Association.

Figure 3. Total monthly number of Israeli vacationers and foreign tourists to Eilat by month, 1996.

450- 400- 350-

. 300

Sr250So _ 0 TolAscti 0 13 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Israelis ~-200-

50

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Month 12~~Z Source: Eilat Hotel Association

12 Figure4. Numberof Hotel Rooms in Eilat: 1985- 1996.

7000 675 69 6000 4815 E5000 4036 3912 3699 3869 84000 ~3000I 0 2000 I I 1000

1989 1990 1991 Year1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Source:Municipality of Eilat and Eilat Hotel Association

3.1.2. Beach-Front Development Eilat's projected beach-frontdevelopment is defined in the National Master Plan for Tourism(NW 12). The mainaspects of this plan include: - Increasingby 9,600 the number of hotel rooms by the year 2010 while maintaining a balancebetween the localpopulation and tourists. * Preventionof overcrowdingthe citywith tourists. * Concentrationof new hotel developmentalong the north shore and preventionof expansionsouth towards environmentallysensitive areas. DDevelopment of both housing and tourism areas at the back (north) of the north shore * Future use of the ports for developmentof the tourism industry. * Removing the airport in order to connect the city to the hotel area, and developmentof a joint Israeli-Jordanianairport. * Strengtheningof the commercialand entertainmentaspects of the City of Eilat. * Increase in foreigntourism. The tourist industry in Eilat is concentrated primarilyon the north shore (Map 1), where in 1996 59% of all Eilat hotel rooms were located. The rest of the rooms are located in the city -20% and on the south shore - 21% (Table2). The City of Eilat's developmentforecast for the constructionof hotel rooms (Table2) showsthat in the year 2000 the relative importanceof the north shore will rise slightly from 59% to 62%, the relative importanceof the south shore will drop from 21% to 13% and the relative importanceof the city will rise from 20% to 25%. It is notable that this forecast showsthat, by the year 2000, the number of hotel rooms in the city

13 will exceed the RegionalDevelopment Plan (see Section 6.2.2.4.4) controlled forecast estimatesfor the year 2010 (17,000 rooms). The Regional DevelopmentPlan proposes that the continued development of hotels along the north shore be at a far lower density than exists at present (7 rooms per dunam instead of 12.5) but with higher density(10 rooms per dunam)in areas adjacent to the shore line east of the existinghotel area. A density of 8 rooms per dunam is proposed for the south shore. According to existingplans, no additional hotel construction will be permitted along the shoreline after plans for additionalhotel construction along the remainingvacant shoreline east of the existinghotel complex are approved, and after construction of a hotel north of the naval port.

Table2. Forecastof HotelRoom Construction in Eilat.

Northshore 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Northshore 4,578 5,1,40 6,304 8,042 10,582 City 1,593 2,561 2,561 2,561 4,354 Southshore 1,602 1,602 1,602 1,602 2,270 Total 7,773 9,303 10,467 12,205 17,206 Source: Municipalityof Eilat

The proximityof the hotels to the water line on the north shore and south shore leaves only a very narrow strip of beach :or bathing along the 4 kilometersdesignated for this purpose. This strip constitutes about one third of Israel's shore. As a result, the beaches are very crowded during peak tourist seasons, and this crowding is expected to becomemore severe as the tourist sector continuesto develop. The existingshores are alreadyfar more developedthan the internationaltourist beach developmentstandard of one room per linearmeter of beach: • The north shore has 5140 rooms on 2900 meters of shoreline, or 0.56 meter of linear shore per hotel room. * Almog beach has 1602 rooms on 250 meters of shoreline, or 0.16 meter of linear shore per hotel room. These estimates do not include the requirements of the city residents who currently have an 850 meter stretch of shoreline(Dekel beach) allocatedto their needs, and the requirementsof tourists stayingin hotelrooms in the city (2561 rooms).

3.1.3. Tourist Activities Tourist activitiesin Eilat and the region are based around Eilat's main attractions:the beaches, the coral reefs, the desert, and activities offered at the hotels (pool, restaurants, etc.) and in the city. Tourist facilitiesand attractions availablein Eilat are listed in Table 3, and include scuba diving and snorkeling; coral watching at the Underwater Observatory or from glass-bottom boats, birdwatching and nature appreciation;and desert tours in jeeps or minitractors. In addition,Eilat has numerous shopping,entertainment, and amusementfacilities.

14 Tourist attractions on the outskirtsof Eilat includenumerous desert nature trails, and observationpoints (Table 4, Map 2). In addition,desert tours in jeeps, mini-tractors and other off-road vehicles are organizedby different tour operators. These desert excursionsare concentratedon marked desert trails, although individualvehicles are known to wander occasionallyoff these trails. Hiking trails in the Eilat Mountainsreserves attract between 200 to 1000 visitors per day (Table 5, Map 2). These hikers consist in great part of organized groups that arrive to the trailheadsby bus. Althoughthe scale of environmentaldamage caused by such hikers is generallylimited, the Nature Reserves Authorityis currently developing a plan to limitthe numberof daily visitsby bus groups on specifichiking trails. Data regarding the number of divers or snorkelersthat frequent each particular coral reef are not available. However,a total of over 250,000 dives per year are reported by the Nature Reserves Authority. Snorkelers and divers typically approach reefs from shore, and can inflict damageto coral in this manner. In order to limit damageto the reef, the Nature ReservesAuthority has constructedtwo bridgesleading from shore to the outside edge of the reefs at the Coral Reserve. Another bridge was constructed opposite the PrincessHotel north of the Taba Crossing. Three glass bottom boats cruise daily along the coral reef (about 4,000 cruises per year), and may occasionallyanchor in proximityto the reef. These boats are authorized to cruise alongthe marked buoy line in order not to get too close to the reef.

Table3. Tourist Attractionsin Eilat.

Type of Tourist Attraction Attraction DivingCenters - Coral Watching Coral Nature Reserve South Shore Reef DolphinReef Nature Appreciation BirdwatchingPark DolphinReef Desert Tours Jeep Tours Mini-TractorTours Hiking Boating/Yachting Coral Beach Marina NorthernMarina New Marina Submarine GlassbottomBoats AmusementParks/Activities Ostrich Farm Texas Ranch MinilandLuna Park Airodium Shoppingand CommercialCenters BeitHaGesher Khan Tzenter Center Center Rechter Center Red Canyon Shalom Center NewTourist Center City Gate Center Eilat Pearl Center

15 Table 4 Attractions on the outskirts of Eilat.

Type of AKtraction Attraction ArcheologicalSites Fugarot FrimnaPark Canyonsand Geological Amram Pillars Nahal ShehoretCanyon Formations Hidden Valley Nahal Shlomo Lost Canyon Red Canyon/Nahal Nahal Atag Shani Observation Point Ayit Mountain Shelomo Mountain E3erekhMountain Tzefahot Mountain Hizqiyyahu Mountain Yo'Ash Mountain Ma'AleShaharut Plants and Wildlife HaDom Palms Reserves Hai Bar Raham Palms Wells and Water Source Ein Evrona EjinNetafim MilhanWell Other Yotvata Visitor Center

Table 5. Hiking trail visits per day in the Eilat Mountains reserve.

Name of Trail Hike Distance Number Duration (Km) of Hikers (hours) per Day Nahal Tzefahot, Tzffahot Mountain 2 5 400 CentralRidge 4 6 300 UpperRidge - Tzafra Crossinig 5 8 300 Yoash Mountain, Nahal Yoash 1.5 3 500 Shlomo Mountain, NahalMa 12alim 6 7 400 Ein Netafim 3 3 300 Ein Netafim, Nahal Netafim 5 7 300 Ein Netafim, Schoret Canyor 8 12 300 Yotam Valley 2 3 500 Schoret Canyon 2 5 500 Amram Valley, Amir Mountain, 3 7 300 NahalAmir SeismographicStation, Amram 6 8 300 Valley Red Canyon 2 3 1000 Southern Nahal Shani, Red 4 6 300 Canyon Southern Nahal Shani, Nahal 10 16 200 Raham, Amram Valley Harrach Mountain, Ma'aleh Borech 7 10 200 kshatot Tinam Hidden Valley 2 2 600 Source: Nature Reserves Aithority

16 3.2. MUNICIPALDEVELOPMENT

3.2.1. DemographicTrends Eilat had a population of 38,992 on January 1, 1996. In the last 10 years, Eilat experienceda mean annual growth rate of 6.4 %. Growth of the population is a result of natural growth and net positive migration. There are 18.7 live births per 1000 inhabitantsper year in Eilat, comparedto a nationalrate of 14.8 births per 1000. The migrationdata shownin Table 6 and Figure 5 point to a relativelyhigh turnover in the population of the city. Approximatelyhalf of Eilat's inhabitantslive there for 5 years or less. Table6. Immigration and Emigration Rates for Eilat- 1993to 1995.

Year Immigration Emigration NetMigration No. % No. % 1993 6,171 18.5 5,091 15.3 1,080 1994 6,514 18.2 4,898 13.7 1,616 1995 7,520 19.2 5,121 13.1 2,399 Total 20,205 15,110 5,095 Source:Municipality of Eilat

Figure5. Population migration to and from Eilat- 1993-1995.

|ONet Migration 8000 * Immigration 7620 OEmrigration 7000 -17 6514 6171 6000 6091 4898 6121 5000

zd 4000--

3000- 2399

2000 -1616 1080 1000

0 1993 1994 1995 Year

Source: Municipalityof Eilat

17 The high growth rate in the ci:y's population requires continued expansion of the infrastructure:housing, municipal services, and infrastructure (pipelinesand sewers, water supply,roads, etc.). The expected expansionin the tnumberof hotel rooms in Eilat over the next several years will require a parallelexpansion in the labor force and result in an increasedcity population.Each additionalhotel room adds an average of 2.3 workers to the labor force, approximatelyhalf of these in the hotel services,and the other half in secondary tourist services.Each additionalhotel room is expected to result in an increaseof 4.8 persons to the city's population.

3.2.2. Economyand Manpowver Comparisonof the age structure of the Eilat populationto the general population of Israel (Figure 6) shows a large difference in the 20-29 age group. This age group makes up 24% of the Eilat population comparedto only 15% nationwide. A large differenceis also observedin the over 65 age group, whichcomprises only 2.7 percent of the Eilat populationcompared to 10.9%nationwide. This age distributionindicates that the workforce in Eilat consistsof youngerworkers that are attracted to the city for temporary,unskilled, and relativelylow-paying work in the tourism industry. Development of the tourism industry has far exceeded development of all other industries in Eilat. Approximately12% of the city's population was involved in the tourism industryin 1972 comparedto 48% in 1993. In comparison, certain industries have undergone retraction in tha: period. For example, the manufacturingindustry's labor force has decreased from 24% in 1972 to 5% in 1993; the transportation industry'slabor force droppedfro -n 24% to 7% over that same period.

Figure 6. Age Distribution- Eilat and Israel.

10.9 6 2.7 srae 3.6 66134 1.8

13.4 | 10.2

20.6 j 34 21.4 16 20-: 26.4 8.9II ~~ 7.8 9 1 4 8.1 9.4ALi 10.2 9.1l a10.5

30 20 10 Percent 10 20 30

Source: Israel CentralBureau of SIatistics

18 The decreasein the relative importance of the manufacturingindustry was primarily caused by the closure of the copper mines in Timna. The decrease in the transportationindustry was causedby the lowerlevels of activityin the port of Eilat. Comparisonof the distributionof Eilat's labor force to the generalIsraeli labor force in 1993shows a significantlyhigher numberof workers involvedin tourism (48% in Eilat compared to a national average of 14.4.%); and a significantlylow number in manufacturing(5.2% in Eilat comparedto 22.3% nationwide)and in the publicsector (9.8% in Eilat comparedto 28.7% nationwide). The projected growth in the number of hotel rooms and positions in the tourism industrywill also impact the labor force involvedin commerceand food services. The total tourism industry labor force is projected at 64% of workers in Eilat in the year 2000, Relianceof a major proportion of the labor force on one industry is associated with a high level of risk, and can result in highunemployment rates, negativemigration of residents,and arrested developmentof the city. The Municipalityof Eilat's fiscal report for the year 1996 shows the following(see Table7): 1. Approximately2.7% of the normal operating budget for 1996 was allocated to environmentalprotection. In fact, some 3% of the budget was spend on this sector, and the budgeted incomefrom this sector was some81.6% of actual expenditure. 2. The budget for water supply consisted of 10.24% of the total normal operating budget while the budget for the sewer system was some 1.8% of the total. The relativelyhigh water expensesare attributed to losses resulting from leakage from old worn-out pipes and seismicfactors; to the high quantitiesrequired for irrigation of gardensand to the high evaporationrates. 3. Water and sewage taxes (normal charges and surcharges for construction of the new wastewater treatment plant) covered some 79% of actual expenses in 1996. Income earmarkedfor these sources consistedof 19.05 millionNIS, while expenses were 24.04 millionNIS. 4. Income from property taxes and fees were some 45% of total municipalincome for 1996. 5. The municipality'sdeficit for 1996 (operatingbudget) was approximately12 million NIS (some 6.5% of the total operatingbudget). Table 8 shows the minimumand mean property tax rates that have been appliedto differentsectors in Eilat.

19 Table7. FiscalReport of the Municipalityof Eilat,1996.(1000 NIS)'

Income Expenses Category Bucigeted Actual Budgeted Actual Taxesand Grants Propertytaxes andfees 83, 56 84,511 7,022 7,275 Grants 7,087 7,087 5,301 5,962 Financingexpenses 3,791 3,391 Loanrepayment 12,000 13,735 .______190,243 91,598 28,114 30,363 LocalServices Wasteremoval 913 493 10,864 12,003 Security 49 75 3,306 3,226 City planning 11,989 12,253 6,500 7,102 Publicproperty 2,505 2,415 13,111 14,185 Publicevents 25 4 950 797 Otherservices 140 369 2,729 2,493 Economic development and 249 167 4,243 4,774 tourism Municipalenforcement 75 85 1,406 1,268 _15,945 16,861 43,109 45,848 NationalServices Education 22,030 22,276 39,249 43,870 Culture 997 1,390 10,886 11,522 Health 56 27 409 485 Welfare 6,146 5,536 9,884 10,804 Religion 70 - 2,853 2,606 Immigrantabsorption 43 1 66 44 Environmentalprotection 480 357 496 588 l 29,82'2 29,587 63,843 69,919 MunicipalEnterprises Water 22,6t)0 24,854 18,618 20,460 Property 700 785 5,798 7,573 Transport 1,575 1,699 1,933 2,400 Purchasesand supply - - 1137 1307 Sewers 2,450 2,902 3,278 3,583 27,3215 30,240 30,764 35,323 IrregularIncome Interest 510 220 - Returnsfrom previousyears 85 617 - Transfers from development 7,40C 8,690 - fundfor loan repayment Transfers from development 10,5C0 10,500 - fundthe operatingbudget Returnsof budgetedfunds - 22 - IrregularExpenses Pensionsand compensation - - 9000 9882 Salarytransfers - - 500 785 Tax discounts - - 6500 7135 Expensesfrom previousyears - - - 16 18,495 20,049 16,000 17,818 TOTAL 181,830 187,335 181,830 199,271 1) 1$ = 3.251 NIS Source: City of Eilat

20 Table 8. Propertytaxes appliedto different sectors in 1996 in Eilat.

(in NIS)' Sector Minimumtax rate (NIS Mean tax rate (NIS per per sq. meter) sq. meter) Housing 17.65 18.19 Businesses 61.70 111.17 Factories and Workshops 26.10 34.53 Offices 61.70 128.43 Banks 735.00 735.00 Hotels 31.50 67.46 AgriculturalLand 0.03 0.03 OccupiedLand 1.90 6.52 Other Properties 0.21 0.96 1) 1$ = 3.251 NIS Source: City of Eilat

3.2.3. Housing There were 11,000 housingunits in Eilat in 1995, an average of 3.5 residents per unit. The characteristicsof the labor force and its age distributionresult in a relativelyhigh number of residents living in rental housing. As a result, rental prices are elevated comparedto the center of Israel.

3.2.4. ArchitectonicDesign The city of Eilat is not designed or adaptedto the to the desert sceneryor climate.The urban landscape reflects little consideration of shading public areas (e.g., shaded pedestrian pathways), or use of materials that are suitable to the desert climate and buildingmaterials that integrate into the desert scenery.

3.3. INFRASTRUCTURE

3.3.1. Road Network The existingroad network in Eilat extends from a central artery: the Arava road (Road No. 90) which runs from Taba to northern Israel along the Jordan Rift Valley. This highwayis an urban road within the confinesof the city of Eilat. In addition to urban use, this road is used to transport freight to and from the port of Eilat, and tourists and

21 vacationersfrom Israel to Sinai and back. In 1995, traffic counts showed an average of 3800 vehicleson an ordinaryday, and up to 5600 vehiclesper day on holidays. The Arava road is densely traveled, especiallyduring holidays. Its proximity to the seashore in the section between the Coral Reserve and Taba prevents the appropriate developmentof the most scenicpart of the Israeli shoreline along the Gulf of Aqaba. The Eilat hotel area is connectedto the city by only one road which passes south of the Eilat airport. This road presents a transportationbottleneck and a securityrisk. The existingmaster plans (NationalMaster PlanNo. 3 for roads; Regional Master Plan No. 4, correction No. 14) attempt to address traffic density on Road No. 90, and to link Egypt, Jordan, and SaudiArabia through Israel.

3.3.1.1. Regional road network 3.3.1.1.1. The Eilat Bypass Road The Eilat Bypass road, described in NMP No. 3, (proposed highway in Map 3) will direct motorized traffic, and especiallyheavy truck traffic, to the west of the city, by providingaccess to Eilat from the west. This road is planned with two lanes in each direction. An additional advantage of this road lies in its scenic value. This road is expectedto link the plannedJordan-Israel border crossing through the Eilat mountains to the planned new main Israel-Egyptborder crossing. This road will therefore replace the southern section of Road No. 90 and the Taba border crossing between Israel and Egypt. Furthermore, parts of this road are proposed to pass through tunnels in order to widenthe existingshoreline and thus protect the sensitiveenvironment.

3.3.1.1.2. The South Shore Bjpass Road This road is describedin RegionalMdaster Plan No. 4, correction 14. The south shore bypass road was plannedprimarily to direct heavy truck traffic to and from the port of Eilat, and to relieve truck traffic and congestion from Road No. 90. From its intersectionwith the Eilat bypass road in the north, this road will cross Ramat Yotam, and will descend to the Gulf of Aqaba by way of Nahal Shlomo (Alternative 1 in Map 3) or Nahal Garof (Alternative2 in MAap3).

3.3.1.1.3. The Peace Road This road is planned for use by internationalland traffic moving between Egypt and Jordan, SaudiArabia, and the Gulf States. The border crossingwill be located north of the joint Israel-Jordan airport. The r oad from the border crossing will connect to the Eilat Bypass road, and from there tlhroughthe Eilat mountains(Road No. 12) to the Ras A-Nakab border crossing to Egypt. This section of the road is known as the pilgrimage road (Darb el Hadj - Derech Hahogegim). The Eilat-Eilot development plan proposes that this road consistcf two lanes in each direction.

22 3.3.1.2. Urban road network The Eilat-Eilot Development Plan proposed a number of additions to the existing urban road network. These are describedbelow.

3.3.1.2.1. Widening of the road connecting the city to the hotel area Wideningthis road to 3 lanes in each direction will be possible in the event that the municipal airport is moved from its present location, or that the runway is extended northwards, and shortened at its southern end. In the event that the runway is not moved or adjusted, it will be necessaryto evaluatethe possibilityof tunnelingthe road under the existingrunway, or buildinga road at the north end of the runway.

3.3.1.2.2. Developmentof main and secondaryroad networksin North Eilat The two main roads proposed here would connectbetween Road No. 90 and the Eilat bypassroad (Map 3).

3.3.2. Railway The National Master Plan for railways, (NMP No. 23 - see Section 6.2.2.1.9) shows the railroad rights-of-wayextending from the port of Eilat northwards and crossing the city of Eilat in a path parallelto Road No. 90. The Regional Master Plan No. 4, Correction 14 defines two corridors for freight railways: one extends along the border with Jordan (Alternative 1 in Map 3), then follows a path parallel to Road No. 90 (Alternative2 in Map 3); the other extends along the Eilat bypass road. The Eilat-EilotDevelopment Plan proposes maintenanceof railroad rights-of-wayat a width of 20 meters parallel to road No. 90 up to the northern boundaries of the city. The developmentplan does not foresee any possibilityto build a freight railway across the city to the port. One of the proposed options is to transfer freight containers directlyfrom the phosphatefields or the Dead Sea Works to the port of Aqabausing a rail line in Jordanian territory. Alternatively,transport to the port of Aqaba can be accomplishedusing a railroad within Israel runningalong the border with Jordan, and crossing into Jordan north of Eilat. This latter alternativeis likelyto result in increased transportation costs. Finally, the issue of different railway width standards used in Israel and Jordan needs to be addressedin all proposals of this nature.

3.3.3. Airports The Eilat airport is located between the city and its hotel area (Map 3). Occupying 380 dunamsof land, the airport serves primarilydomestic flights. Eilat's present international airport is the military air base "Ovda" which has been converted into a civilian airport. Ovda is located some 50 minutes' drive from Eilat. The airport receives all charter flights to Eilat from Europe, but is viewed as a temporarymeasure until one of the followingsolutions is implemented:

23 3.3.3.1. Joint Israel-Jordanairport Following the peace agreement with Jordan and according to the decision of the governments of Jordan and Israel, the Aqaba airport, which is located about 5 kilometersnorth of Eilat, would also serve air traffic to Eilat.

3.3.3.2. Constructionof a new airport at Evrona The proposed airport is located some 1 kilometersnorth of Eilat and would serve as both an international and domestic airport. Developmentof this airport was frozen following the government decision to pursue the possibility of shifting international flightsto Aqaba.

3.3.3.3. Shortening the existing airport from the south and lengthening it the north The City of Eilat is opposed to moving the airport out of convenience,and in fear that Eilat residents' sense of isolationfrom the rest of the country's citizenswill increase. Thus the municipalityproposed that the existing airport remain in use as a domestic airport. The runway of the existingairport would be shortened from the south and lengthenedin the north. The area vacated by the runway in the south would be used to widen the existing access road tc, the hotel district, and provide some open space between the city and the hotel area. However, this solution will not provide a solution to the noise problems now affecting the hotel district and other nearby urban areas. Moreover the proximity of the nmway to the bird sanctuary located north of the runway creates a safetyhazard for aircraft.

3.3.4. Seaports The importance of the ports in Eilat's economy has dropped considerablysince the early 1970s, when they employed about one quarter of the city's workforce. At present the ports employ only about 2% of Eilat's workers. The decision of the Israeli governmentto maintainthe cargo port in its present size is mainlybased on its political importanceas Israel's southerngateway to the Far East and Africa. Three ports are located along the south shore of Eilat: The cargo port, the fuel port, and the navy port. In addition,a yacht and pleasure boat marina is located on the north shore of the Gulf of Aqaba.

3.3.4.1. Cargo port The cargo port occupies about 1100 meters of shoreline, of which 400 meters are ship piers, 530 meters are a cargo pier, and 260 meters are an undeveloped section of shorelineadjacent to the dry bulk terminal. The operational area totals about 180 dunams,the dry bulk terminal area 60 dunams, and rear port area 205 dunams,mosi; of which is used for car storage (Map 4).

24 The operationalareas of the ports includethe followingcomponents: * containerpier and container storage areas; * generalcargo pier, adjacentoperational areas and storage areas; * dry bulk terrninalincluding storage hangarsand conveyancefacilities; * temporary passengerterminal; * pier for shipsused by the service vessels of the port and smallpassenger ships; * administrativestructures and workshops; * parking areas for operationalequipment and heavy vehicles. All of the facilitiesare withinthe port's declaredboundaries. Followingare the main characteristicsof the cargo traffic at Eilat port: * A sharp increase in loading of phosphate and potassium occurred since 1993. These materials constituted 76% of all the cargo traffic at the port in 1995 and 70% in 1996 (Table 9). * Containers cargo constituted some 30% of all the cargo traffic at the port in the past, but has decreased in recent years, and stood at 15% of all cargo traffic in 1995 (Table 9).

D About 60% of the private vehiclesarriving in Israel come through Eilat port (Table 10). * In 1996, 44,658 tons of hazardous substanceswere transported through Eilat port, and 93% of these were exported. Oxidizingsubstances constituted 68.6% of the exports (Table 11). * As shown in Table 12, there is a substantialfluctuation in the daily quantity of hazardous substances transported through the port. Most of the hazardous substancesthat are stored at the port are oxidizingsubstances. A storage facility is planned by the Ports Authority for handling 50,000 to 100,000 tons of phosphoricacid per year, with a total storage volume of 13,000 cubic meters. The facilitywill be suppliedby tanker trucks with a capacity of 30 tons each. Prior to choosing the southern port area for establishment of its phosphoric acid storage facility,the Ports Authorityevaluated 3 alternativesites in the port of Eilat: * In the southern port area, south-east of the phosphate storage area, * North of the port, * West of the port, in the area of the automobilestorage facility. An additional site located in the tank farm area west of the port and belonging to the Eilat-AshkelonOil PipelineCompany was also proposed

25 As stated above, the demand for cargo port servicesis low. The State of Israel, acting through the Ports Authority,directly subsidizescargo transport in the amount of about $2 milliona year, and indirectly subsidizestransport through mechanismssuch as low storage fees for vehicles.These subsidiesserve to maintain the existinglevel of traffic at the port. The level of activity at the )ort may be increased through two anticipated developments: 1. Eilat port may serve as a home port for passengerships; and 2. Phosphate and potassiumtransport may expand. Cruise tourism has tourist-hotel aharacteristicswhere the ship serves as a floating hotel. There is a significantdifference between a home port and transit port in tenns of types of operation, in terms of area required in the port, and in the ensuing economic benefits. In a home port, the ship is equipped like a hotel (cleaning,food services, laundry,etc.) and the home port servicesthe cruise ship. In 1996, 130 smallpassenger ships calledon the Port of Eilat. The Ports Authoritybuilt a temporaryterminal within the cargo port to servicethese passengerships. An economic assessmentwithin the framework of the National Master Plan for the Eilat shore (under preparation) concludes that passenger ship activity has a positive economicvalue whichjustifies keeping open the option of a passengerterminal within the port's declared boundaries,assuming the passenger forecast is realized. The City of Eilat is opposed to cruise ship tourism development which would compete with existinghotels and commercialcenmers in the city. Table9. CargoTraffic in EilatPort. 1985-1994.

Unloading Loading (1000tons (1000tons) Year Total Total C:ont. General Total Dry Cont. General

______Traffic Unloading C:argo Cargo Load Bulk Cargo Cargo 1985 1,009 359 T 210 149 650 396 181 73 1986 965 369 230 139 596 336 217 43 1987 1,257 380 269 111 877 601 289 59 1988 1,210 370 252 118 840 529 318 22 1989 1,181 398 293 105 783 465 305 n/a 1990 1,231 527 363 164 704 399 292 n/a 1991 1,426 654 389 265 772 480 254 t/a 1992 1,486 611 354 257 875 616 76 5 1993 1,446 303 137 166 1,143 1,062 38 5 1994 1,561 236 91 145 1,325 1,284 95 3 1995 1,649 264 136 128 1,385 1,288 142 2 1996 1,443 289 154 135 1,154 1,008 126 4

26 Table 10. Numberof vehiclestransported through the Port of Eilat.

Year No. of Cars 1991 63,958 1992 82,530 1993 62,144 1994 66,258 1995 70,688 1996 82,979

Table 11.Quantity of HazardousSubstances in Containersand Tons

at the Eilat Port- 1996.

No Risk Group Import Export Total Tons Conts. Tons Conts. Tons Conts. 1. Explosives 16 1 5 1 22 2 2. Gases 40 4 1,853 82 1,895 86 3. Combustible 2,238 106 765 34 3,007 140 liquids 4. Combustible 214 10 2,448 196 2,662 206 solids 5. Oxidizing 28,431 1,299 28,434 1,299 substances 6. Toxic 415 22 6,515 349 6,930 371 substances 7. Corrosive 208 14 1,228 56 1,436 70 substances 8. Misc. 81 4 201 10 282 14 Total 3,212 161 41,446 2,027 44,658 2,188 Source: Ports Authority

Table 12.Daily Quantities of HazardousSubstances in Containersand Tons at the EilatPort (SampleDays, 1996).

No. Risk Group Date 31.1.96 28.3.96 29.5.96 30.8.96 29.10.96 22.12.96 1. Explosives 0 0 0 0 0 0 2. Gases 161 91 92 0 0 0 3. Combustible 210 306 32 0 20 107 liquids 4. Combustible 148 363 464 0 0 0 solids 5. Oxidizing 1,408 1,290 1,518 701 264 0 substances 6. Toxic 156 124 193 70 217 0 substances 7. Corrosive 22 0 146 46 47 0 substances 8. Misc. 0 0 41 0 0 0 Total 2,105 2,174 2,486 817 548 107 Source: Ports Authority

27 3.3.4.2. Fuel port The Eilat fuel port occupies 1200 m. of the shore area and includes: * Two oil jetties (onlythe south is operative)along a 150 dunam strip of shore. * Operational shore area including pumping equipment and fuel storage area, occupyingan area of 546 dunams. * Pipe corridor from the shore container storage area to the rear container storage area. * Rear containerstorage area at Ramat Yotam, on an area of 315 dunams. * Fuel pipeline from Ramat Yotam to the fuel port in Ashkelon:two pipes 16" and 42" in diameterrespectively, vihich run along a 50-60 meters wide corridor. The Eilat Ashkelon Oil PipelineCompany has had the legal rights to these areas since 1968 (See Section 6.1 1.7), is directly accountableto the Minister of Finance, and is exempt from the requirementsof the Planningand BuildingLaw. Sincethe opening of the Suez Canal in the early 1980's, the EAPC has been exploiting only about 15% of its storage and annual transfer capacity of 60,000 tons. The EAPC has approximately 90 workers in Eilat, a third of the workforce employed when the pipeline was operatingare nearly full capacity. . Oversight of oil unloadingactivities at the EAPC terminal falls under the responsibility of four different entities. There .s little to no interaction between them, and each focuses on a limitedaspect of the transfer process: * The Ministry of Transportationhas prime oversight responsibilityto uphold laws, regulations,and internaticnalconventions. * The EAPC maintainsowriership of the terminal. * The Ministryof Finance supervisesthe EAPC. * The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for upholding the various environmentallaws and regulationsapplicable to marine pollutionprevention. While these parties operate with 'ittle coordination, they nevertheless have several commongoals: * Loading/unloadingof oil in a safe and efficient manner given economic and time constraints. * Prevention of marine pollution from accidental or intentional spills of oil during loading/unloadingoperat'ions. * Prevention of safety and environmentalrisks due to maneuveringconstraints in the Gulf, and due to fire or gases.

28 3.3.4.3. Naval port The Naval port was established in 1949 and occupies an area of 160 dunams. It includes: * Piers for sailingvessels, 600 meters. * Shipyardand hoisting equipmentfor sailingvessels. * Military base containing command post, storage structures, garage, and other facilities. The Navy is prepared to move its facilitiesfrom its present location on conditionthat it receives sufficient space to meet its needs, and that transfer costs are completely covered by other parties.

3.3.4.4. Eilat marina The marina located on the north shore is defined as a tourist port where some 30 commercialtour vessels are anchored. Day cruises leave the marina, with an average of 1500 passengers per day during the summer and about 800 passengers per day in winter. Some 200 vessels are anchored in the lagoon, some of which are used for residentialpurposes only.

3.3.5. Power Supply Eilat's electricity system is fed by two 161 kW lines which are part of the national electricitygrid. The lines reach the sub-stationsat Yotvata, at Timnaand at Eilat close to the gas turbine site located at Ramat Yotam, about 2 kilometers west of the city of Eilat (see Map 3). The Eilat gas turbine contains: * 2 gas turbines of 35 and 20 megawatt supply, operated by fuel with 0.4% sulfur content. * 2 fuel tanks, with a capacity of 2000 and 4000 cubic meters. * a transformer station. The gas turbines are designedto operate about 300 hours a year on average, but in the event of a power failure on the national grid or harsh weather conditions,they can operateup to 1000 hours. The 161 KW line leaves the gas turbines, running south-east to the sub-stationlocated close to the cargo port, from where the electricitydistribution lines branch out. Accordingto the RegionalMaster Plan, 3 sub-stationsare planned for the Eilat area: east of the naval port, in the area of the old industrial zone and in the "Shoret" industrialzone to the north of the city.

29 3.3.6. WaterSupply Eilat's water supply comes from the Paran aquifer in the Arava Valley, 100 km north of Eilat through 8", 12", 16" and 20" pipes, and from brackish water wells. The brackishwater undergoes desalination in the Sabha reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant east of Kibbutz Eilot (Map 3), and is mixed with water originatingfrom Paran prior to being introducedinto the rnunicipalwater supply. Since the "Mekorot" water company desalinationplants were build at the Sabha site in 1978, energy consumption for desalination has been reduced in half, while water recovery has increased from 50%1,to 70% desalinated water per raw water unit. Mekorot's desalinationunits servingEilat and their capacitiesare listedin Table 13. Total water use in Eilat was 11 millioncubic meter in 1995. Maximumdaily demand is approximately43,200 cubic meters and mean daily demand in winter is 25,000 cubic meters. The mean annual per capita resideitial water use is 150 cubic meters, compared to a national per capita use of 100 cubic meters per year. This relativelyhigher water use is a result of the hot desert climate and use of "desert coolers" as air conditioning devices. Each desert cooler evapotates water at a rate of 1 cubic meter per day. The averageannual water use per hotel room is 450 cubic meters (1233 liters/room/day). Domestic costs for drinkingwater -ire based on a sliding scale designed to discourage wasteful demand. Household water costs are shown in Table 14. In addition to drinkingwater costs, householdsare charged a sewagefee of 0.76 NIS per cubic meter of water used, not includingwater allocated for gardening. The differentialuse is establishedthough the allocationof a water quota for gardening.

3.3.7. WastewaterTreatment Wastewater generated by households and businesses in Eilat is pumped through the sewage collection system to the mrunicipalwastewater treatment plant. In the past, treated wastewater was discharged into the Gulf of Aqaba, but this practice was stopped in 1994 following legal ac3tionagainst the municipality.Currently, treated wastewater is reused to irrigate agriculturalcrops. The amount of wastewater generated in 1991 was 3.318 million cubic meters, and 3.712 cubic meters in 1992.

30 Table13. Desalination units serving Eilat.

Unit Name Desalination Capacity Feed Water Year of Process (M3/day) Salinity (ppm Commissioning (M3/day) TDS)

Sabha A- Unit BWRO 1,650 6,600 1978 1 Sabha A - Unit BWRO 1,650 6,600 1979 2 Sabha A Unit BWRO 2,600 6,600 1979 3 __ Sabha A Unit BWRO 3,900 6,600 1981 4 _ Sabha A Unit BWRO 2,00 6,600 1981 5 Sabha A Unit BWRO 4,800 6,600 1984 1/2 Retrofit Sabha A Unit BWRO 2,300 6,600 1990 7/8 Sabha A Unit BWlRO 7,200 6,600 1992 3/4 Retrofit Sabha A Unit BWRO 6,300 6,600 1994 5/6 Retrofit Sabha A Unit BWRO 4,800 6,600 1995 7/8 Retrofit Sabha B BWRO 6,300 6,600 1993 Sabha B BWRO 9,600 6,600 1994 Extention Sabha A+B BWRO 32,700 6,600 (today) Eilat SWRO SWRO 8,000 42,000 1997 Note: BWRO = BrackishWater Reverse Osmosis SWRO = Sea Water Reverse Osmosis Source: "Mekorot"

31 3.3.7.1. Wastewatercollection system Eilat's wastewater collection system consists of 3 main sewer collection areas: the western residential part of the city, the south beach area, and the north beach area. Sewage originatingfrom the western residentialarea flows by gravity through asbestos cement pipes to the main pumping station. The other two sewage collectionareas are subdividedinto sub-areaswhich contain one or more pumpingstations. These pumping stations, volumes,pipes, and connectionsare described in Table 15 and Table 16. The pumping stations are generallyequipped with backup pumps to ensure continued flow in case of main pump failure. In addition, all pumping stations are equipped with backup electrical generators and emergency systems. However, under conditions of pump malfunction or pipe blockage, wastewater will overflow into the surrounding environment,including the Gulf ol Aqaba. Wastewatercollected from the m. nicipalwastewater collectionsystem flows through a main pumping stationto the municipalwastewater treatment plant.

3.3.7.2. Wastewatertreatinent plant Eilat's wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is located in the Arava valley, approximately6 km north of the center of the city. The WWTP consistsof six facultative oxidationponds, each with a volume of 18,000 cubic meters and a surface area o f 6,000 square meters and an open reservoir with a capacity of 400,000 cubic meters. Wastewatertreated in these ponds is pumped to the Elipaz reservoir 19 km north of the WWTP. This open reservoir has a capacity of 400,000 cubic meters. Untreated effluentfrom the city of Eilat is characterizedby very high concentrationsof chlorides(436 to 1071 mg/l). This is attributed in part to the relativelyhigh salinityof drinking water, and to salts used in industrial laundries and hotel dishwashers (Municipalityof Eilat, 1994).

Table14. Domesticwater cost.

Volume Cost (NIS percubic meter) First22 cubicmeters per month 2.00 First 40 cubic meters per month (for 2.00 householdswith gardens) Above 22 cubic meters per month (40 2.94 cubic meters for households with gardens) Above76 cubicmeters per month 4.27

32 Table 15. Descriptionof Eilat's sewage pumpingstations.

Sewerage Pumping Pumps Overflow Unit Nominal data for pumps area Station to No. Pumping Pumping Type of volume height (m) pump c u.m/hr) Wastewater Main WWTP Treatment 1 1030 49 Centrif. Treatment ponds 2 1030 49 Centrif. Plant 3 400 25 Centrif. North Coast Queen of Main Western 1 300 24.5 Centrif. Sheba Lagoon 2 300 24.5 Centrif. Neptune Main None 1 300 24.5 Centrif. 2 300 24.5 Centrif. South Coast Princess nderwater Gulf 2 100 35 Sub. bs. Adi nderwater Gulf 2 50 18 Sub. bs. Under- Coral Gulf 2 140 32 Sub. water Obs. Coral Port Gulf 2 250 20 Sub. Port Main Gulf 2 180 35 Sub. Naval Port Neptune n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Red Rock Neptune None 1 1.5 8.5 Sub. Hotel Sub. Centrif. Centrifuged;Sub Submerged. Source: Municipalityof Eilat, 1994

Table 16. Descriptionof Eilat's sewagecollection pipelines.

Sewerage Path Type of Pipe Length Year Area Pipe Diameter {m) Installed Oxygenating From main pumping Asbestos 18 5400 1984 ponds station to ponds Cement North Beach Queen Sheba Asbestos 10 900 1972 pumping station to Cement Neptune Neptune to main Asbestos 16 1600 1960 Cement _ South Beach Princess pumping PVC 160 1992 station to Underwater Observatory UnderwaterObs. To PVC 160 780 1978 Coral PVC 250 1100 1992 Coral to Port PVC 315 2500 1992 Port to Adi Hotel Asbestos 10 2200 1992 Cement PVC 450 450 1992 Naval Port to PVC 160 170 Sonesta Source:Municipality of Eilat, 1994

33 The quality of treated effluent (based on analyses of reservoir water, 1991 to 1993) was: * BiologicalOxygen Demand (BOD) 10 to 80 mg/l * Total suspended solids(TSS) ''4-142 mg/I * Organic suspendedsolids 58-108 mg/l (constitutingapprox. 75% of TSS) * pHof7.2to7.8 High chloridelevels are the major problem associatedwith reuse of treated wastewater for agriculturalpurposes. Prior to ireatment, chlorideconcentration in wastewater was measured at 2,500 mg/. Average chloride levels after treatment in the facultative oxidationponds have been reported to be approximately700 mg/l. A new WWTP is being planned for the city of Eilat and Eilot. This WWTP will initially treat 9 million cubic meters of wastewater per year (25,000 cubic meters per day). Expansion will increase capacity to 12 million cubic meters per year (32,000 cubic meters per day). Treatment at the WWTP will include activated sludge systemswith nitrification-denitirificationprocesses including: * pretreatmentwith mechanicalrake and sand separation * biologicalreactor * secondarysettling ponds * sludge treatmentincluding stabi:ization and mechanicaldrying. Anticipated treated wastewater quality will conform to Israeli standard of 30 mg/l suspended solidsand 20 mg/l BOD.

3.3.7.3. Reuse of treated wastewater Reuse of treated wastewater for agriculturalpurposes had been decliningprior to 1994 when the practice of discharge of wastewater to the Gulf was ceased (Table 17). Almost all of the treated wastewater had been used for watering date palms in plantations belonging to Kibbutz EPilot.The past decline in wastewater reuse was attributed to lack of incentives to expand agricultural production due to declining revenues from that sector. Although there are no current data available, re-use of treated wastewater for agriculturalpurposes has increaseddramatically since 1994. Wastewatertreated in the new proposed wastewater treatment plant is expected to be of higher quality than at present, and will be reused for watering public gardens and playing fields in Eilat as well as continueduse for irrigationof agriculturalcrops

34 Table 17. Volume of Eilat's treated wastewater used in agriculture-1986-1992.

Year Volume (thousand cubic meters) 1986 1,400 1987 1,700 1988 1,400 1989 910 1990 860 1991 820 1992 660 Source: Municipality of Eilat, 1994

3.3.8. Solid Waste Solid waste generated in the city of Eilat consists of household wastes, wastes from light industry, construction rubble, and scrap cars. Household wastes also include wastes from hotels and restaurants. Quantities of waste generated in the Eilat area (including the southern Arava settlements) are projected to be in the range of 160 to 320 tons per day by the year 2000. Currently, wastes generated in the city of Eilat are disposed at one of two sites. Household wastes are disposed of at the Yotam sanitary landfill. This site also contains an area for disposal of metal wastes such as scrap car and white good (household appliances). Dry wastes, such as construction rubble, are disposed of at the Nahal Shoret disposal sites. Hazardous wastes and cytotoxic wastes are supposed to be disposed of at the national hazardous waste treatment plant in Ramat Hovav, near the city of Beer Sheva. In practice, most of this waste is delivered to the Yotam sanitary landfill. Planning for a new sanitary landfill site in Nimra (open mining pits in Timna, 25 km north of Eilat) is being conducted by the city of Eilat and the Eilot Regional Council. This site would receive solid waste from the city of Eilat and the southern Arava settlements. Solid waste quantities to be received at this site were projected on the basis of the following estimates: * Household waste: 1.5 kg/person/day, increasing by 2% per year to 2.5 kg/person/day by 2020. * Waste from tourist, commercial, and light industrial areas: 35 tons per day, increasing by 2% per year plus 100 tons per day during holidays. * Waste from military installations: 10 tons per day. * Dry wastes: 25% of total solid waste. Total projected solid waste generation for the Eilat/Eilot region is shown in Table 18.

35 Table 18. Projected daily and annual quantities of solid waste generated in Eilat and the southiernArava 2000-2030 (Tons).

Source 2000 2010 2020 2030 Daily Annual Daily Annual Daily Annual Daily Annual Household 24,000 32,000 47,000 68,000 Eilat 70 94 127 185 EilotVS.Arava 5 7 10 15 Tourist areas, 45 15,000 49 16,000 53 17,000 60 19,000 light industry, commerce and offices __ Defense 10 3,000 10 3,000 10 3,000 10 3,000 installations __ Dry wastes 30 8,000 40 11,000 50 14,000 60 17,000 Total 160 50,000 .200 62,000 250 81,000 330 107,000

3.4. OTHERECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

3.4.1. Mariculture Consumer demand for fish in Isrzel is approximately 80,000 tons per year. Of that, approximately 17,000 tons are produced in fish ponds, 5,000 tons from marine fisheries, and 1,200 tons from mariculture. The balance of the demand is currently met by imports. By the year 2010, Israeli demand for fish is projected to reach 120,000 tons. Based on conservative scenarios, mariculture is expected to produce approximately 40,000 tons, mostly in cages in the Mediterranean. The mariculture industry in the Gulf of Aqaba supports two companies that operate complexes of fish cages approximately 300 meters off the north shore of the gulf, in waters along the Jordanian border. Each of these two mariculture facilities is composed of two rows of circular caged pens (approximately 150 m3 each), secured to each other along a central pontoojn that extends over 120 meters. The fish pens are anchored in waters ranging from 3C to 50 meters in depth. In the past, food conversion efficiency was 3.5 kg of food per kilogram of fish. This conversion efficiency has been improved over the years to 2.2 kg of food per kg of fish. This improvement has been brought about to some extent through partial replacement of fish meal with veget Lble sources. Two companies "Ardag" and "Dag Soof' currently produce approximately 1,200 tons of fish annually, and employ approximately 75 workers. Fish species grown in the mariculture pens consist mainly of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), european seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax). The Gulf of Aqaba waters provide a suitable environment for year-round mariculture operations. It is preferable to the M'editerranean Sea because of its stable temperature regime, and the low current and tide activity. The mariculture industry in the Gulf of Aqaba obtains technical assistance from the National Center for Mariculture (NC(M) located in Eilat. The Center's research efforts have been essential to the establishment of this industry in the Gulf

36 Growth in the in-situ maricultureindustry is expected to be limitedby environmental factors; i.e. nutrient inputs to the Gulf and conflicts in use of the sea surface. According to the NCM, the maricultureindustry in the Israeli section of the Gulf of Aqaba is expected to undergo a maximumincrease of 20% in production by the year 2010. Further increase in this industry is possible through the use of land-based seawater ponds. Such systemswould use seawater pumped from the Gulf, and would treat wastewater to remove nutrients prior to discharge to the Gulf of Aqaba. Land- based systems face an annual evaporation rate of 4 m/year, and a water turnover requirement of 10% to 20%. An integrated land-basedmariculture system developed by the NCM is described in Chapter 8. Two thousand dunams reserved for such systemsmay be integrated with the energy tower infrastructure.

3.4.2. Industry The Eilat region supports three industrialzones: the old industrial zone, the export industriespark, and the Nahal Shoret industrialzone. In addition, the District Master Plan has designated an area north of Nahal Roded as the site for a future national industrialzone. These industrialzones are discussedbelow.

3.4.2.1. Old industrialzone The old industrial zone is located at the northern entrance to the city and covers an area of about 400 dunams. The industrialzone houses a plant for ready cement and plants which supplyservices to the hotels and residents such as laundriesand garages.

3.4.2.2. Export industrialpark This park is planned north of the old industrialzone and covers an area of about 160 dunams. A parking area for heavy vehiclesis adjacentto the industrialpark.

3.4.2.3. Nahal Shoret industrialzone Thisindustrial zone is located north of Kibbutz Eilot on an area of about 4000 dunams and is planned for all types of industries. Three plants for imported cement and one gravel crusher operate in this zone. The Eilat-Eilot development plan proposes to expand this industrialzone by an additional1380 dunams(of which 640 dunamswould be zoned as an open area).

3.4.2.4. Other industries A number of industrial plants producing construction materials operate in the Eilat region. These plants generate and release significantamounts of dust to the air. These plants include: * Four imported cementplants: 3 in Nahal Shoret industrialzone, and one in the old industrial zone. All are equipped with dust suppression equipment, including watering and mistingsystems, and silosfor cementstorage. * An asphalt plant located in Ramat Yotam. This plant is not fitted with dust suppressionequipment.

37 * A gravel crusherin the Naha] Shoret industrialzone. The following industrialfacilities are located north of the tourist area on the north shore of the Gulf: * "Ardag" fish breeding plant. * Spirolinaalgae growing facility. * Salt evaporationponds and e ctractionfacility. Intel's "Orbit" plant is an additiDnalfacility planned for Ramat Yotam. This facility will manufacturehigh-tech components, includingprinted circuit boards. However, the facility has not yet submittedan environmentalimpact statement for review, and there is no informationon the spccificactivities or products of the plant. It is therefore not possibleto estimatethe potertial impactsof this facilityon the environment

3.4.2.5. National industrial zone In the SouthernDistrict Master Plan (4/14) an area of more than 10,000 dunamsnorth of Nahal Roded is designatedfor industry. There is widespread opposition to the establishmentof this industrial zone because of its potential damage to the unique naturaland scenic assets and due to its locationupwind of the city and its tourist areas. Prevailingwinds could result in air pollutionto those areas. Furthermore opponents claimthat there is sufficientarea cdesignatedfor industryin Eilat.

3.4.3. Agriculture Agricultureis the main source oF income of the Eilot Regional Council settlements. Most of the cultivated areas are located east of the Arava road, while most of the settlementsare located to the west. The cultivatedareas cover some 12,000 dunams, and the settlements - 5,700 dunams. Plans exist for the expansion of the cultivated areas by about 500 dunams. Agriculturehas a significantvisual impact on the area.

3.4.4. Quarries Quarries supply the Eilat area with raw building materials for construction. Annual demand for gravel and bedrock has been estimated at 500,000 tons, and demand for sand at 125,000tons. A monopolyin the buildingmaterials sector has developedbecause of Eilat's distance from the center of Israel.Prices for quarriedmaterials are approximately20% higherin Eilat than in other parts of the country. Developmentof additional quarries is not expectedto lower prices because pricingarrangements have been establishedbetween the various producers. Furtherrnore, development of new quarries is suppressed because of these existingarrangements. There are three active and a numbcerof proposed quarry sites for raw buildingmaterials in the Eilat area (Table 19). These sites are located as close as 2 km and as far as 70 km away from the city, and the area of the individualquarries extendsfrom 34 dunams to as much as 1900 dunams.

38 Table 19. Quarriesin the Eilat Area.

Site Distance Area Production Reserve Status from (dunam) (1000 Eilat Tons) (km) ___ Asphalt Cement Rock/ Sand .______Gravel Nahal 6 100 x 400 Active Shoret I_I Nahal 7 520 x 1,600 Expansion Shoret I Nahal 5 34.4 X x gravel none n/a Shlomo Har Natzotz 70 160 x 3000 In dev. Samar 40 294 x 200 Active Nahal 2 310 x 1,200 Partially Roded active Har Asa 2 100 x 3,900 Inactive Har 27 250 x 12,000 Reserved Shagove Northem 30 700 X x 2,800 Reserved Seifim Southem 30 500 X x 14,000 Reserved

Seifim ______Haklil Mnt. 23 400 X x 13,000 n/a Beer Oran 18 100 X x 500 n/a Har Yoash 8 50 x 500 Central 23 1,900 x 18,000 Planned Nahal Rotem W.Nahal 23 700 x Planned Rotem Shoret 7 300 x 6,300 Planned Heights MarineLab. 8 200 x boulder 5,000 Abandoned Har Amram 17 90 _ x boulder 3,000 Grofit 58 1,300 x 2,500 Yotveta 52 3,200 x Samar 40 1,500 x 6,300 Planned Nemera 26 150 x 2,500 Evrona 20 150 x 2,700 Cliffs _ Elipaz 40 1,300 x 3,000 Timna Keha 36 400 x 500 Nechustan 33 1,200 x 3,000 Evaluation Hol Haklil 25 250 x 2,000 Evaluation

Timna 25 1,400 _ x 4,000 Evaluation Source: Israel Lands Authority, 1996

39 Quarried materials must be transported by truck to construction sites in Eilat, Quarrying activities and transport of buildingmaterials in open trucks generate large quantities of dust. Dust control measures, such as wetting or misting, can reduce dust generationby 30 to 50%.

3.5. PROPOSEDREGIONAL PROJECTS Since there are no known significantprojects planned for Taba, this sections refers to proposed projects in Aqaba.

3.5.1. Short Term Projects Twenty of the 68 short-term projects that were defined as part of the Jordan Rift Valley Master Plan (JRV) are applicableto the Gulf of Aqaba Region. These are listed in the sections below.

3.5.1.1. Mariculture * Desert mariculture. This project is aimed at establishinga pilot plant north of Eilat over 3 years to develop the technical and commercial capacity for inland mariculture. The concept was developed at the National Center for Mariculture (NCM) and is based on an integrated pond systemused to produce fish, clam, and algae.

3.5.1.2. Industry The followingindustrial projects would be located in Jordan: * Aqaba industrial estate. The project is planned on 50 hectares north of the city of Aqaba. Its goal is to attract light manufacturingand service industries. * Aqaba free zone expansion. Planned on 160 hectares north of the city of Aqaba, this project is aimed at expanding the existing site in order to accommodate commercialstorage and lightiridustry. * Logistics center. This project is planned on 20 hectares north of Aqaba. It is aimed at developingthe region as a competitive trans-shipmentand distribution center. Suggested compositionof facilitiesincludes: warehouses, gate houses, joint customs facilities, hotel, truck and container park, garage services, and ancillary services. * Joint cold stores. Planned on 2.5 hectares north of Aqaba. This project is aimed at increasingcold storage capacity in the region. * Workshopsfor motor rewinding. Plannedfor the city of Aqaba. * Potassium sulfate and di-calcium phosphate center. The project is aimed at increasingthe value added of basic fertilizerproducts for export. The project scale is 72,000 tons per annum potas;siumsulfate and 41,000 tons per annum di-calcium phosphate. * Potassium nitrate complex. 'The project is aimed at producing 100,000tons per annum of potassiumnitrate.

40 3.5.1.3. Tourism * Infrastructurefor the Aqaba TourismProject. Planned at Ras Al Yamaniya, the project is aimed at providingthe required infrastructurefor implementingthe Aqaba South Coast Master Plan. It contains the following elements: hotel development,tourist village,golf complexand amusementpark. * Focusingtourist activitiesin Aqaba. The project is aimed at promotingvisitor interest and expandingthe range of activitiesin Aqaba while focusingon Aqaba's culturalperspective and location. * Development of Aqaba hotels. The project is aimed at expandingthe room capacityin Aqabatown by 2,000. This is stated to be the upper limit for long-term development. * Expansionof Eilat hotel development. The project is aimed at expandingthe hotel room capacity in Eilat to 18,000rooms in the long-term(according to the JRVMaster Plan).

3.5.1.4. Energy * Solarpower project. Plannedclose to Aqaba,the project is aimedat maximizing the use of renewableenergy by generatingpower from solar sources. The project will combinea 30 MW solar plant and a 60 MW thermal plant which will operate on gas or a dual-firedcombined cycle with oil-firedgeneration. * Wind power project. Plannednorth of the Aqaba Airport,the project is aimedat developinga joint electricenergy wind farm extendingon both sides of the border. The project area will cover 4.5 km2 and produce200 GWh. * Regional energy center. Planned in Aqaba, the center will provide a forum for exchange of informationand data for joint energy research and development projects.

3.5.1.5. Transportation - Entranceto Aqaba City. The projectis aimedat upgradingto a 4 lane highwaya 14 km stretch of the existing road leading into Aqaba from the Wadi Yutum interchangeto the airport road intersection. * Aqaba Airport highway. The project is aimed at upgradingto 4 lanes the 7 km stretch of the AqabaCity to AqabaAirport road. * Aqaba SalaamAirport. The project is aimedat developingand upgradingAqaba Airport as a joint Jordanian-Israeliairport. This will be achievedby upgradingthe runway, providing a new taxiway, constructing a new Israeli terminal and expandingthe Jordanianterminal. * Enlargement of the grain berth at Aqaba Port. The project is aimed at enlargingthe capacityof the existinggrain berth at the mainport of Aqaba. * Computerizationof the Aqaba ContainerTerminal.

41 * New industrial berth. The project is aimed at installing new equipment and constructing a new berth al: the Aqaba Industrial Port to handle the increasing volume of fertilizers,industrial minerals, and chemicals.

3.5.2. Long-Term Projects Relevant long term projects for the Gulf of Aqaba Region outlined in the Jordan Rift ValleyMaster Plan (JRV) are listed below: * Expansion of inland maricultureproduction. Expansion from 5,000 tons per annum (short-term target) to 15,000 tons per annum. Allocation to the Gulf of Aqaba region comparedto the rest of the Jordan Rift Valley is unknown. * Expansionof Aqaba industrialestate. Expansion by an additional150 hectares. * Expansionof Aqaba Logistic Center. * Expansion of DAP or NPK production. Planned for Aqaba's South Coast IndustrialZone. * Nitrogen fertilizerproject at Aqaba.Planned at producing 2,000 tons per day of ammoma. - Expansionof Aqaba South Coasttourism development. - Gas pipelines. This pipeline would carry liquifiednatural gas from the Egyptian Sinaior from Saudi Arabiato Aqaba. • Aqaba coastal highway. Planned to divert commercialtraffic from tourist areas. To be developed through coistruction of a highway that follows the 100 meter contour. * Aqaba Port expansions. These consist of several projects: Enlargement of the livestockjetty, expansionof the containerberth to 600 meters, and redevelopment of a container storage yard. The JRV Master Plan recommendsthat environmentalimpact statementsbe conducted for the followingprojects in the transportationfield: * Entrance to Aqaba City. * Aqaba SalaamAirport. * Enlargementof the grain berth at Aqaba Port. * New industrialberth.

42 4. EXISTING AND POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS

4.1. NATURALHAZARDS The Eilat region witnessesnatural hazards in the form of floods and earthquakes.

4.1.1. FloodControl The analysisof the flood run-off and the amount of sedimentcarried by it is of great importancein planningengineering structures such as roads and water supply systems. Nahal Arava and Nahal Shlomo are the main rivers which constitute a potential floodingproblem in the Eilat area. Nahal Aravaflows into the Gulf on the north shore, adjacentto the border with Jordan, and Nahal Shlomoflows into the Gulf on the south shore, north of the Almog Beach tourist complex. One of Nahal Arava's largest tributariesis Nahal Roded which flows fromwest to east, north of KibbutzEilot. Rainfall in the desert region is characteristicallyvery intense and it falls on surfaces lightlycovered with soil and vegetation. These propertiesfacilitate the developmentof flash floods. Due to the steep slopes of the river beds and the abundanceof erodible materials along the slopes, floods carry large amounts of sedimenton erosion fans while divertingthe active river course, makingit difficultto predictits future location. The Eilat area experiencesan average of 3-4 flood events per year. These floods are characterizedby heavy stream flow that occurs within a relativelyshort time following rainfallevents. Heavy stream flows can continuefor severalhours, and recede quickly. Floodwaterscarry considerableamounts of materialsand suspendedsediments. Where alluvialfans cross the Aravaroad, the road surfacecan be covered by 0.6 to 1 meter of sedimentfollowing a singleflood event. Flood control necessitatesplanning and establishmentof operational systemsthat can be employedto managelarge quantitiesof water and fast stream flows, as well as large quantities of sediment carried by floodwaters. The sedimentsin the river bed and water passages significantlyreduce their effectivecarrying capacity. As a result, the flow switches to unexpected channels, causing flooding damage and destroying unprotected infrastructure. The rapid developmentof the city of Eilat on the erosionfans has significantlyreduced the river bed area and the natural surfaceswhere flood water previouslypenetrated the ground and where the sedimentssettled. As a result, the flow channelshave changed, causingflooding with extensivesettling of sedimentsin the urban area of the city. The city was originallyplanned so that the run-offwould drain into the main streets running parallelto the flow direction. But the detailed planningdid not account for sediment settling on roads in the water drainage system. Consequently,part of the flow has been divertedto residentialareas, causingdamage along the way. As the built up area of the city grows, so the danger of smaller floods increases. The enhanced developmentof Eilat in the last two decades completelyignores the flooding factor, leavingthe urban area vulnerableto heavy damages.

43 Sediment deposition and pollutant transport are additional problems caused by flooding. In 1994,parts of the Coral Reserve were covered by such depositsfollowing a flood, and the outcome necessitated intensivepreservation measures. The effect of the sedimentsand pollutants(municipal wastes and wastewater) on the corals and fish was not investigated. A floodwater channelhas been build approximately500 meters away from the border with Jordan. This channeldirect;s floodwaters from the Arava river towards the Gulf This channelis 50 to 100 meters wide; however, there are plans to adjust the width of the channelto 40 meters. In the future, this channel can also be used to remove brines from the reverse osmosis process, waste water from maricultureponds, or can serve as a conduitfor transporting seawater to the energytowers project and for removing used brinesproduced by the towers.

4.1.2. Earthquakes The Jordan Rift Valley is a seismicallyactive area with a history of seismic events as severe as 6 orders of magnitude or more on the Richter scale. The most severe earthquakein the area was estimated to be in the order of magnitudeof 8. Magnitude 6 earthquakescan occur with a probabilityof once in 144 years. The central fault line in the Rift Valley lies more or less along the path of the Arava road from the point where it crosses the north-western end of the Gulf of Aqaba. Secondaryfaults also exist in the area. Two types of building construction limitations have been proposed based on the location and potentialstrength of the faults: * Areas where constructionis prohibited, 1 km on each side of the central fault line. * Areas in which constructionlimits determine the kind of structure that is built, its height, foundation,and materialsused.

4.2. LAND-BASEDPOLLUTION The main sources of land-based pollution are wastewater, air pollution, hazardous substances,and solid waste.

4.2.1. Wastewater

4.2.1.1. Domesticwastewater Domestic wastewater from the Eilat wastewater treatment plant is no longer discharged into the Gulf of Aqaba..This practice was ceased in 1994 following legal proceedings filed against the municipality.Nevertheless, a number of incidents have since been reported where wastewater flowed into the sea because of lack of other use. Treated wastewater from the Eilat WWTP is currentlypiped for re-use on agricultural crops in the Arava settlements.Therefore, environmental threats to the Gulf of Aqaba from wastewater are limited to overflows and accidental releases from pumping stationsand broken sewage mains.The most serious such incidentsoccurred in August

44 1992, when a sewage main burst, and untreated sewageflowed directly into the Coral Reef Reserve, and in 1995when sewageflowed across the border towards Aqaba.. The wastewater pumping stations located along the south shore lack backup generators and pumps. Incidents involvingpump malfunctionsor power failures result in overflow of wastewater from the pumping station to the surroundings, and can endanger coral reefs and marinebiota in the Gulf In case of pump failure, sewage pumping stations located on the north coast of the Gulf overflow into the artificialmarina lagoon, while pumping stations located on the south coast overflow directly into the Gulf (Table 15). Furthermore, the residential areas of the city are generallysituated on a slope that faces the Gulf. Sewagereleased from any break in the sewage pipe in that part of the city can potentiallyreach the Gulf waters. Accordingto the RegionalEnvironmental Unit, sewer pipe failureson main lines occur at an average frequencyof once per month, and uncontrolled sewage flows occur until the pipes are fixed. Pipe failureslast for approximately2 hours per event.

4.2.1.2. Industrialwastewater Data regarding wastewater from industrial plants is general in nature and does not include information on the specific sources of pollution. Due to the small number of industrial plants in the Eilat region, it is assumed that the quantities of wastewater produced by these plants are small. The tourist industry and its support servicesproduce liquidwaste with high fat content (hotels and restaurants), salinity (laundries and cooling systems), and detergents (laundries and hotels). Fatty wastewater is separated at the source using oil/water separators. Wastes are collected by pump trucks and disposed of at the municipal sanitary landfill.

4.2.1.3. Treated wastewater Reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation of agricultural crops, public gardens and fields may result in unpredictable consequences to the environment. As discussed above, treated wastewater contains large quantities of salts. In the long-term, these salts have the potentialto infiltrategroundwater aquifers. However, at present, areas in which wastewater is being re-used do overliebrackish water aquifers. Future plans to use any oversupplyof treated wastewater to irrigate desert areas may result in changes in desert biota and the unique scenery around Eilat. The extent of such impacts is not predictable given current lack of detailed plans and alternative irrigationsites.

4.2.1.4. Seawaterdesalination brines Waste products of seawater desalinationconsist of concentrated salty brines. These brines are dischargedinto the Gulf, and can have deleterious effects on marine biota. Future increase in the importance of desalination of groundwater and seawater to supplydrinking water to Eilat will result in greater quantities of brines being produced and discharged to the Gulf A potential solution to this problem is to supply the

45 seawater evaporation ponds witli desalinationprocess brines. The evaporation ponds are located north of the airport irt proximityto the desalinationplant. These ponds use seawater as a raw material in the production of sea salt. Use of desalinationbrines could considerablyshorten sea salt production times.

4.2.2. Air Pollution

4.2.2.1. Phosphatedust Excess quantitiesof natural organic substancesintroduced into the environmenthave a direct effect on seawater quality, including its oxygen content and clarity, and an indirect effect on the availabilityof food materials released through the breakdown of organic material, thus affectingthe rate and amount or organic matter in the water. The increasein the presence of rutrients in water, primarilyphosphorus and nitrogen, is know as eutrophication,and causes enhancedalgal growth. An associatedfeature of nutrient enrichment is the accunulation of dead and partially decomposing algae between the shore and the coral reefs. These algae return nutrients to the water, and in so doing encourage the further growth of algae. Algae decompositionprocesses can reduce dissolvedoxygen content of the water and increasemortality of marine animals. A dense layer of algae covering the reefs depresses coral growth, repels fish and other marinewildlife, causes shading,and affects the transparencyof the water. One of the main causes of eutrophicationin the Gulf is the deposition of nutrients, mainly phosphorus contained in phosphate minerals. Research has shown that high concentrations of phosphates in tie water encourage the rapid growth of algae which compete with corals and impoverishthe reef (Shlezinger, 1980). Research on the influenceof wastewater and phosphate dust on the coral reefs in Aqaba found 4 to 5 times greater death rate among coral in contaminatedareas than in control areas. Other researchers attribute the death of corals to the increased turbidity, the disruption of calcification processes in the presence of phosphates, and the accumulation of sedimentson the reefs. Phosphate loading operations in the Eilat Ports result in the dispersion of dust particulates into the air. These particulates constitute a health hazard and a hazard to the marine environmentas well as a aestheticimpacts. The main particulatedispersion points are at shiploading facilities and truck unloading docks. Because no monitoring has been conducted to determine levels of phosphate dust in the air or depositionin the sea, it is not possibleto evaluate the severity of this impact from this source of pollutiorn. Despite the lack of data, phosphate dust release is believedto have almost doubled in recent years because of an associated steep increase in quantities of phosphate transported from the port (See Chapter 3). It is notable that potash, which constitutes about half the bulk cargo quantity moved through the port, presents virtually no problem. This is due to its hygroscopicproperties which prevent the accumulationof dust, and to the fact that it does not contain nutrients such as phosphorous and nitrogen which cause eutrification. Air quality standards are specifiedin the relevant regulations(see Section6.2.1.4).

46 The Ports Authority and the companieswhich produce and transport phosphates and potash have taken a series of measures designed to reduce the fugitive dust emissions during the processes of transportation, unloading and loading of these substances. These include: * Meticuloususe of truck covers. * Sealing openingsin storage structures. * Paving roads and surfacesaround the storage structure and keepingthem clean. These measures have been found to be insufficientand the Ports Authority is preparing the followingadditional steps: * Installing a chokefeeder at the end of the loading arm, which should radically reduce the dispersionof dust duringloading into the ship's hull. Two chokefeeders for loading phosphates have been in operation at Aqaba Port since August 1993. In June 1997 the Ports Authority signedan agreementwhereby a chokefeederis to be installed at the phosphate loader in Eilat Port by February 1998, should the existinginfrastructure comply with the manufacturer's specifications. If not, it will be necessaryto adapt the existingequipment to the chokefeeder,which will require more time. * Erecting a closed unloading facility for phosphateswith a feed system which will pump out the phosphate dust. The facility design has been completed and a contractor has been appointed. The facility will be erected upon receipt of a buildingpermit from the City of Eilat. * Establishinga monitoringsystem which will includefour monitoring stations with continuous monitoringequipment for suspended and settled particulates, and two meteorological stations with measuring equipment: wind velocity and direction gauges, radiation and temperature gauge and relative humidity and precipitation meters. The issued tender opened on 23.7.1997. It is anticipatedthat the stations will begin operation early in 1998. The need for monitoring(including two additionalmonitoring stations) is described in Section 9.5.1.1 and in Annex 1.

4.2.2.2. Industrialair pollution Due to the small number of industrialplants in the Eilat region, and particularly,the small number of polluting plants, it is assumed that industrial pollution in Eilat is minimal.Since there is no air pollution monitoringin the Eilat region, it is not possible to forecast the impact of air pollutionsources on the region. The followingsubsections present an overview of the main sources of air pollution in Eilat.

4.2.2.3. Eilat gas turbines

The pollutants emitted by the gas turbines are SO2 and NO,. These pollutants are emitted from relatively low stacks (10 to 30 meters), but because of high emission temperatures,they are carriedvertically to a height of several hundreds of meters, even

47 in the presence of inversions.Maximum concentrations of pollutantsat receptors close to the source are a result of turbine operation under cloudy conditions with strong winds - relativelyrare meteorologicalconditions in the Eilat region. The fuel system at the gas turbine site has been planned accordingto the guidelinesof the environmentalauthorities, arid includes safeguards to prevent oil leakage to the environment.This is despite the fact that there are no significantfreshwater aquifers in the region.

4.2.2.4 Quarries Dust generationfrom quarrying,building and trucking operations is consideredto be a major environmental problem in Eilat. As discussed in Section 3.4.4, quarries for building materials are located as close as a few kilometers from the City of Eilat. Operations at these quarries and transportationof quarried material in open trucks to construction sites in Eilat have the potential to generate large quantities of airborne dust. Dust is also generated at all construction sites, earth-movingoperations, and trucking over unpaved roads. Control measures, such as wetting and use of truck covers can reduce dust generationby 30% to 50%. There are currentlyno means to q iantifythe airborne dust problem in Eilat because of the lack of air qualitymonitoring stations in and aroundthe city.

4.2.2.5. Construction The constructionof new buildings and other infrastructurealong the shore, mainlyin the northern shore area, caused sedimentto be swept into the water. The main sources of such loads in the last few years were the new Northern Lagoon and maintenance works along the northern shore that were built in order to enlargethe sea-front of the city. In addition,there is annual loss of sand from the public beaches of Eilat (northern coast) which drifts into the sea. This loss is supplementedartificially every year by the local municipalityfrom sandy areas north of the city.

4.2.2.6. Pollution associatedwith transportation Environmental aspects of transportation in Eilat include pollution from vehicle emissions,dispersal of particulates fromtruck cargo, and risks of accidentalreleases of hazardous substancesduring transport, loading,and unloadingoperations. The main pollutant emitted by vehiclesis NOx. In the absence of data on the existing level of air pollutionin Eilat, it is riot possibleto assess the ambient concentrationsof Nox. Transport of cargo to and from the Eilat Port involvestrucks travel across the city of Eilat along Road 90. Air pollution due to dispersion of particulates and dust is associated with transport of phosphate in cases where trucks are not covered or are inadequatelycovered. Due to its hygroscopic nature, the risk of air pollution from potash is far lower. The relative contribution of particulates from truck cargo to ambient dust levels is believed to be negligibledue to enforcement of truck cover practices for phosphate trucks, anc. due to the relatively high ambient levels of dust

48 generated because of the dry desert characteristicsof the region and because of the prevailingwinds.

4.2.3. HazardousSubstances Accidents and events involvinghazardous substancesmay occur during the various handling processes: loading, transportation, unloading and storage. No significant events involvinghazardous substanceshave been reported in recent years, neither in the port nor along the transportationroutes which traverse the city of Eilat. The transportation of hazardous substances could be problematicin the event of an accident. However, the relatively small amount of hazardous substances transported through Eilat Port reduces this risk. The risk level may increase should the Ports Authority transport phosphoric acid through the port (short-term plan) and chloric salts and magnesium(long-term). Plans to transport phosphoric acid (UN No. 1805) through the Eilat port may also present a hazard. Phosphoric acid is highly reactive when exposed to alkaline substancesor metals. Although this does not represent a fire hazard, such reactions are exothermicin nature, and release large quantitiesof hydrogengas. The hydrogen released in such reactions is highly explosive when mixed with oxygen in air. In addition, such reactions also result in release of acid droplets that are dispersedin the air. Proximityof the planned phosphoric acid storage facility to the potash storage yard increasesthe risk of contact between the two materialsthat would result in a chemical reaction which would release hydrochloric acid to the air. Hydrochloric acid gas is corrosiveand presents an acute hazard to humanhealth and to marinebiota. Risks associatedwith the transport of hazardous substanceswill be mitigatedwith the paving of the Eilat bypass road (see Chapter 3) which will divert all cargo transport awayfrom the city center. The risk potentialfrom accidentsinvolving hazardous substancescan be definedin two ways: * Spill of non-evaporative corrosive substances: these substances constitute about 64% of all hazardous substances transported through Eilat port. In this case, dispersion of the hazardous substances is minimized, and only the immediate environmentis endangered. * Release of hazardous substancesinto the air resultingin a toxic gas cloud. The risk levels associated with this kind of release depend on the substance, concentration, meteorologicaldispersion conditions and distancefrom the emissionsource.

4.2.4. Solid Waste Municipaland industrialsolid wastes generated in Eilat and the southern Arava are not disposed of in the Gulf. The municipal sanitary landfill is located several kilometers inland, and eliminatesany possibilityof leachates reaching the Gulf waters. The main environmentalproblem derivesfrom fires which severelyimpact air quality. The Municipalityof Eilat is responsiblefor trash removalfrom the beaches.

49 4.2.5. Other EnvironmentalImpacts

4.2.5.1. Road network In addition to the problem of a-.rpollution caused by vehicles on the roads, in many instances roads are associated with visual impacts and noise pollution. In addition, roads function as a barrier to migratinganimals, a particular problem in the Eilat area since most of the animalslive in the Eilat mountains,while their food supply is in the Arava Valley.

4.2.5.1.1. Eilat bypass roaa' At present there is no estimate cif the scope of people and goods being transferred by road, but there is a warranted fear that heavy traffic on the planned bypass road will cause air pollution, harm the riatural assets, curtail the development of the town northward,create a safety hazard, bring about environmentalpollution by solid waste, and cause noise and visual disturbances. Pavingthe road adjacentto the eastern slopes of the Eilat hills requires considerationof the problem of animal migration described above.

4.2.5.1.2. The south shore lypass road The interchange through Nahal -3arof is less desirable than the interchange through Nahal Shlomo, due to the immediate proximity to the Shahmon residential neighborhood(air and noise poIllution)and due to the fact that the road will cross over the fuel pipelineinfrastructure bel ongingto the Eilat AshkelonOil PipelineCompany.

4.2.5.2. Ports, marinas and lagoons The environmentalimplications cf the three ports - cargo port, oil port and military base, beyond those widely described above, are marginal and focus mainly on the visual impact they create. This is not so for the Eilat marina, where the following problemsare prevalent: - Lack of services for sanitary sewage removal from yachts. Due to the absence of this service, yacht owners pour their sewage directly into the open sea and the marina itself In some of the yachts there are chemical toilets. Without suitable removal services, the waste ot these toilets includes chemicalswhich are toxic for the sea. * Lack of public toilets in the marina. Due to the lack of public toilets in the marina,the yacht crews and tourists use the toilets on board the yachts. As above, the sewageflows directlyinto l:hesea. * Lack of garbage removal services from yachts. A large portion of garbage which accumulateson board the yachts finds its way into the sea. In several sites where the yachts are anchored the dock area looks like a garbage dump. Large quantities of floating garbage (e.g., plastic containers), which are thrown overboard at sea, are drawn towards the shore.

50 * Lack of bilge water and used engine oil removal services. In the absence of these removal services, bilge water and used engine oil flows directly into the sea, particularlyat night. * Lack of suitablefueling services. As a result, the fueling and oil supply services for the vessels are inefficient,unsafe and do not operate according to accepted internationalstandards, with occasionalleaks into the sea duringfueling. * Sewage pollution of the marina and lagoon water. The sewage pipe in the area is old and blocked in several places. As a result, raw sewage flows into the marina, the lagoon and the sea during breakdowns. * Pollution of the marina and lagoon water with trash from land sources. Due to inadequate control and insufficientnumber of trash cans, and in the absence of legislationforbidding the sale of products in plastic containers, large quantities of trash reach the water in the marina and the lagoon. * Odor and visual disturbancesfrom lagoons. Because of the low rate of water exchange between the lagoons on the north shore and the Gulf, these lagoons, especiallythe western lagoon are a source of odor and visual impacts as well as habitatsfor unwanted flora and fauna such as algae and sea urchins.

4.2.5.3. Airports The location of the Eilat airport has both planningand environmentalrarnifications: * The airport stands on land which was supposed to have been the city's central business district. * The airport creates a wedge between the city and the hotels from a socio-economic standpoint(tourists seldomfrequent the commercialcenters located in the city). * The fact that the city is connected to the hotel district via a single road creates safety problems. * Aircraft activity results in air pollutionand noise. However, because of a lack of noise measurementdata, it is not possibleto estimate the severity of this impact on residents. The airport itself presents an aesthetic impact on the city skyline.

4.3. MARINEPOLLUTION

4.3.1. Oil Spills The majority of oil spills in the Gulf of Aqaba are considered to be operational spills (emptyingof bilge, oily wastes or ballast waters). Operational spillsduring unloading operations have also been observed (European Commission Directorate General ECDG, 1995). Small spills in the order of a few liters to a few hundred liters are observed with a frequencyof 30 to 50 spillsper year (ECDG, 1995). In recent years, spillsof 3-15 tons of crude or bunker oil were recorded. The largest reported spillof crude oil was a spill

51 of 120 tons from the Eilat oil terminal in the 1970s (ECDG,1995). The largest spill in recent years occurred in 1992 during tanker unloadingoperations at the Port of Eilat. Tens of tons of crude oil were spilled into the Gulf, and drifted south to the Coral Reserve and the southern beaches of Eilat. Damage from this spill was limited due to the intervention of staff of the Marine Pollution Control Station in Eilat and the direction of the tides (EnvironmentalLaw Institute ELI, 1993). Potential sources of oil pollutionin the Gulf of Aqaba include oil and fuel spills from tanker ships, the Eilat-AshkelonPipeline Company oil terminal facilities, the cargo port, the militaryport, and the irarina. Oily wastes can also be released with bilge or ballastwaters, although internationalconventions and Israeli laws prohibitdischarge of ballastwater and bilge wastes to 1:heGulf. The number of spills has significantly decreased following increased inspections performed by the Marine PollutionControl Unit of the MOE. Details on the structure and operations of the MPCU are presented in Section 6.1.1.1.2. In 1990,there were 22 oil spillsreported in the Israeli section of the Gulf of Aqaba, and in 1991 there were 14 spills. Spills were attributed to tankers, yachts and pleasure boats, Israel Navy boats, and large commercialvessels (ELI, 1993). The most severe danger threateningthe Gulf of Aqaba is marine pollution by oil as a result of an accident. An accident may occur with the collisionbetween an oil tanker and another vessel, a ship running aground or overflowor oil leak from a vessel. The Gulf of Aqaba is extremely sensitive to pollution due to its physical parameters: a relativelysmall and closed body of water (except for a narrow outlet in the south) with intensive land-use the length of the north shore; and due to its unique environmental conditions: coral reefs and fish ciaracterized by a wealth of species and their close proximityto the shore. Although no major oil spill has been recorded in the Gulf of Aqaba, there exists a potential for such a spill. Oil transport traffic in the Gulf of Aqaba is limitedto import of approximately3 to 4 milliontors of crude for the EAPC. About one third of all ship calls for Eilat consist of crude oil transport by tanker to the EAPC terminal. Egyptian and Jordanian ports do not receivetanker traffic (ECDG, 1995) The largest quantity of oil arriving at the oil terminal in Eilat is that which Israel undertook to purchase from Egypt within the framework of the Camp David agreements. The oil comes from the oil wells in the Gulf of Suez, in old tankers where the risk of an oil leak in the event of an accident is far greater than with newer oil tankers. Oil spills can have an instantaneoLslethal effect on coral reefs and fish. Cumulative exposure to low concentrationsof petroleumbyproducts can cause gradual impacts to marine biota which may not be immediatelyapparent. In the case of chronic oil pollutionit is generally difficultto establisha direct linkagebetween cause and effect. Petroleum hydrocarbonshave a tendency to accumulate in fatty tissues of biota. In some animals,hydrocarbons reach zoncentrationsthat are several orders of magnitude greater in tissue than in the waten. The long-term effects of bioaccumulationand bioconcentrationof hydrocarbonsin marinebiota are reflected by:

52 * Altered fertility. * Disturbancesin behavior and mobilityof animals,resulting in greater vulnerability to predators. * Altered resistanceto disease, treatmentand changesin environmentalconditions. * Altered species diversity: sensitive species disappear while the populations of toxin-resistantspecies increase. Instead of a diverse and rich ecosystem,toxic conditionscan result in a species-poor and simpleecosystem. Such systemstend to be less efficient,less fertile and inherently unstable.

4.3.2. Ballast and Bilge Water Ballastwater is used to wash cargo tanks of oil tankers and to provideweight to empty or partially full vessels. Althoughstate-of-the-art tankers have segregatedballast water tanks, most tankers hold ballast water in oil tanks. The resulting oily waste is a potential source of pollution to the Gulf. The three ports in Eilat have de-ballasting facilities that hold and eventually separate oils from ballast waters. Approximately 25,000 tons of oil are retrieved annuallyfrom these facilities. It is mandatorythat ships reaching the Gulf of Aqaba replace their ballast water while at sea in the Indian Ocean.Most of the ships arriving at Eilat Port, and mainlythe bulk cargo ships, are old vessels which carry rusty water and may contain organismsfrom elsewhere. Unless the ballast water is replaced en route, the ballast can transport pollutantsand biota from the source port to the destinationport. While the Center for the Prevention of Marine Pollution checks in the log of every ship entering Eilat Port that the ballastwater was replaced en route, these reports are sometimesfictitious Bilge wastes consist of oily waters from ship engine rooms and other sources. Volumesof bilge wastes are typicallymuch less than ballast waters, but the oil content of bilge water is typicallymuch higher. The amount of bilge water is smalldue to the smallnumber of ships docking in Eilat Port, and because not every ship requires this service. The bilge water is removed from ships using two mobile containers, each having a capacity of 25 m3. Bilge water undergoestreatment using oil-water separators belongingto the Eilat Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company. After treatment the water is channeledto the municipalwastewater system.

4.3.3. Wastewaterfrom Vessels There exist sufficientsafeguards and controls to ensure that wastewater generated on ships and cargo vessels visitingthe container port and the oil terminal is dischargedto the municipalwastewater treatment system.Bilge water is also treated at the WWTP. Environmentalpollution from ship-generatedwastewater exists because yachts and charter boats is discharged wastewater directly into the Gulf. This practice occurs because there are no land-based sewage collection facilities at the Eilat Marina. Although there are over 100 private yachts and over 30 charter boats of various sizes moored at the Eilat marina,there are currentlyno estimates of the quantity of sewage

53 discharged from these watercrafl. Nevertheless, these sources represent a significant source of pollutant input to the Gulf

4.3.4. Mariculture As described in Chapter 3, mariculture activities in the Gulf of Aqaba are located approximately300 meters off the North shore of the Gulf of Aqaba, along the border with Jordan, and produce some 1200 tons of fish annually. Mariculture operations consist of circular fish cages tied longitudinallyalong a central pontoon. Fish food is supplied to the cages at a rate of 2.28 kg per kg of fish produced. Wastes consisting of nutrient-richuneaten food and fish waste products are carried by the water, and settle through the cage mesh to the seafloor below. 75 percent of the nitrogen content of the food is releasedto the water through the gills of the fish. In addition, relativelyhigh levels of phosphorus originate from the fish meal whichis a component of the fish food. Nutrient enrichment of the water column can result in nuisance algal blooms and, under severe conditions,lead to eutrophicationof the waterbody. Studies conducted by the National Center for Mariculture(NCM) have shown that the benthic environment was severely impacted by existing mariculture operations. The area of impact of sedimentunderneath one of the fish farm was estimated at 7630 m2 based on visual observations (Angel et. al., 1995). These wastes contain large amounts of dissolved nutrients and fine particulate matter, and have been shown to have a detrimentaleffect on the benthic environment.The surface of sedimentsdirectly below fish cages was found to be dark gray and fluffy in comparisonto compacted yellow to light gray sand in natural unenriched sediments(Angel et al. 1997). Such physical changes caused the displacementof seagrasses and softbottom invertebrates from impacted sediments. Instead, enrichedsediments were found to be covered with microbialmats in which seagrasses do not grow (Angelet al., 1992, 1995) Impacted sediments below fish farms were also characterized by higher levels of 3 organic matter, porewater nutrients (NH4+and PO4 -), hydrogensulfide and methanein the top layer, and levels of porewater nutrients (ammonia and orthophosphate) levels of magnitudehigher than unimpactednearby sediments(Angel et. al., 1995). Fish diseases can cause mortality in as much as 30% of penned fish. These dead fish represent an additionalsource of nutrientsthat are releasedto the marine environment.

4.4. TOURISTACTIVITIES Tourist activities in Eilat revolve around the hotels and amusement centers, the beaches, the coral reefs, and the desert. Environmental impacts associated with activitiesat the hotels and amusementscenters result from demandplaced on resources (water, trash services, etc.). Tourist activitiesaround the coral reefs, which are the Gulfs most precious resource, consist of snorkeling,diving, and observationfrom glass-bottomboats. There are 12 scuba diving centers located along the shore in Eilat, with about 60 instructors and dive-masters,operating about 250,C00dives annually,most of them in the coral reef reserve. Their activities in the coral reefs are controlled by the NRA wardens. In

54 1995, all uncertified and introductory scuba dives were excludedfrom the reef areas, and they are no longer permittedthere. Diving and snorkelingactivities can cause direct damage to the reef though tramnpling or stepping on coral colonies,breakage, and suspensionof sedimentwhile swimming. Broken coral pieces cannot regenerate, and are lost to the colonies. Suspended sedimentcan settle and smothercoral. Evidenceof damageto the reef by diverscomes from comparisonof the reef in the Coral Reserveto the reef in the Eilat-AshkelonOil PipelineCompany terminal area. The EAPC reef is not open to the public,and this reef is characterizedby greater concentrationand species diversitythan the Coral Reserve reef. Glass bottom boats and boat activitynear the reefs can cause damage to the reef by resuspensionof sedimentwhile sailingin shallowwaters. In addition,boat bottoms are coated with a tributylaminematerial to prevent settling of marine life. This material leaches from the coating and is toxic to coral. Release of fuel and oils from boat engines and release of sewage from tourist boats in proximity of the reefs can potentiallydamage coral colonies. Freshwater, soaps and detergents releasedfrom beach-basedshowering facilities is an additionalstressor that can impact coral reefs. Dumping of litter, either on the beaches or from vessels, also impacts the reefs. However, there is little evidence of accumulationof litter since it is collected and removed. Artificiallights from hotels and on beaches can also impact coral reefs and marine biota. The activities of certain nocturnal species are adversely impacted by artificial lighting. Suppressionor changes to these activity patterns can impact a number of associatedor dependentspecies. Land-basedtourist activitiesinclude hiking, and desert tours on jeeps or mini-tractors. Hiking is generallylimited to marked trails. Environmentalimpacts of these activities include the accumulation of debris or trash on trails, and potential changes in microcatchmentbasins and dry streambed configurations.Desert jeep and tractor expeditionsalso generate large quantities of dust while moving on unpaved desert trails. Since the tourist populationis projected to increase,these problemswill continue to grow. The polo field and golf courses which have been approved and are planned to be sited north of the city of Eilat on the slope of Har Shahmon represent additionaltourist activities that have the potential to cause environmentalimpacts due to their land requirements. The polo complexwould extend on an area of 384 dunams and would includea horse racetrack and polo field, stables,an event tent, spectator stands, sports fields, 100 guest housing units, a sport and health club, retail stores, and worker housing(50 housingunits). The golf course complexwould extend on an area of 861 dunamsand includea 560 room hotel, golf course, club, conventioncenter, clubs and tourist services, restaurants and coffee houses, worker housing, a golf academy, and support buildings.

55 4.5. POTENTIAL TRANS-BOUNDARYENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PROPOSEDREGIONAL PROJECTS The main transboundaryenviromnental impacts come from the region of Aqaba,where there is intensifieddevelopment in many spheres, being the Kingdom of Jordan's sole outlet to the sea. The main environmentalimpact areas are marine pollution of the Gulf from land and marine sources, elevation of the groundwater level and groundwater pollution in proximity to the wastewater treatment plant, and visual disturbances.The major potential sources of pollution consist of industry and energy production facilities,transportation sources of various kinds, and tourism. There are no known significantedisting and planned projects in Taba that might affect the Israeli section of the Gulf of Aqaba.

4.5.1. Industryand Energy F'roduction Industry in Aqaba is far more developedthan in Eilat, and covers a far greater area. Some of the industrial plants are chemicalplants which process phosphate and potash deposits. Significantexpansion o. these industries is anticipatedin both the near and distantfuture (see Section 3.5). In addition, doublingof the current 260 MW capacity of the existingheavy-fuel power stationis now underway. Tests of polluting emissionsfroff. the industrial region and power station of the city show values which exceed the i:ternationally acceptable levels. Because prevailing winds in the region are northerly, Eilat does not suffer significantlyfrom air pollution from the direction of Aqaba. 75% of Aqaba's municipalsewage is treated in a wastewater treatment plant located north of the city. The rest of the waste flows into pit latrines. The quality of the treated waste is generally below standard for discharge to water bodies. Industrial waste is treated separatelywithin the industrialzone, and no data exist as to whether it reaches the Gulf water. The Gulf water is pollutedby air pollutants, mainlydust dispersed from the industrial plants and the power station. Without data pertainingto the pattern of sea currents in the Gulf, it is difficult to estimate the extent of the impact of these pollutants on the shores of Eilat. An accident involvinghazardous substancescould cause air and marine pollution,the severity of which would depend on the type of substance, quantities, and meteorologicalconditions. Considering the importance of toarism to the region, an additional problem is the visual impact of Aqaba's industrialzones which can be seen from the city of Eilat. The JRV Master Plan recommendsconducting environmentalimpact statements for the followingprojects in the fields of industry and energy: * Potassium sulfate and di-calciuriphosphate complex * Potassium nitrate complex * Solar power project * Wind power project

56 4.5.2. Transportation Transportation and related activities, while constituting a substantial environmental threat, offer opportunities for cooperation between the countries for their mutual benefit and for the benefit of the environment.

4.5.2.1. Ports Cargo ship traffic at Aqaba Port is eight times greater than that in Eilat's ports. The main export components from Aqaba Port in 1995 were phosphates (58.1%), potash (25.8%) and fertilizers (9.5%). Despite the fact that bulk carriers are equipped with chokefeeders,their efficiencyis about 80%, and the rest of the dust is dispersed into the air, with some settlingonto the sea. An additionalproblem are the goods imported through the Kingdomof Jordan's only outlet to the sea. These include: oil, ammonia sulfate, and various other hazardous substances. An accident involvinghazardous substances may seriously endanger the environmentand the tourism sector. The ports also represent an aesthetic disturbance.

4.5.2.2. Airports Some 50,000 passengers pass through the Aqaba airport every year, as comparedwith more than one millionpassengers at Eilat Airport. The expansionof the Aqaba airport to serve both countries (see Chapter 3) may cause a noise disturbancefor the planned northern neighborhoodsof Eilat.

4.5.2.3. Peace Road The main contribution of this road to Israel is political:the truck traffic meant to use this road will serve primarilythe neighboringcountries. At present there is no estimate of the scope of people and goods being transferred by road, but there is a warranted fear that heavy traffic on the road will cause air pollution, harm the natural assets, curtail the development of Eilat northward, create a safety hazard, bring about environmentalpollution by solid waste, and cause noise and visual disturbances. Paving the road adjacent to the eastern slopes of the Eilat hills requires consideration of the issue of animalmigration. In the Eilat area most of the Peace Road alignment converges with the bypass road alignmentand so the environmentalimpact is similar.

4.5.2.4. Relocationof border crossings The alignment of the Peace Road depends on the location of the border crossing between Israel and Jordan and Egypt. The present border crossing between Israel and Jordan, if left where it stands, constitutes a barrier to the growth of the city. Leaving the border crossing between Israel and Egypt at Taba will route a large number of visitors through the city of Eilat, mainlyduring vacations and holidays,and may cause an environmentaldisturbance of natural assets along the southernshore.

57 In an attempt to reduce these impacts it has been recommended that the border crossing between Israel and Jordan be located north of the airport at Aqaba, and the main border crossing between Israel and Egypt be located at Ein Netafim. (The border crossing at Taba will serve only tl e Taba area).

4.5.2.5. Tourism The number of tourists visiting Eilat is seven times greater than that visitingAqaba. However, the Jordanians are planning to expand the sector. The anticipated environmentalimplications may be in the creation of sewage and solid waste, with the ensuingimpact on the city of Eilat minimal,as discussed above. The JRV Master Plan recommends that an environmental impact statement be conducted for the followingprojects in the tourism sphere: * Infrastructurefor the Aqaba TourismProject * Developmentof Aqaba hotels * Expansionof Eilat hotel develcopment- He proposed Aqaba-EilatCoastal ]'romenade shouldbe taken into considerationunder any plan.

4.5.2.6. Wastewatertreatinent plants There is a significant elevation of the groundwater and an increased groundwater pollution close to the wastewater treatment plants of Eilat and Aqaba that should be subjectto monitoring.

4.5.3. The Red Sea-DeadSea Canal (RSDSC) The Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (RSI)SC) is the most important project proposed within the framework of the Masterplanfor the Jordan Rift Valley (JRV). Participantsin the Middle East Peace Talks agreed that the corridor for the RSDSC would be limitedto Jordanian territory. Nevertheless, one of the altemative paths presented for this project shows a 10 km stretch of the canal runningfrom the Gulf of Aqaba along the border between Israel and Jordan. The location of the RSDSC wholly within Jordan avoids a certain threat to protected areas along the Israeli side. The design of all the RSDSC conveyanceas leak-proofedhas removed or substantially diminishedthe concern for groundwater contamination. Choosing a northern intake site alternative along the Israeli-Jordanianborder causes some minor negative impactsin wh Ltwould probably become a congested urban area in the future, but against this , th-re are trade-offs with respect to protecting the marineenvironment of the Gulf on t,ie Jordanianside.

58 5. CONFLICTS The major environmentalconflicts in the Gulf of Aqaba Region are shown in Map 5 and are listedbelow. * North Eilat: Urban developmentvs. impact to naturalresources and scenery. * South shore: Tourism developmentvs. impactto unique natural resources. * Oil port: An oil transport terminal vs. risk of a major spill, and associatedimpacts on natural resources and the tourism industry; pollution impacts and considerable use of precious land area. * Cargo port: Strategic marine access and employment source vs. air pollution (which impacts human health and marine biota), storage of hazardous substances and all its associatedrisks, and considerableuse of precious land area. * Automobile storage lots: Inexpensivestorage vs. negative visual impact and use of precious land area. * Naval port: National defense needs vs. negativevisual impact and use of precious land areas. * Airport: Ease of access for passengers vs. safety risks, constraint to urban development, source of air and noise pollution, and important consumer of land area. * Eilat bypass roads (planned): Relief of traffic congestion and associated environmentalimpacts (air and noise pollution,transport of hazardous materials), solution to politicalissues (Peace road), and wideningof coastal areas vs. impacts to natural and visual resources. * Mariculture:Promising economic activity vs. water pollutionof the Gulf. * Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (option of a corridoralong the Jordanian border): Contributionto revivingthe Dead Sea and the economyof the Arava vs. impact to natural resources. * Planned and existing industrial areas: Economic diversity to the region and source of employmentvs. release of pollutants and environmentalimpacts (air pollution,wastewater, noise, and visual impacts). * Nature reserves:Tourist attractionsvs. nature preservation. * Gas turbines: Electricityproduction vs. air pollution. * Solar and wind energy farms: Clean sources of energy production vs. extensive use of land areas. * Tourism: Most significant economic activity and source of employment vs. transient workforcewith associatedcarelessness towards the environment. * Quarrying: A significantbuilding material source vs. air pollution and negative visual impact.

59 6. INSTITUTIONSAND LEGISLATION

6.1. CURRENTINSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK - INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES Israel's governmental system is that of a parliamentarydemocracy, with ministries administeredby members of the government. The Ministry of the Environment has authorityover most environmentalmatters as they relate to the Gulf of Aqaba.

6.1.1. The Nationaland RegionalLevel

6.1.1.1. The Ministry of tlheEnvironment The Ministry of the Environment (MOE) concentrates national level authority over environmentalmatters. Prior to its creation in 1990, responsibilityfor environmental issues was distributed among other national authorities. In the Gulf of Aqaba, the MOE is charged with the preventionof all marinepollution throughout regulationsand enforcement authority over laws related to pollution from land based sources, marine vessels, and individuals. Administration of environmental protection takes place at three levels: national, regional and local. At the national level, the MOE's staff is responsible for defining national policy and priorities, lawvsand standards, operating EIA procedures and supervisingdistrict and local authorities.

6.1.1.1.1. EnvironmentalDistricts The MOE has six district offices whose responsibilitiesinclude supervision of local environmental units and ensuring that municipalities filfill their environmental mandates. Members of regional offices also participate in regional planning and building committees. The MOE southern district is based in Beer Sheva and has jurisdiction over the Gulf of Aqaba area.

6.1.1.1.2. Marine Pollution Control Unit The Marine Pollution Control Station (MPCS) in Eilat is adjacent to the MOE's Marine Pollution Control Division The station is located north of the Coral Reef Reserve, and is staffed 24 hours a day. The MPCS serves as a logisticsbase for marine pollutioncontrol and its primary tas;ksare prevention,abatement, and treatment of oil spills. Functions performed by the staff of the MPCS include marine and coastal surveillance,routine inspections of' vessel and shore terminals, and sea and coastal cleanupoperations. The MPCS houses spill cleanup e(quipmentconsisting of skimmers, pumps, booms, tanks, oil separators, containers,dispersal and absorptionmaterials. A smallmotorboat is used for year-round inspections while heavier equipment such as barges for extendingbooms etc. must be mobilizedfrom the Eilat Port and the oil terminal. Equipment and activities of the Eilat MPCS are funded by the Marine Pollution Prevention Fund whose revenues (lerive from user fees paid by vessels and shore terminals and fines imposed on v olators of marine pollution prevention laws and

60 regulations. The Marine Pollution Prevention Fund is described in the following section (see Regulations for the prevention of marine pollution by oil- marine environment protection fee - 1983).

6.1.1.1.3. The Nature ReservesAuthority The Nature Reserves Authority(NRA) is a departmentin the MOE. It is responsible for maintenanceand protection of Israel's nature reserves. The NRA has four districts (north, center, south, and Eilat). The Eilat District was specificallyestablished because of its importance in terms of environmentalprotection in relation to the rest of the country. The Eilat District of the Nature Reserves Authority has jurisdiction over nature reservesin Eilat and its surroundings. The NRA is empoweredto regulate and enforce environmentalprotection of the Coral Reef Reserve, the Eilat Mountain reserves, and other reserves. It does so through reserve managers whose responsibilitiesinclude individual reserve operationsand nature protection.

6.1.1.2. Ministry of the Interior The Ministry of the Interior chairsthe NationalPlanning and BuildingBoard (NPBB), which is responsiblefor enactingnational masterplans, reviewing regional masterplans, and serving as an appeal board for decisions of the district planning and building commissions.As discussed in Section 6.2.2.1, national masterplansare prepared for issues of national planningsignificance of for land uses that serve national interests. The masterplans are commissionedby the NPBB, and upon completion, they are submittedto the governmentfor approval. The Ministry of the Interior is also responsiblefor two committees at the national level: the Agricultural Lands Committee whose mandate is to protect lands of agricultural value and minimize loss of such lands; and the Territorial Waters Committeewhich is responsiblefor approvalof all offshore structures. At the regionallevel, the Ministryof the Interior is responsiblefor six district planning and building commissionswhich are composed of representatives of government ministriesand local authorities.District commissionsserve as a link between national planningand local implementation. At the local level,the Ministryoversees local planningand buildingcommissions that serve local authoritiesand are composedof elected membersof the municipalcouncils. These local commissionssubmit local Masterplans to the District commissionsfor approval.

6.1.1.3. Ministry of Tourism The Ministryof Tourism maintainsa local office in Eilat which is activelyinvolved in promoting tourism. Activities of the Ministry include: licensingof various tourist services, including hotels, restaurants, travel agents, tour guides, shops, etc.; monitoringof tourist service quality; and maintenanceof tourist informationbureaus and event promotion. The Ministry of Tourism, through its subsidiarycompanies, is involvedin physical infrastructure development that include infrastructureprojects such as promenades, marinasand other tourist attractions.

61 6.1.1.4. Ministry of Housing The Ministryof Housing maintainsa local office in Eilat. The Ministryis responsible for initiatinghousing and developmentprojects, such as the North Eilat Master Plan.

6.1.1.5. Ministry of Healtht The Ministryof Health maintains. local office in Eilat. Environmentalaspects of this Ministry's responsibilitiesinclude monitoringdrinking water qualityand water quality at bathingbeaches.

6.1.1.6. Ministryof Transport- The MOT is charged with regulations and inspection of shippingvessels that visit Israeli shores. The Ministry is also responsible for harmonization of laws under internationalconventions. The MOT performs its regulatory enforcement,inspection, and facilitiesmanagement duties through two entities:the Shippingand Ports Authorityand the Ports Authority.

6.1.1.6.1. Shipping and Ports Authority The Ministry of Transport, under the auspices of the Shippingand Ports Authority performs continuousfitness inspectionsof all Israeli tankers, and provides them with operation and safety certificates. In additionthe SPA certifiesand overseesthe safety teams on tankers, in compliancewith safety standards. Until recently tankers were inspectedaccording to the IMO inspectionstandards based on internationalconventions. In 1992, the Shippingand Ports Authority adopted a procedure requiring all foreign vessels to comply with Tanker Owners Voluntary AgreementConcerning Liability for Oil Pollution(TAVALOP) or Contract Regarding an Interim Supplement of Tarner Liability (CRISTAL) safety requirements. Compliance is verified by random inspections. However, because of manpower shortages,actual inspectionsare conductedon approximately5% of all foreigntankers sailingalong Israel's shores.

6.1.1.6.2. The Ports Authoriti The Ports Authority is charged w th the managementand operations of the Port of Eilat. The Ports Authority, whose board of directors and director general are appointed by the government,has responsibilityfor enforcementof laws relating to movement and moorings of ships, loading, and unloading operations, prevention of marinepollution from ships, and all activitiesoccurring within the port.

6.1.1.7. The Ministryof Finance (Eilat-AshkelonOil Pipeline Company) The Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company (EAPC) oil terminal operates under a specialconcession assured by law, and temporaryinternal working procedures which define the areas of responsibilityof pier owners to include: acceptabilityof tanker maneuveringand unloading equiprient and procedures, safety of shore installations during unloading operations, and prevention of marine pollution. In addition, the Ministry of the Environmentis charged with inspectionsduring the time that tankers are moored and unloadedat the EAPC terminal.

62 6.1.2. The Local Level

6.1.2.1. Municipalityof Eilat The municipalcouncil of Eilat consists of 15 elected members. The city is managed by an elected mayor who sits at the head of an administrationcommittee that consists of the deputy mayor, the city administrator, the treasurer, and the personnel administrator. The municipalcoordination team is led by the general director of the municipality,and integrates heads of all municipaldepartments. The municipal spokesperson and the heads of the strategic planning department and of the Regional EnvironmentalUnit participatein meetingsof the municipalcouncil. The municipalityalso supports a number of administrativeentities which are relevant to environmentalissues. These are: * The Eilat Coast DevelopmentCorporation. This corporation is administeredby representativesof the Municipalityof Eilat, the Ministry of Tourism, and the Israel Lands Authority.It is responsiblefor tourism developmentalong Eilat's coast. * The Eilat Economic DevelopmentCorporation. This corporationis a subsidiary of the municipality which performs planning and project development and managementof projects for the city. * The Environmental Protection Committee. The environmental protection committeeconsists of 15 voting membersnominated by the municipalcouncil. In addition, the committee invites members who are recognized experts in environmental disciplines. The committee is chaired by the mayor, and the secretary of the committeeis the manager of the Regional EnvironmentalUnit. In the past, the committee met once every month or two and its decisions were subject to the approval of the municipalcouncil. This committee has not met in over two years.

6.1.2.2. RegionalEnvironmental Unit In Israel, the local environmental authorities consist of regional associations for environmentalprotection, regionalenvironmental units, and local units. The Eilat-Eilot Regional EnvironmentalUnit is subordinate to the Municipalityof Eilat, since Eilat was the senior partner involved in the formation of this unit. Although the EnvironmentalUnit is not considered as one of the seven municipal departments, it functions as a branch of the municipality, and the head of the EnvironmentalUnit is directly answerableto the city administrator. The budget of the EnvironmentalUnit is approved by the municipal council. Prior to decision by the municipalityto close the unit, it employed5 workers: * The head of the environmentalunit who is also in charge of environmental planning and marinebiology. * A coordinator in charge of industries,hazardous materials, and businesslicensing. * A coordinatorin charge of wastewater and solidwastes.

63 * A coordinatorin charge of education. * A secretary. The Eilat-Eilot Regional EnvironmentalUnit acts in an advisory capacity to local policy and decisionsmakers, participatesin the planningand buildingdecision-making process, performs environmentalmonitoring, supervises preparation of EISs, conducts inspections, assists in enforcement of environmental standards, and promotes environmental education and public awareness. The EnvironmentalUnit is also responsiblefor environrnentalaspects of business permits and oversight of business, factory, and buildingactivities. Members of the RegionalEnviromnental Unit in Eilat are authorizedto serve as local inspectors,and are empoweredto enter public and private businessestablishments to ensure compliance with national and local bylaws. They are also active in environmentalprotection campaigr.ssuch as beach and reef cleanups. The annual budget of the Regional EnvironmentalUnit for the last three years remained around $140,000, even though the annual inflation rate was around 10%. The participationof the Municipalityof Eilat in the environmentalunit's budget is in the order of 40%, and the Eilot RtegionalCouncil provides an additional 10%. This year, the participationof the Ministryof the Envirornent has decreasedfrom around 40% to around 20% of the annual budget of the unit. This cutback, occurring in addition to the Municipality'sbudgetary problems explainsthe decision of the Mayor of Eilat to close the environmentalmnit.

6.1.3. ResearchOrganizations

6.1.3.1. The Interuniversity Institute of Eilat (IUI) The InteruniversityInstitute of Eilat operates the MarineBiological Laboratory located on the south shore of the Gulf of Aqaba. The Marine BiologicalLaboratory was erected in 1968 by the Hebrew Universityof Jerusalem, and has operated as an interuniversityinstitute since 198'. The IUI provides an interdisciplinaryumbrella where leadingscientists from five Israeli universities(The Hebrew University,Tel Aviv University,Bar Ilan University, E[aifaUniversity, University of Beer Sheva) share facilitiesand collaborate. The HUAprovides education for under-graduate,graduate, and post-doctorate fellows in the various fields of Marine Sciences.It provides28 annual courses covering fields of ecology, chemical,physical and biological oceanography,ichthyology, population dynamics of invertebrates and vertebrates, mnicrobiology, ecological and pharmacologicaltoxicology and ne robiology.Approximately 1000 studentsfrom five of the Israeli universitiesparticipate in this curriculumeach year. On average, 5 internationalcourses and workshops are held annuallyby the II, and approximately300 foreign scientistsand students participate in these programs each year. Three symposiahave taken place on the ecosystem of the Gulf of Aqaba in relationto the enhancedeconomic development and the peace process. The fUI provides a base for extensiveinternational activities. Working relations have also been establishedbetween the IUI, Egyptianand Jordanianinstitutions. More than

64 10joint research cruiseson the RIU'sresearch vessel have been conducted in the Gulf of Aqaba and the northernpart of the Red Sea. The IUI receives financialsupport directly from the Council of Higher Education. In addition, research programs are funded by major competitivegranting agencies that operate in Israel. These include the Israel Academy of Sciences, the US-Israel BinationalFoundation and the German-IsraelFoundation. Most recently, the U.S. Agencyfor InternationalDevelopment approved funding for the IUI as part of an Israeli-Jordanianmarine monitoring initiative sponsored under AID's MERC (MiddleEast RegionalCooperation) program.

6.1.3.1.1. The Red Sea Program The Red Sea Program is a large inter-disciplinarymarine research program fundedby the GermanMinistry of Education, Science,Research and Technology.The maingoals of the Red Sea Program are to promote science,cooperation and capacity buildingin the Gulf of Aqaba/Red Sea region while addressingthe needs for development. A marinepeace park shared between Israel and Jordan is a project proposed under the auspices of the Red Sea Program. The park boundaries will include resources shared between the nations as an indicationof shared environmentalconcerns. Planning for this park includes joint baseline monitoring and research activities to be used for managementpurposes. Project componentsinclude design and initialimplementation of a long term research and monitoringprogram in the northern Gulf of Aqaba with a focus on park managed areas. The research and monitoringprogram will focus on physical, chemical, and biological oceanographic parameters and pollution sources importantfor the maintenanceof coral reef ecosystemsand sustainabledevelopment. This project will be developedin 3 phases over 3 years. The first phase will focus on institutional capacity building, sponsoring collaborative meetings to establish monitoring systems and research, developmentof regional communicationssystems etc. The second phase will focus on developingthe baselinedata and evaluatingit for quality and utility. Socio-economicstudies will also be undertaken to identify park users and evaluate their need and potential impacts on park resources. A public outreach and educationcampaign will be initiatedin this phase of the program. In the third and final phase, work will be undertaken to evaluate and institutionalizethe process, establish mechanismsand methodologies,perform additional outreach and continueongoing studies.

6.1.3.2. The NationalCenter for Mariculture The National Center for Mariculture (NCM) was establishedin the early 1970's as a branch of Israel Oceanographic& LimnologicalResearch, a goverrunentalnot-for- profit institute. Over the years, the NCM has developeda technologywhich is the basis for the present maricultureindustry in Israel. NCM serves as a research institute focusingin the general areas of domesticationof mariculturecandidate speciesof fish, shellfish,and seaweed, and developmentof drop- out systemsfor these speciesin sea cages and land-basedsystems.

65 The NCM is located in proximityt: the Israeli-Jordanianborder and employs some 75 people.

6.1.4. Non-GovemmentalOrganizations

6.1.4.1. The Society for the Protection of Nature The Societyfor the Protection of Nature in Israel (SPNI) is Israel's oldest and largest enviromnental NGO. Its activities focus on nature protection, education and preservation.The SPNI has been ir,strumentalin raising publicawareness of nature and environmentalprotection in Israel. The SPNI has approximately800 full time staff, and an equal number of part-time staff. It operates 26 field schools has 35 local branches, and provides outreach to communitiesthroughout Israel. \Aost of the SPNI's budget comes from its over 50,000 members. Approximately^ 5 to 18 percent of the SPNI budget is provided by govermmentministries in return for educationalactivities. Through a broad-based program of education, conservation, research and public action, the SPNI involves over a million people annually (about 20% of Israel's population) in its activities: walking tours, roving camps, lectures and seminars. In recent years, the SPNI has broadened its orientationto includeenvironmental activism. As a publicrepresentative on the NationalPlanning and BuildingBoard, the SPNI has been a strong advocate of enviromnentalinterests. Its activitieshave been backed up by publicprotests and legal action, includingpetitions to the High Court of Justice. Together with Israel's universitiesand the Ministry of Science,the SPNI operates 13 Information,Research and DevelopmentCenters. The Centers provide essential data for developingconservation strategies. The SPNI operates a field school in Eilat, and has been active in lobbying for nature preservationon Israel's Gulf of Aqaba coast.

6.1.4.2. The Israel Union for Environmental Defense. The Israel Union for Environmental Defense (IWED) is a nonprofit grassroots enviromnentalorganization that promotes environmentalprotection through litigation and legislativeadvocacy. The UEI) is not affiliatedwith other governmental or non- govermmentalorganizations. Its staff includesattorneys and scientists. The IUED pursues public, legal and scientific initiatives to protect the quality of Israel's air, water and land and to preserve the country's natural resources. It also provides legal and technical services to Israeli citizens facing pollution problems and ongoing support to non-govermnentalgrassroots environmentalorganizations. The IUED's stated goals includecollection and disseminationof data about the state of the environmentin Israel; improvementof the qualityof environmentallegislation in Israel and encouragementof education iri the area of environmentallaw; ensuring that the Ministry of the Environment and other government agencies with environmental authority fulfilltheir statutory mardates and public responsibilities;and creation of a resource center with scientific and technical information regarding environmental problemsavailable to the Israeli public.

66 Environmentalissues addressed by the IUED include marine pollution and coastal development.In the Gulf of Aqabaregion, IUED has focused on dischargesof partially treated sewagefrom the Municipalityof Eilat directlyinto the Gulf In 1991, the IUED filed formal objections and presented testimony before the interministerialauthority that was reviewing a request by the Municipalityof Eilat to renew its discharge permit under Israel's Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources Law, 1988. The interministerialcommittee accepted IUED's call for a halt to the discharges because of their potential damage to the Gulf In 1992, the IUED publicized the municipality'srefusal to complywith the decision, and pressured the Attorney General of Israel to file a criminal action against the Municipalityand the Mayor of Eilat (Adghaman,1994)

6.1.4.3. Ecopeace Ecopeace was established in 1994 in the wake of the peace accords. Ecopeace constitutes a consortium of Egyptian, Israeli, Jordanian and Palestinianenvironmental NGOs working toward peace and sustainabledevelopment of the region. Ecopeace has focused on the protection of the environmentof the Gulf of Aqaba and other border areas of mutual concern.

6.1.4.4. Eilat Hotel Owner's Association The Eilat Hotel Owner's Associationrepresents hotel owners and operators. Most of its activitiesare in the realm of tourism promotionand economic issues relevant to the hotel and tourist trade. The association has promoted environmental goals by encouraginghotel guests to reduce laundry needs by re-usingtowels during their stay, and installation of sensors to reduce electricity consumption when rooms are unoccupied.

6.1.4.5. The Israeli Diving Federation The Israeli Diving Federation(TIDF) was establishedin 1966, and 80,000 divers have been certified in TIDF courses since. In each of the last three years (1994-1996) over 10,000 divers have been certified annually(one and two star divers), and an additional 500 or so have graduated three star or instructor certificationcourses. The TIDF is the only wholly-Israeliorganization that certifies divers and centers in Israel. The Israeli Sport Diving Law (1979) and its bylaws establishedlegal requirementsand rules for divers, divingservices, centers, and equipment.

6.1.4.6. Sea and Desert Association The Sea and Desert Association was active in Eilat in the past. Its goals were to protect the marine environment. The chairman and the secretary of this association remain,although the associationitself is no longer active.

6.1.4.7. "Bay-Watch" A regionalforum that was initiatedin 1996 in order to promote the conservationof the Eilat coral reef Membersof the forum include:the SPNI (from the Eilat field-school); the NRA (Eilat district); the Eilat RegionalEnvironmental Unit; the Marine Pollution

67 Control Unit; the Ministry of the Environment;the Israel Diving Federation - Eilat division;the NCM; the IUT;the InternationalBird Watching Center;Dolphin Reef, the Underwater Observatory; the Arava Research Institute and the local Eilat weekly magazine "Erev-Erev". The foram was establishedin order to coordinate informal efforts to save the natural assets of the Gulf and to promote public awareness activities.

6.2. LEGISLATIONAND REGULATIONS

6.2.1. National Level Instruments- Laws and Regulations National level instruments for protection of the environmentconsist of a number of laws and regulations that are ac6ministeredwholly or partly by the Ministry of the Environment.The legal instrumentsthat are pertinent to the protection of the Gulf of Aqabaare listed in Table 20 and are summarizedbelow.

6.2.1.1. Planning and Building Law The Planning and building law of 1965 regulates building and land-use management in Israel, and established a framework for environmentalplanning. Under this law, national,regional, and local bodieswere establishedto develop and implementland use plans at the different levels. The National Board enacts national master plans; six district commissions(including one for the south and Eilat) enact district master plans; and local planningcommissions (including the commissionfor Eilat/Eilot)prepare local master plans and detailed plans tc address specificprojects. Masterplansare discussed in further detail in Section6.2.2.1

6.2.1.2. Environmental Impact Statement The Planning and Building Regulations, 1982, establish Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) requirements. The regulations specify four kinds of projects for which an EIS is mandatory: power stations, airports, ports and hazardous disposal sites. The regulationsalso urge the preparation of an EIS for landing strips, marinas, national water supply arteries, dams and reservoirs, wastewater treatment plants, quarries, waste disposalsites and industrialplants situated outside designatedindustrial zones - if the planningauthority considersthat significantenvironmental impacts may occur beyond the immediate vicinity of the project. In practice, regional planning authorities regard this recommendationas mandating an EIS since all such projects have significantimpact beyond the immediatevicinity. In addition, any planningauthority may require an EIS on any plan expected to have environmentalimplications and every ministerialrepresentative may require an EIS for any plan under discussion. Since the MOE is represented on the national and district planning authorities, it can exercise its right to require an EIS if the authorities themselvesdo not do so. The regulations call for EISs to be prepared in accordance with guidelines,formally issued by the planningauthority but prepared by the MOE.

68 The developer is responsiblefor preparing the EIS in accordance with the guidelines prepared by the MOE. While the regulations do not specify how an EIS should be reviewed, the MOE has examinedall EISs since 1987. Experts at the MOE evaluate each EIS and issue an opinion which includes a summary of the main findings, the Ministry's conclusions about the assessment and a list of recommendationsfor the planning authority. In most cases, the planning authority incorporates the recommendationsin its decisionconcerning the plan.

69 Table 20. Israeli environmental laws and regulations applicable to the Gulf of Aqaba.

Environmental Impact Legal Instrument Category Planningand Environmental Planningand BuildingLaw- 1965 ImpactAssessment Planningand BuildingLaw (Environmental impact statements) - 1982 General BusinessLicensing Law - 1968 Control of Nuisance law - 1961 Air Quality Abatementof Nuisancesregulations(air quality) of 1972 Abatementof Nuisancesregulations ( particulatematter releases to air) - 1972updated 1994 WaterQuality WaterLaw of 1959 The LocalAuthorities Law (sewage) of 1962 The ModelBylaw for LocalAuthorities (the dischargeof industrialwastes into the sewersystem) of 1981 The Publichealth regulations (criteria for wastewater)of 1992 MarinePollution Control Ordinancefor preventionof seawaterpollution by oil (newversion) of 1980 Regulationsfor the preventionof seawaterpollution by oil (marineenvironment protection fee) of 1983 Reaulationfor the preventionof seawaterpollution bv oil ( implementationof the convention)- 1987 Regulationsof oil spillageto seawaters(fines and cleanup expenses) - 1977 Orderfor oil spillsto seawater(fines) - 1972 Preventionof SeaPollution (Dumping of Waste)Law of 1983 The Preventionof sea pollution(dumping of waste)regulation of 1984 The Preventionof MarinePollution from Land-basedSources Law of 1988 The regulationfor the preventionof marinepollution from land-basedsources - 1990 PortsOrdinance (New Version) of 1971 PortsOrdinance (loading and unloading of oils)- 1975. SolidWaste Maintenanceof Cleanlinesslaw - 1984 HazardousSubstances Businesslicensing regulations (fuel storage) - 1976 Businesslicensing regulations (removal and disposal of hazardoussubstances) - 1993 Businesslicensing regulations (hazardous facilities) - 1993 The HazardousSubstances Law - 1993 NaturePreservation Lawof NationalParks, Nature Reserves, Memorial Sites, and National Sites - 1992 The wild animalsprotection law - 1955 Nationalparks and nature reservesregulations (interdiction of damagesto protectednatural resources and their protection - 1968 Naturereserves regulations (order and behavior)- 1979 Regulationsfor nationalparks, nature reserves, and nationalsites (preventionof damagesto protected natural resources)- 1983 Declarationfor nationalparks and nature reserves (protected natural resources) - 1971 Declarationfor nationalparks and nature reserves (protected natural resources) - 1979.

70 Planning agencies view the EIS as a crediblereliable process that helps them analyze and resolve environmentalconflicts. Developers tend to favor the process because it helps them represent an environmentallysound plan to the aware public,and the public uses it as a basic documentupon which to base objections. Moreover, environmental NGOs have begun to use EIS requirements as a tool in their struggle against environmentallyproblematic projects. The EIS has proved to be a highly effective tool for a limited number of complex projects in which severe environmentalimpacts are anticipated. The EIS is not an appropriate tool for checking multiple small plans whose cumulative environmental impact may be significant. The hotel industryin Eilat serves as an examplein point. In such cases, the representativesof the MOE evaluate the cumulativeeffects and make recommendationsto the planningauthorities. While several local planning authorities do require non-statutory EISs when they suspectthat an industrialproposal may adverselyimpact the environment,the failureof national regulationsto require EISs for buildingpermits for industrialplants shouldbe remedied. In the meantime, environmentalassessment of specificindustries is carried out within the framework of the Licensing of Businesses Law which allows for the incorporationof environmentalconditions into businesslicenses. Efforts are currently being focused on introducingenvironmental requirements in the initialstages of planning. The master plans are a notable examplewhere environmental consultantsare includedin the preparationat the outset. Eight EISs have been submittedto date for projects in the Eilat area, includingEISs for specificlocal projects: a quarry in Nahal Shlomo (1.3.87), aluminumrecycling in Timna (1.6.89), BirdwatchingPark (29.3.93), gas turbines (11.1.94), southern coastal road (5.4.95), solid waste disposal site in Nimra (1.11.95), polo and golf complexes (7.1.96), and the "Orbit" factory (29.10.96). No evaluation of the cumulative environmentalimpact of these or other projects (e.g., tourism developmentprojects) has ever been conducted.

6.2.1.3. Generallaws The Business Licensing Law of 1968 is used to ensure complianceof designated businesseswith environmentalstandards. Under the provisions of this law, individual businessesapplying for a new business license or renewing an existing license can be required to control, treat, or otherwise manage solid and liquid wastes, air emissions and hazardous materials. Businesses can also be required to install reporting, monitoring,and control systemsas required by the local licensingauthority. The Control of Nuisances Law of 1961 is Israel's first legislativeinstrument for controllingair, odor, and noise pollutionfrom stationaryand mobile sources. This law is used by the MOE to address specificpolluters through personal decrees.

6.2.1.4. Air quality The Abatement of nuisances regulations(air quality) of 1972 and Abatement of nuisances regulations (particulate matter releases to air) - 1972 updated 1994

71 establish ambient air quality standards, and define permissible emission rates of particulatematter from industrialifacilities.

6.2.1.5. Water quality and wastewater The Water Law of 1959 establishesthe basic frameworkfor control and protection of Israel's water resources. This law authorizes the Minister of the Environment to promulgate regulations to prevent the pollution of freshwater resources. The Water law also containsregulations to ptevent water pollution,describes conditionsnecessary for approval of wastewater treatment operations and assigns to the polluter responsibilityfor taking remedialmeasures. The Local Authorities Law (Sewage) of 1962 defines the functions and powers of local authorities to install and operate municipal sewer systems. This law also establishes fines and penalties for unlicensed or improper discharge to the sewer system. The Model Bylaw For Local Authorities (the discharge of industrialwastewater into the sewer system) of 1981 serves as a recommendationto local authorities, and definesthe responsibilityof waste-watergenerators for adequate treatment and disposal to avoid health and environmentalimpacts, or contamination of water sources. This bylaw also defines acceptableindu strial dischargesto the municipalsewer systems. The Public health regulations(criteria for wastewater)of 1992 specify the level of treatment required for wastewater prior to discharge, and include limitationson the levels of biological oxygendemand (BOD) and suspended solids in treated wastewater discharges.

6.2.1.6. Marine pollution The Ordinance for prevention(of seawater pollution by oil (new version) of 1980 is applicableto all vessels inside Israel's territorial waters, and to vessels outside of Israel's territorial waters if there .s a threat that they will pollute Israel's waters. This ordinance establishesa record-keepingsystem for all oil transfer operations, appoints and empowersvessel inspectorsand establishesmeasures to be taken by vessel owners in case of oil discharge to the sea. It also establishes a fund for the prevention of seawater pollution, imposes a riarine environment protection fee on owners and operators of vessels and land-basedinstallations, and incorporatesa system of fines for noncomplianceand discharges. This ordinance also confers powers to port managers to institute proceedings against vessel or installation owners in cases of non- complianceor spills.

72 Regulations for the preventionof seawater pollutionby oil (marine environment protection fee) of 1983, impose fees on owners of vessels and terminals to be paid into the fund for preventionof seawater pollution.Fines and cleanupexpenses in cases of illegaldischarges and accidents are collectedas defined under the Regulationsfor oil spillage to seawaters (fines and cleanupexpenses) - 1977, and the Ordinance for oil spills to seawater(fines) - 1972. Regulation for the prevention of seawater pollution by oil (execution of the convention)- 1987. This regulationaddresses requirementsof Annex 1 of MARPOL. It includes rules and regulations for the prevention of seawater pollution by oil through installationof oil collectionequipment in ports; and record-keeping,reporting, and inspectionrequirements. Prevention of Sea Pollution(Dumping of Waste) Law of 1983 prohibits disposal of wastes to the sea. The Prevention of sea pollution(dumping of waste) regulation of 1984 establishes a permit system for legal disposal of wastes to the sea. This regulation lists materials that are allowed and materials that are prohibited for dumping.Permit requirementsdefined in this regulationinclude identificationof waste packaging, location, timing, and manner of dumping;route to dump site; and loading and transport precautions.Reporting and monitoringrequirements are also specified. The Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources Law of 1988 prohibits unpermitted disposalof wastes or sewage to the sea. Permits are issued by a committeeconsisting of representativesfrom various governmentministries. This law also defines the powers of inspectors empoweredby the Ministryof the Environment, and establishespenalties for contraventionof the provisionsof the law, The Regulationfor the prevention of marine pollutionfrom land-based sources - 1990 defines the terms under which waste and sewage disposal permits may be granted. This regulation also identifiesmaterials that may not be dischargedof into the sea. Ports Ordinance (New Version) of 1971 prescribes the proper operation of a port, includingpowers and functions of port officers, licensing requirements, and delivery and handlingof goods. Ports Ordinance (loading and unloading of oils) - 1975 defines notification and record-keepingrequirements of all tanker vessels entering Israel's territorial waters and ports. This ordinance also specifies the activities that are to be carried out at port terminal facilitiesregarding loading and unloading of oils, ballast waters, and wastes. The ordinance requires removal of ballast waters to a terminal holding/treatment installation,and prohibitsdumping of oil-containingmaterials to the sea.

6.2.1.7. Solid waste The Maintenance of CleanlinessLaw of 1984 prohibits disposal of waste into the public domain, establishes a system of penalties and fines, and creates a cleanliness fund whose purpose is to fund educationalactivities, inspections and enforcementof the cleanlinesslaws.

73 6.2.1.8. Hazardous substances The Hazardous Substances Law of 1993 provides the MOE with the authority for comprehensive management of hazardous substances, including the manufacture, import, export, packaging, commerce, issue, transfer, storage and use of hazardous substances. The Business licensing regulations (disposal of hazardous substances) - 1993 identifya nationwidecentral hazardous waste disposalsite where all hazardous wastes must be disposed of . This regulation also defines documentation requirements for tracking disposalof hazardousmaterials from the sourceto the disposalsite. Licensing,maintenance, and housekeeping requirementfor facilitiesthat are deemed hazardous by virtue of manufacture or storage of toxic, flammable, or explosive substances are addressed in the EBusinesslicensing regulations (hazardous facilities) of 1993 and the Business licensing regulations (fuel storage) - 1976. The measures listed in these regulationsare mcant to prevent accidents and releases of materials to the environment.

6.2.1.9. Nature preservation The National Parks And Nature Reserves Laws of 1963, updated in 1992 (National Parks, Nature Reserves, Memorial Sites and National Sites Law of 1992) provides the legal structure for the protection of natural habitats, natural assets, wildlife,and sites of scientificarid educationalinterest. This law also establishedtwo authorities:the National Reserves Authority (NRA) and the NationalParks Authority. Under this law, sites designated for protection are declared by the Minister of the Interior following consultationwith other ministries.In Eilat, The Coral Reserve, and the Eilat Mountainsare designatcdas nature reserves. The Wild Animals Protection Law of 1955 serves to further protect wildlifewithin and outside of nature reserves.T i's law lists animalsto be protected and authorizesthe Minister of Agricultureto appoint inspectorsto ensure compliance. Nature reserves regulations (order and behavior) - 1979 prohibit activities and actions that can result in damageto plants and wildlifewithin the boundariesof nature reserves. These regulations are applicableto all nature reserves, including the Coral reef reserve in Eilat. Damage is describedin this regulationto include taking plants or wildlife;or using traps, poisons, explosivesor other means that can result in damage to plants or animals.In addition, these regulationsprohibit direct or indirect pollution of seawater within the boundariesof reserves. National parks and nature r eserves regulations (interdiction of damages to protected natural resources arid their protection) - 1968 identifies the area of the proposed coral reef reserve as starting 400 meters south of Nahal Shlomoin the north to the Egyptian-Israeliborder in the south; and from the high tide line to the border of Israel's territorial waters. These regulations also prohibit damage to corals, invertebrates, and fish through the interdictionof introducingforeign objects, sailing vessels, line fishing, sale of protucted species and other activitiesthat would result in damageto the reserve.

74 Regulationsfor nationalparks, nature reserves,and national sites (preventionof damages to protected naturalresources) - 1983 contain prohibitionsto the taking or keeping of protected species as defined in the Declarations for national parks and nature reserves(protected naturalresources of 1971 and 1979). These declarations identifyall invertebratesand fish in Eilat's coral reef reserve as protected species.

6.2.2. Masterplans National level instrumentsfor environmentalprotection in the Gulf of Aqaba include national master plans and environmentalimpact assessmentrequirements for certain categories of developmentprojects. These instruments are no less important than the environmental legislation described above in providing management tools for environmentalprotection.

6.2.2.1. NationalMasterplans National Masterplans (NMP) establish guidelinesfor comprehensivemanagement of land use and other resources. These masterplansar&ef developed under the auspices of the NationalPlanning and BuildingBoard of the Ministryof the Interior. NMPs are of great importance with regard to protection of the Gulf of Aqaba environment. Under Israel's land allocation system,development rights belong to the state, and all lands along the shoreline and the seabed are publicly managed. Environmentalimpact assessmentsare required for certain land-use planningdecisions, and all regional and local developmentplans must comply with the existingNMPs for a particular area. NationalMasterplans exist for a number of developmentcategories that can potentially impact the environmentof the Gulf of Aqaba. These are listed in Table 21, and are describedbelow.

Table21. NationalMasterplans applicable to Eilatand the Gulfof Aqaba.

NationalMaster Plan Status No. 3 Roads Approved No. 8 National Parks and Nature Approved Reserves No. 12 Tourism Approved No. 13 Eilat Bay Shoreline Pending Approval No. 14 Mines and Quarries Pending Approval No. 15 Airports PendingApproval No. 16. Solid Waste Disposal Approved No. 22 Forests Approved No. 23 Railways Approved No. 31. ImmigrantAbsorption Approved

75 6.2.2.1.1. National Master Plan 3 NMP No. 3 for Roads definesthe corridor for the Eilat by-pass road (Road No. 90) parallel to the Eilat-Ashkelonpi eline from the Arava road in the north to the Ein Netafimborder crossing with Egypt.

6.2.2.1.2. National Master Plan 8 NMP No. 8 for NationalParks an I Nature Reservesdefines the Eilat Mountains,Eilat Coral Reef Reserve, and Shoret Heights as nature reserves. Shoret heights are a central and dominant element in the north of Eilat. Conservation of their unique views will determinefuture developmentof t1henorthern areas of Eilat.

6.2.2.1.3. National Master Plan 12 NMP No. 12 for Tourism defines tourism-relateddevelopment. The major points of this masterplanthat relate to Eilat and the Gulf of Aqaba shorelineinclude: * Additionof 9600 hotel rooms and tourism developmentin the existingtourism area between the airport and the border with Jordan; concentration of hotels on the north shore and eastern lagoon; and preventionof constructionof additionalhotels southwardsalong the sensitiveshoreline. * Creation of an interactionbetween tourists and residentsthrough developmentof a "holiday" suburb, i.e. mixed use area of hotels, tourist attractions, timeshare apartments, and other housingarrangements. * Creating direct contact betw.,en city and tourism area through removal of the airport from its present location, use of joint airport facilities with Jordan, and exploitation of the area of the:present airport for continueddevelopment of hotels and tourist services. * Expansion of Eilat as a foreign tourist destination and development of direct connectionsto tourist sites in .ordan.

6.2.2.1.4. National Master P'lan 13 NMP No. 13 for Eilat Gulf Shore(underpreparation) designates and regulates uses of the sea and land areas withinthe I'lan boundaries. The plan identifiesthe followingcbjectives: * Developingthe City of Eilat iri relation to the sea. * Increasingthe area of bathing beaches. * Regulating the conflicts between land uses requiring access to the shore, and concentratingall port activities. * Ensuringopen areas for planningbeyond the plan's target year.

76 6.2.2.1.5. National Master Plan 14 NMP No. 14 for mines and quarries (proposed) designates the following areas for gravel quarries:Nahal Roded from its sourcein the Eilat mountainsto the Arava road; and the area surroundingthe Shoret heights from the west, south, and east. In addition, NVP No. 14 designatesthree sites for buildingstone quarries: south of Ramat Yotam, north of Ramat Yotam, and around Har Horam and Har Hoash.

6.2.2.1.6. National Master Plan 15. NMP No. 15 for airports designates the existing airport in Ein Evrona as an internationalairport that is meant to replace the airport in Eilat. The airport plan was approved at the regionallevel in 1991.

6.2.2.1.7. National Master Plan 16 NMP No. 16 for solid waste disposal designatesthe site at Ramat Yotam as the local solid waste disposalfacility for Eilat.

6.2.2.1.8. National Master Plan 22 NMP No. 22 for forests designates a proposed Jewish National Fund forest in the north of Eilat. This forest will have an area of 1,201 dunams. In addition, a forest is designated in the building and developmentplan for the Nahal Roded neighborhood. (see Map 2)

6.2.2.1.9. National Master Plan 23 NTP No. 23 for railroads includes railroad rights of ways which run parallel to the Arava road and cross the city through its center, en route to the Eilat cargo port.

6.2.2.1.10. National Master Plan 31 NMP No. 31 for immigrant absorption includes elements of construction and development.In Eilat, NMP 31 adopted population data presented in the Eilat 2000 Master Plan, and projects long-termpopulation growth reaching 60,000 to 80,000.

6.2.2.2. RegionalMasterplan 4, VarianceNo. 14 RMP No 4, variance No. 14 is in process of approval. This RMP was prepared in 1994, and definesthe followingland uses in Eilat: * North of Shoret Heights- a nationalindustrial zone. * South of Shoret Heights, - urban area. * Nahal Roded and surroundinghills - quarries. * Road 90 right of way - parallel to the Eilat-Ashkelonpipeline right of way, as a substitutefor the by-pass road authorizedin NMP 3. * The railroad right of way is designatedas two paths: parallel to the Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline,and parallelto the Arava road.

77 6.2.2.3. Local Masterplanfor Eilat Local masterplanNo 01/b/02/2 is the approved masterplan for Eilat. This masterplan was prepared between 1975and 1980. This masterplandefines the planned areas for a near-term population of 50,000 people, and a long-term population of 120,000. Although this plan defines the northern part of Eilat as a non-developedarea, it also defines a "northern option" which includes urban developmentin proximityto Nahal Roded.

6.2.2.4. Other plans 6.2.2.4.1. Programmaticplan for developmentof the tourism industry - Eilat This plan was prepared by the Ministry of Tourism in 1994. Main points of this programmaticplan include: * Establishmentof an authorityin charge of Eilat development. * Decisionon the subject of the airport and hotel development. The following points were emphasized within the framework of other activities described in the plan: * Focusingmarketing efforts. * Movingof the ports. * Completionof tourism facilities. * Reorganizationof the developmentplan. * Urban development. * Developmentpolicy. * Regional development. * Transportationsystems. * Cooperationwith neighboringcountries. * Limitingactivities in sensitiveareas. * Addressingrisks of marinepollution

6.2.2.4.2. Eilat scenicplan This plan was prepared in 1988to address the need to improve the scenery of the city of Eilat, and to transform it into a unique coastal city. One of the specific points addressedin this plan is the need to improve the sceneryat the northern entrance to the city. The area south of Nahal Roded was defined as a scenic reserve area which is to include green spaces such as sports fields, a golf course (see Section4.4), recreational activities,and a desert park.

78 6. 2.2. 4.3. Alternativesto the housingplan for Eilat The goal of the housing masterplan that was prepared in 1994 was to identify directions of future developmentfor Eilat. Under the rapid growth scenario, the city is projected to have a populationof 110,000 by the year 2020. The masterplanidentifies areas in the north of the city to be dedicatedto housingdevelopment, and to receive an additional population of approximately73,000 inhabitants out of a potential 95,000 inhabitants. Based on this masterplan,an alternativewas prepared for building 5,000 housingunits in the Nahal Roded neighborhood.

6.2.24.4. Eilat-Eilotdevelopment plan This major plan was prepared, directed, and financed by the Israel Lands Authority. The development plan includes physical planning and economic evaluation for the Eilat-Eilot region. The goal of the plan includes integrated regional planning for the area and specificdevelopment projects.

6.2.2.4.5. Eilat and SouthernArava - conservationand developmentplan This plan was prepared by the Nature Reserves Authority , the Society for Nature Protection in Israel, and the Ministry of the Environment. Its goal is to instill awareness of environmentalplanning in the detailed developmentplanning of the area by evaluatingthe sensitivityof the Eilat area. The plan evaluates existingnatural and scenic resources, and defines development directions in order to conserve these resources. Based on this plan, the area north of Shoret Heights is defined as an area for conservationof natural resources and scenery,while the area south of Shoret Heights is plannedfor use as open areas mixed with tourism use.

6.2.3. RelevantInternational Conventions The Israeli legal system recognizesinternational customs and adopts them as part of Israeli law if the internationalnorm does not conflictwith a law enacted by the Knesset (ELI, 1993). International conventions, on the other hand, must be incorporated through a process of legislationto becomepart of the law that applies in Israel. Israel has ratified a number of internationaltreaties and conventionsthat relate to the protection of the marine environment(Table 22). The conventionssummarized below are particularlyrelevant to protectingthe Gulf of Aqaba environment.

6.2.3.1. The InternationalConvention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, and the Protocolof 1978 Relatingto InternationalConvention of the Prevention of Pollutionfrom Ships (MARPOL) MARPOL serves as the international foundation for prevention of ship-generated pollution. It applies to all maritimevessels except warships and other state ships not involved in commerce. Because of its oceanographicand ecological characteristics, the Red sea is designated as a special area in several provisionsof MARPOL. Special area designationentails prohibitionsor restrictionsof certain discharges,requirements for tankers to be equipped with specializedoil separatingequipment, and provisionfor buildingand operating of adequate shore facilities.

79 Israel is a party to Annex 1 and 2 of MARPOL.Annex 1 prohibits discharge of oil to the Red Sea from tankers greater than 400 tons, and severely restricts oil discharges from smallervessels. Annex 2 prohibitsand regulatesdischarges of noxious liquidsinto the sea and contains pollutioncontrol provisionsand equipmentrequirements for ships and facilities.Under Annex 2, noxious substancesare categorized,with each category requiring different protective and preventive measures. Annexes 3 to 5 of MARPOL address packagingof harmfulsubstances, sewage from ships, and pollutionby garbage.

Table22. InternationalTreaties and Conventionsin the MarineEnvironment Ratified by Israel.

Conventionor Treaty Year of Responsible Implementation Israeli Government Organization MARPOL,Annex 1 and2. 1983 MOT, MOE Conventionfor the Protectionof the 1978 MOT MediterraneanSea againstPollution and relatedprotocols (Barcelona) 1976 Conventionfor Safetyof Life in the Sea,1974 1980 MOT (SOLAS), Conventionfor Regulationsfor Pretentionof 1977 MOT Collision at Sea, 1972 Conventionon 1978Standards of T raining 1984 MOT Certification and Watchkeeping,1984 1 _ Note: MOE - Ministry of the Environment, MOT - Ministry of Transport

6.2.3.2. The Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution (BarcelonaConvention) The Conventionfor the protectior.of the MediterraneanSea against pollutionprovides a legal framework for the protection of the Mediterranean. Israel enacted national legislation for implementingthis convention and its four protocols. The legislative schemes are applicable to all of Israel's coasts, includingthe Gulf of Aqaba (ELI, 1993). The protocols of the conventionconsist of: * Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft - implementedby the Pollution of Marine Pollution by DumpingWastes Law, 1983. * Protocol Concerning Cooperation In Combating Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea By Oil And Other HarmfuLlSubstances In Cases Of Emergency- Implemented by the Israel Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil Ordinance (New Version) 1980. * Protocol for the protection of the Mediterranean sea against pollution from land- based sources - implementedby the Preventionof Land-BasedSources Law, 1988. * Protocol Concerning Mediterranean Special Protected Areas - implemented through Israel's nature reservessystem, including the Coral Reef Nature Reserve in Eilat.

80 6.2.3.3. The InternationalConvention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS). The InternationalConvention for the Safety of Life at Sea and its protocols address maritime safety issues, including packaging, labeling and stowage of hazardous materials. The convention aims at reducing pollution risks. This convention is administeredby the Ministryof Transportation.

6.2.4. IntemationalCooperation

6.2.4.1. Upper Gulf of Aqaba Oil SpillContingency Plan The Upper Gulf of Aqaba Oil Spill ContingencyProject was launchedin 1993 within the framework of the Middle East Peace Process, and was designed to protect the environmentof the upper Gulf of Aqaba fromthe effects of marineoil pollution. This project establishedindividual oil spill combat centers in Nuweiba, Eilat and Aqaba, and a regionaloil spill contingencynetwork of communicationand cooperation aimedat joint utilizationof the resources of the individualcenters in the event of larger spills. The project receives the active support of the Commissionof the European Union through provision of a project secretariat,oil pollution combat equipment for Egypt, and regional training and contingency planning. Equipment for Jordan is donatedby the Governmentof Japan. Israelprovides its own equipmentand facilities. The national centers are designed to combat spills of up to 200 cubic meters in magnitude.The combat strategy is based on the use of boats and vehicles along the shore. Initial response to an oil spill would be mechanicalcleanup at sea and on beaches followedby collectionof the oily waste for recyclingor disposal. Equipmentof the centers is based on a risk assessmentwhich evaluatedthe probability and consequenceof oil spillsin the upper Gulf of Aqaba.Equipment requirements have also been optimized in view of volumes and handlingcharacteristics at the various centers. Future development of the spill contingency plans including adjustment of equipmentinventory and combat strategieswill be based on monitoringof ship traffic and cargo handlingcharacteristics. In Eilat, the existing marine pollution control station houses the oil spill combat equipmentand organization.The equipmentincludes booms, skimmers,tanks, vessels, and communicationequipment. The Oil Spill ContingencyPlan includes descriptions of the response organization, communicationand alert procedures, spill combat techniques and duties, equipment and logistics, and preparednessplans that cover preparedness and training. The plan also includesinformnation on spill scenariosand combatstrategies.

6.2.4.2. Jordan Rift Valley Masterplan With the establishmentof peace between Jordan and Israel, both countries recognized the opportunity for development of their shared border zone, the Rift Valley. A Trilateral Economic Committee was formed, chaired by the United States, with membershipof the Governmentsof Jordan and Israel. With the assistance of the

81 World Bank, a five-stage prog,ram to develop the JRV was formulated. The Masterplanfor the Developmentof the JRV is the first stage in this program. The Harza JRV Group was engaged as a consultantto carry out the Stage 1 Jordan Rift ValleyIntegrated DevelopmentStudy. This studycommenced in October, 1995. The Master Plan is consideredto perform five key functions: * Provide strategic guidance tc' statutory planning authorities as to the future detailed planningof the JRV and to direct growth to the most suitableareas. * Outline a framework for the irovision and integration of infrastructure in the study area. * Locate and integrate development projects in a manner that would minimize environmentalimpacts and developmentcosts. * Allow the evaluation of development projects within a common conceptual framework. * Inform private investors,donors, and governmentsas to the developmentneeds and investmentopportunities that will occur in the JRV in 2020. The participants of the JRV joint steering committee agreed that the focus of the Master Plan would be primarilyon the Jordan side of the Rift Valley. From an environmentalperspective, the main goal of the JRV Master Plan is "the protection and preservationof the physical,biological, and human resources in such a way as to promote sustainabledevelopment." The Master Plan will promote that goal throughout reduction of environrnentaldegradation, in part, by ensuringthat any new developmentis environmentallysound and sustainable.

82 7. CZM AND NATURALRESOURCE MANAGEMENT Israel currentlydoes not have an approvedCZM plan for the Gulf of Aqaba. Approval of National Master Plan No. 13 for the Gulf of Aqaba shoreline (NMP 13) will introduce a process similarto that of integrated coastal zone managementof the whole Gulf shoreline(see Section 6.2.2.1.4) The NationalPlanning and BuildingBoard defined the planningboundaries of NMP 13 and the need for coordination with associated national master plans, regional master plans and local plans (see Section 6.2.2.1). The National Planning and BuildingBoard is headed by the Director of the Ministryof the Interior and includesrepresentatives of all the major organizations involved in planning and building in Israel, including: governmental ministries, local authorities, the army, research organizations, environmentalorganizations, and representativesof the public. NMP 13 will define the future land uses within the master plan boundaries, and includeregulations for nature conservation(see Section 6.2.2.1.4). The Ministry of the Interior Planning Board and the Municipality of Eilat are responsiblefor editingNMP 13 while a steering committeeis oversees the preparation of the plan. The steering committeeis headed by the Southern District planner of the Ministry of the Interior and includes representatives of the Ministries of Transport, Defense, Environment and Tourism; the Municipality of Eilat, the Israel Lands Authority, the Nature Reserves Authority, the Ports and Railways Authority, the SettlementDepartment of the Jewish Agency and the Society for Protection of Nature in Israel. The Master Plan preparation team includes professionalsfrom the following disciplines: regional and environmental planning, economics, law and marine engineering. In order to obtain a broad-based consensusregarding the future of the Gulf of Aqaba shoreline,the planningteam consulted with a large number of public and private bodies that are not members of the steering committee,but which have a direct interest in the area in question. This process is similarto the typical ICZM preparation process, and its greatest advantageis that it will become an integral part of developmentplans, both at the national and local level. In contrast to the classic ICZM planning process, the needs and views of the public are expressed through representatives rather than directly. AlthoughNational Master Plan for Tourism (NMP 12) and the RegionalMaster Plan (RMP 4/14) that is in preparationboth address coastal zone issues, they are limitedto a scale 1:100,000which does not permit developmentof clear specificguidelines. This is also the case with the Eilat-Eilot development plan which has a scale of 1:50,000 and does not have any statutory standing. In reality, coastal zone managementis currentlyperformed by the various stakeholders located along the coast. However, each stakeholder has a narrow outlook which is colored by its specificinterests and mandates.For example: * Tourism areas, includingthe tourist areas on the north shore and the coral reef tourist area along the south beach, are managed by the "Eilat Coast Development Corporation" whichis a subsidiaryof the Municipalityof Eilat (see 6.1.2.1.).

83 * The naval port is under the cortrol of the Ministry of Defense. * The cargo port and the Dekel beach are located in a declared port zone, and are managedby the Ports Authority. * The oil port is owned by the Eilat-Ashkelon Oil Pipeline Company based on ownership rights defined by law in 1968,and is under the control of the Ministryof Finance. * The Coral Reef Reserve is managedby the Nature Reserves Authority. With the exception of the entities associatedwith the Naval facilityand the Coral Reef Reserve, all others have clear economic interests. Furthermore, different and sometimes conflicting mandates and responsibilitiesof the parties involved make it difficult to implement integrated and comprehensive planning and coastal zone management. The means adopted to achieveCZMd goals are describedin the subsectionsbelow.

7.1. ZONATIONSCHEMES An environmentalevaluation of a developmentplan for the south shore area of Eilat was performed in 1991. The south shore area was defined as the area between the north west corner of the Gulf and the Israeli border with Egypt. This plan developeda zoning scheme which consisted of three categories of protection for the south shore area (Zohar, 1991): CompleteC protection zone. Parts of the shoreline zoned in this category include endangeredcoral reefs that are not protected by nature reserves. Development is forbidden within this zone, and access is limited to researchers only. The shore between the InteruniversityIrstitute and the border with Egypt, and the shore between the two fuel port piers (considered to be the richest area in terms of marine life on the Israeli shore) are zoned under this category. The major accomplishmentof this zoning planis the prohibitionof constructionof any kind of tourist facilityalong the southern part of the south shore. * Controlled protection zone. The shoreline designated under this category includes the Coral Reef Reserve (which is otherwise also protected) and two artificialreefs: north of the naval port facility, and north of the Coral Beach. These artificialreefs have developed on submerged scrap vehicles. Areas zoned under this category contain natural and artificialreefs. The number of visitors to these areas will be controlledin a marmerdescribed in sectionsbelow. * Development zone. The shoreline designated under this category is not characterizedby any remarkable marine or terrestrial natural resources. This lack may have occurred because coiralsor other biota never developedon these parts of the shore due to specific physical or oceanographic conditions (e.g., along the north shore beach and the outlet of Nahal Shlomothere is an accumulationof sand that does not permit settling of coral building organisms) or because they were destroyed by human activity (e.g., the area around the cargo port and the naval port).

84 7.2. LEGALSCHEMES The legal framework associatedwith nature protection is describedin Section 6.2.1.9. Because of the unique natural resources that are located in the Eilat area, nature reserves include around 36% of the land area in the region. From the legal standpoint, these reserves fall under three categories: * Declared nature reserves. The status of these reserves is proclaimedby law and they include (Map 2) the Eilat Mountain Reserves and a 150-meter-widebelt on the terrestrial part of the Coral Reef Reserve. This belt extends from the waterline to Road No. 90. * Nature reserves under declaration process. This category includes a 2 km marinezone between the InteruniversityInstitute and the border with Egypt (Map 2). * Proposed nature reserve. Paradoxically,the areas that are considered to be problematic because they are threatened by future development pressures have been proposed as nature reserves, and their final status is pending. These include (Map 2): * An eastward extension of the Eilat Mountains. - Shahmonmountain. - Shoret heights. * The marine zone that extends from a point 400 meters south of the outlet of Nahal Shlomoto the Gulf and the border with Egypt, and between the high-tide mark and the Israeli territorial waters. This zone has a separate legal status (See Section 6.2.1.9).

7.3. MANAGEMENTSTRATEGIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES The management of common marine and coastal zone resources falls under the responsibilityof four main bodies that have enforcement authority for specific laws (Chapter 6): The Nature Reserves Authority, the Marine Pollution Control Unit, and the Eilat-EilotRegional Environmental Unit, and the Israeli DivingFederation.

7.3.1. The Nature ReservesAuthority. The NRA is responsiblefor managementof declared nature reserves, but in reality it also enforces laws on reserves in process of declarationand on proposed reserves.The Coral Reef Reserve is the reserve that presents the greatest number of problems because it is under constant threat. The Eilat Mountain Reserve contains three main sites that are threatened by an overabundanceof visitors: Nahal Shlomo, the Red Canyon,and Nahal Gishron. The NRA utilizes direct and indirect managementstrategies to control visitors to the nature reserves:

85 7.3.1.1. Direct ManagementStrategies Direct managementstrategies are:

7.3.1.1.1. Enforcement. NRA inspectorsare chargedwith enforcementof laws applicableto the nature reserves and protection of natural resources'.Enforcement on shore and in the sea is performed primarily by three inspectors. Law enforcement directed at divers is minor. The number enforcement action files opened against law-breakersfrom 1990 to 1995 is listedin Table23. Only 11.3%of these actions were annulled. Inspectors are responsible for protection of natural marine resources through enforcementof the followinginterdictions: * sailingand anchoringwithin thc nature reserve; * marinesports activitieswithin the nature reserve boundaries; * fishingwith nets or lines; * disposalof trash; * removalof corals and beach rocks; * spreadingsand along the shore; * watering of plants alongthe shore; * drainageof water from showersto the sea; * directionof lightstowards the sea, etc.

Table23. Enforcementof natureassets regulations along the Red Sea coast of Eilat, 1990-1995.

Year Collection Fishingi Boating Disorderly Illegal Total No. of Coral Behavior Entry Files 1990 29 42 3 9 5 88 1991 37 34 3 5 21 100 1992 52 27 34 6 17 136 1993 4 48 21 8 41 162 1994 114 73 45 12 114 358 1995 90 35 23 10 47 205 Total 366 259 129 50 245 1047 Toa of 34.7 24.7 12.3 5.9 23.4 100 Total Source:NRA EnforcementDepartrient

86 7.3.1.1.2. Limits on use and controlledaccess Access to the coral reefs in the Coral Reef Reserve is restricted through use of bridges over the reefs in order to prevent visitors from stepping on coral. Three such bridges have been constructedin Eilat, two of which are in the Coral Reef Reserve, and these contributeto a reductionin damageto the coral reefs. The Coral Reef Reserve is marked by three floatinglines: 1) The coral reef line-ropeconsisting of smallcolored buoys lined across the fore-reef to prevent snorkelersfrom touchingthe reef, 2) The boating line - a line of larger buoys (about 20 m away from the fore-reef) to show the boats where not to cross; 3) The "Crossing line" - an imaginaryline demarcatedby a series fo buoys to guide fishingboats, yachts,jet-skis and other vessels (except glass-bottomboats) through passagesacross the reef In addition, there is a series of twelve permanentmoorings along the southern shore: Ten of them are for commercialyachts and two for private boats. The buoys are located about 100-150m from the coast and are placed about 150 m apart. There is a plan to establishmore permanentmoorings for scuba divers' vessels. Today, there is only one such mooring - opposite the "JapaneseGardens" which is reserved for diving boats from clubsbelonging to the Israeli DivingFederation. There are three additional mooringsnear the "Hof Almog"(CoralBeach) marinaabout 150 m from shore. These mooringsare maintainedby the NRA staffof the Coral Reef Reserve. Boating is not permittedwithin 200 m of shore and a series of marker buoys designate this line from the "Hof Almog" marina southwards to the internationalborder with Egypt. Only five marine craft have permits to enter this area on a regular basis: a patrol motorboat from the Coral Reef Reserve, a small research motorboat from the underwater observatory, a large tourist submarine, a safety boat to accompany the submarineand a small research motorboat from the JUI Marine Biology Laboratory. Naval vessels may not cross the buoy line, except under rare emergency situations. Three glass-bottom boats ply the route just outside the buoys that demarcate the eastern safety line establishedto protect the reef, snorkelers and scuba divers from boats. Alljet-skis, wind-surfersand motorboatsmust stay outsidethis line. In the Eilat MountainReserve, certain areas have been closed to vehicletraffic in order to decrease visitor pressure on those areas. Vehicles are not permitted to stray from designatedtrails, and hikersare not permittedto stray from marked hikingtrails. 7.3.1.1.3. Limit on the number of visitors The Coral Reef Reserve had approximately167,000 visitors in 1996. The maximum number of visitors allowed at any one time on the Reserve is 700. The number of visitors is also limitedat specificdive sites. For example,at the the Japanese gardens dive site in the south of the Coral Reef Reserve, there is a limit of 30 divers per day, with no more than 8 divers in a group. In addition, each dive group is required to be accompaniedby a certifieddive instructor. The Eilat Mountains Reserve had some 120,000 visitors in 1996. Approximately 80,000 of these visitors were parts of school groups. Since it is difficultto control

87 individualvisitor access to sites in the Eilat Mountain Reserve, limits to access can only be performed through controls on visitors in groups. The followingmethods can be used to limit visitor access: * Require reservations.This method is applicableto groups in the Eilat Mountains Reserve and the Coral Reef Reserve, but can also be used for individualsat the CoralReef Reserve. * Limit the size of the group. The Coral Reef Reserve limits group sizes to 150 individuals. * Limit the length of stay. Xisits at the Coral Reef Reserve are limited to the openinghours of the Reserve.

7.3.1.2. Indirectstrategies The most importantindirect strateg;ies used are describedbelow.

7.3.1.2.1. Provide impact education All visiting groups at the Coral Reef Reserve receive instructions regarding the importanceof the coral reefs and their conservation. Other activitiesinclude: * Brochures(three languages). The SPNI has produced several brochures,mainly in Hebrew, about landscapeand nature conservationin the Eilat area, includingtrail maps in a scale of 1:50,000. The NRA has produced free brochures on the Coral Reef Reserve in Hebrew, Arabic and English. - Video films (productionand firojections). In 1996, the Israeli Diving Federation and the NRA produced a short video filmdirected mainlyat divers on the subject of protection of the coral reef A new movie on the coral reef environmentand the importance of its protection is shown at Coral World's "Oceanarium"which is located within the Coral Reef Reserve. . Guided tours. The SPNI, arid NRA are currently guiding tours dedicated to protecting the marine envircnment. The submarine Jacqueline conducts underwater (up to 60 m deep) tours of the reef Glass-bottomedboats regularly cruise along the reef, allowing non-divingvisitors the opportunityto have a first hand view of the reef * Cleaningcampaigns. Annual clean-upcampaigns of the coral reefs incorporating the diving centers and other volunteers have taken place over the last five years. Other clean-up campaignsdevoted to the shore have been organized annuallyfor the last years by the same institutions. These annual campaignsare supported by the Ministry of the Environment. In 1993, an internationalEarthwatch program directed by the NRA brought groups of volunteerdivers to Eilat's reefs to aid in an underwater clean-upproject. * Instructionposters (billboardsand stickers). The Municipalityof Eilat, which is in charge of most of the coast, p articularlythe public beaches,has erected billboards containinginstructions to the public regardingthe protection of the beach and coral reefs. There are also several similar billboards in Hebrew, Arabic and English erected by the NRA on the Coral Reef Reserve beach and the South Beach Nature Reserve. The NRA has also pro luced bumper stickerspromoting reef protection.

88 * Diver informationand awarenesssessions. The SPNI and NRA guides provide lectures on nature conservationin the Gulf to all diving centers. The Israeli Diving Federation produced the "Reef Brochure" to instruct divers in correct diving practices. 73.1.2.2. Charge entrancefees The Coral Reef Reserve charges an entrancefee of $4.30 per adult and $2.10 per child. 7.3.1.2.3. Under-development Non-developmentof specificareas decreasesthe number of visitorsto those sites.For example,shading structures for visitors have not been built along certain stretches of the Coral Reef Reserve. 7.3.1.2.4. Provide alternatives Alternative sites, such as artificial reefs and tourist attractions, can relieve visitor pressure on the nature reserves. There are currentlytwo artificialreefs in Eilat. The first is a modular reef consisting of two pyramids approximately12 m high partly covered with wire-netting. It was submergedin April 1993 at a depth of 30 m, 300 m from the north coast. The second artificialreef is a smallnavy frigate submergedby the ScubaDivers Associationin 1995 also on the north coast. A third artificialreef is now under constructionnear the new UnderwaterRestaurant near Eilat's main public beach on the north shore.

7.3.2. The Marine PollutionControl Unit. The MPCU is part of the Ministry of the Environment(see page 1). The MPCU is responsiblefor controllingmarine pollution within Israel's territorialwaters in the Gulf of Aqaba. The major sources of marine pollutionin the Gulf are described in Section 4.4.3, and includeoil spills;discharges of ballast and bilge water; and wastewaterfrom vessels and mariculture. The MPCU concentratesits efforts on law enforcementand inspections.

7.3.3. The Eilat-EilotRegional EnvironmentalUnit. The Eilat-EilotRegional EnvironmentalUnit is slated for closure. Its responsibilities includeinspections of the majorland-based pollution sources whichare: * Phosphateand potash dust, and hazardousmaterials in the Port of Eilat. * The municipalsanitary landfill. * The municipalwastewater collectionand treatment system. * Various industrialfacilities.

7.3.4. The Israeli Diving Federation The Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF) is very active in Eilat and is in charge of the certificationof divers and diving centers. There are 12 such centers in Eilat hosting localand tourist divers allyear-round.

89 8. OPTIONSFOR ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT Eilat's future will be determined mainlyby the growth rate of the tourism sector, on which most of the city's economy depends, and which dictates the growth rate of urban sprawl. The developmentilate of this sector has a great impact on the marine and terrestrial environment. The following sections review of the various main developmentoptions.

8.1. TRENDSOF TOURISMDEVELOPMENT Two major factors will affect the growth of the tourism sector: the rate of growth of the sector, and the level of developmentof tourist amenities. Growth of the tourism sector will also have immediateimplications on the city's population;its employment structure; and the rate of expansion of the urban area, municipal services and infrastructure. Tourism development projections were performed within the framework of the National Master Plan for Tourism (NMP 12) and preparation of the Eilat/Eilot Regional DevelopmentPlan. The projected number of visitors is the main contributor to expected impacts on the development of the city, including housing needs, commercialdevelopment, land us-,, and other factors. NMP 12 projects 9600 hotel rooms by the year 2010, with most of the development concentrated in the existing hotel area on the north beach of ],ilat. Projections of the number of visitors for the years 2000, 2005, and 2010 were determinedby the Regional DevelopmentPlan for two developmentalternatives: rap:d developmentand controlled development.These visitor projections are based on visits of an average of 4.5 nights for foreign tourists and 2.8 nightsfor Israelivacationers.

8.1.1. Growth of the tourism.iector The growth rate of the tourisnmsector is the most significant factor affecting development. Two main alternat ves were presented in the Regional Development Plan:

8.1.1.1. Rapid growth as o]pposedto Controlledgrowth 8.1.1.1.1. Rapid developmentalternative This alternative assumes that an additional 1000 rooms will be built per year. The projections, which are based on hotel room building starts and requests for building permits, show that the numberof hotel rooms in Eilat will be 12,000by the year 2000, 17,000 by the year 2005, and 22,OC'0by the year 2010. Approximately2.1 millionvisitors are projected to arrive to Eilat in the year 2000, and the number of hotel nights is projected to reach 6.9 million. Approximately3.0 million visitors are projected for 2005, with 9.7 millionhotel nights. In 2010, there will be approximately3.9 millionvisitors and 12.6 millionhotel nights.

90 8.1.1.1.2. Controlleddevelopment alternative The controlled development alternative assumes a rate of growth of 500 rooms per year. Under this assumption,the number of hotel rooms will be 12,000 in the year 2000, 14,500 in the year 2005, and 17,000 in the year 2010. Under this alternative,the number of visitors to Eilat is projected at 1.9 millionwith 6.4 hotel nights in the year 2000. In 2005, approximately2.3 million visitors and 7.7 millionhotel nights are projected.In 2010, there will be approximately2.7 visitors and 9.1 millionhotel nights.

8.1.1.2. Environmentalevaluation Since the scenariosmentioned above were not evaluatedfrom the environmentalpoint- of-view, there is a need for evaluation of the impact of the population growth and tourism developmenton the environment.

8.1.1.3. DemographicImpacts The growth rate of the tourism sector will have immediate implications for the demographicmake-up of the city. Using the assumptionslisted in Chapter 3, in the rapid growth scenario for the city, Eilat's population is projected at approximately 105,000 inhabitantsin the year 2010. The controlled development alternativeprojects a populationof 81,000 inhabitantsby the year 2010. Based on projections for the rapid growth scenario for the city, there will be approximately30,000 housingunits in the year 2010. The controlled growth scenario projects 25,000 units by that date. Housing construction potential shows 19,000 housing units being built in the distributionshown in Table24.

8.1.1.4. Employment Employment in the tourism sector is typified by relative young and temporary employees as described in Chapter 3. This population generally undergoes a high turnover and has a short-term outlook. This is reflectedby relativelylow sensitivityto the physical and human environmentand a low rate of involvementin communitylife. These factors hinder the buildingof a stable communitystructure.

91 8.1.1.5. Physical structure Growth in the number of Eilat's residentswill necessitate an expansion of the urban area, servicesand infrastructure.

Table24. Projectednew housing distribution in Eilat.

Neighborhood Number of housing units projected ShahmonNeighborhood 6,500 Eilat North 5,000 Salt Ponds 3,200 Westof Salt Ponds 800 Additionsin existingneighborhoods 2,000 BetweenShahmon and the sea 1,500 Total 19,000 Source: Eilat-EilotDevelcpment Plan

8.1.2. Levelof tourismdevelopment The level of tourism development which is meant to suit specific market segments may have an impact on the environmant. Over the past five years Eilat has witnessed relative growth in the construction of 2-3 star hotel rooms (which today represent about 18% of all hotel rooms in the city as comparedwith 13% in 1993) and of 5DL hotel rooms (which today represent about 14% of all hotel rooms in the city as comparedwith 7% in 1993). By =ontrast,the constructionof 4 and 5 star hotels has dropped(37% and 13% today as comparedwith 45% and 7% in 1993, respectively). The differentialgrowth rate in the level of accommodation is important for two reasons: * Number of workers per room. Whilethe average numberof workers per room in 5 star and 5DL hotels is 2.99, in 4 star hotels it is 1.78, and in 2 and 3 star hotels it is 1.37 (includingassociated services). The greater number of workers is associated with higher nLmber of dependents and higher potential levels of environmentalimpact. * Behavioral patterns of visitlors. High-ratedhotels offer more activities to their guests than lower rated hotels. As the variety of activitiesoffered by the hotel increases, so does the gues:'s tendency to remain in the hotel. This in turn reduces the number of visitors reaching the beaches and the natural surroundings.

8.2. ECONOMicDIVERSITY In the last two decades, Eilat's economy has relied on the tourism sector, which in the year 2000 will employ about 64% of the city's workforce. Apart from the economic risk, there is also an environmentz.lproblem, where a cross-sectionof tourism sector employeesis characterizedas relativelyyoung and temporary,with their environmental impact as describedabove. In order to diversifythe economicbase of the region, the industrialsector, whichtoday employsonly about 5% of all the employeesin the city, shouldbe developed as well.

92 Despite the incentives offered for the development of industry in the city, such as developmentzone A status and free trade zone status (the only area in Israel that has received this status), industry has not developed mainly due to the drawback of distance from the center of the country, which is seen in a shortage of professional manpower,high transportation costs and problematiccommunication with clients and suppliers and others. In addition, industrial developmenthinges on the existence of comprehensiveservice systems.Industrial development may have a positive influence in attractinga more stable populationto the city, primarilyfamilies. It should be noted that the extent of industrial development and the type of plants should be carefully examinedin order to protect the unique environmentwhich is the main asset of the region and the focal attraction for tourists.

8.3. EILAT'SGROWTH DIRECTION The rapid growth of the city's population is accompaniedby a growth in demand for housing, services and infrastructure. The Arava Valley north of Eilat and the area behind the ports between Nahal Shlomo and Nahal Garof constitute the main optional directionsfor expansion of the city. The area between Nahal Shlomo and Nahal Garof is relativelysmall and massivebuilding there may endangerEilat's main natural assets, which are being also threatened by other factors. Thus, the main proposed directionof expansion is northward, along the Arava Valley. This is the trend that has been adopted by the planning and buildinginstitutions. The developmenttrends for tourism will be similar(City of Eilat, 1996): * Southern shore - the number of hotel rooms will drop from about 21% of all rooms in 1996 to about 13% in 2000. * Northern shore - the number of hotel rooms will rise from about 59% of all hotel rooms in 1996 to about 62% in 2000. * In the city itself - the number of hotel rooms will rise from about 20% of all rooms in 1996 to about 25% in 2000.

8.4. INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELOPMENT The main options for infrastructuredevelopment follow.

8.4.1. Ports The port developmentplan that was prepared in 1996 by the Ports Authoritylaid down the followingbasic guidelines: * The cargo port will remainwhere it is, and its size and functional distributionwill remainthe same. * The distributionand chemicalterminal in the cargo port will continue to operate using existingfacilities and will safeguardthe environment. * Land transportationto the port will be via the Eilat by-passroad. * A port for cruise ships will be developedin place of the naval port. The passenger port will be a direct continuationof the city of Eilat whichwill expand beyondit.

93 * The oil port will remain where it is, but the section of shore used by it will be reduced. * An option will remain open for a railway and road to Aqaba. * The option to erect a canal port along the Israeli-Jordanianborder will be canceled. The plan evaluated 4 planning alternatives. In each of the alternatives, the cargo terminal will remain in its present location and format, with the addition of a dry bulk pier. In Alternative A the oil port will be removed from its present location and the shoreline freed for municipal-touristactivities. The naval port will be moved north of the cargo port, and a passenger port will be built in its place. This will form an integral part of the city grid. The area be:ween the passenger port and the naval port will be used as a bathingbeach. In Alternative B the area of the oil port will be reduced to about one third of its present size, and the vacated area will be utilized for recreational,tourist and bathing uses. The naval port will remainin its present location but its area will be reduced to about one third of its present size, with a passengerport to be erected on the remainingarea. In Alternative C the oil port will remainunchanged. The passengerport will be built north of the existingcargo port. The naval port will remain in its present location,with the rear area of the base reduced. In Alternative D the area of the oil port will be reduced, with the vacated area designatedfor municipal-touristuses, as detailed in AlternativeB. The passenger port will be located north of the cargc port and the naval port will remain in its present location, but it will be reduced to about one third of its present size, with the vacated area reservedfor municipal-touristuses. In all alternativespresented by National Master Plan No. 13 for the Eilat Gulf Shore, the naval port will be moved from its present location to the cargo port and the passenger port will be included in the present cargo port. The various alternatives relate to the relative location of the differentports in the enlargedport. Under the first alternative, the passenger port will be located north of the enlarged port and contiguous with the city, with the naval port located to its south. Under the second alternative,the naval port will be located north of the enlargedport, with the passenger port located to its south.

8.4.2. Airports A descriptionof airports appears in Chapter 3. In light of the Government of Israel's decision to use the existingairport in Aqaba (which will be enlarged accordingly)and not build a new airport in Ein Evrona, the fate of the existingairport in the heart of the city is questionable. It appears that at least in the near future this airport will continue to serve domestic flights, with the:runway extended northwards and shortened from the south.

94 8.4.3. Roads The alternativeto the existingArava Road (Road no 90), connectingEilat and its ports with the rest of the country, is the Eilat Bypass Road, with the continuingSouthern Shore Bypass Road and the Darb-el-HadjRoad which connects to the border crossing with Egypt. The Eilat Bypass Road and its branchesare meant to ease the trafficload on the Arava Road, mainlyheavy vehicletraffic which today passes through the city on its way to the port. The Bypass Road is also meant to divert from the city most of the vehicular trafficbetween the neighboringcountries, if any. The Bypass Road will also serve to distance the city from traffic carrying dangerous substancesand from the air pollutionand noisegenerated by traffic. At the same time, this road may itself harm the sensitivenature and sceneryin the area through which it runs, and may restrict the activityof animals.

8.4.4. Trains Economic evaluations have shown that laying a railroad to Eilat from the Zin phosphatemines and from the Dead Sea Works is not feasible. From an environmental and safety point of view, a railway has a marked advantage over the transportationof cargo by truck. In any event, there is no justificationfor two tracks, one on the Jordanian side and one on the Israeli side. The most reasonable arrangementis for Israel to use the Jordanian railway to transport potash and phosphate (following solution of the track width problem), either to Aqaba Port or Eilat Port. Before a railroadcan reach Eilat Port, however, the problem of the track running through the municipalarea will have to be solved.

8.4.5. Bordercrossings If the border crossing with Egypt at Taba is moved to Ein Netafim, and the border crossingwith Jordan is moved from the existingArava crossing to a location north of the Aqabaairport, most of the internationalvehicular and tourist traffic will bypass the city of Eilat, thereby mitigatingenvironmental impacts.

8.4.6. Drinkingwater supply The rapid development scenario for the city of Eilat and water use data presented above show a total water demand of 25.7 millioncubic meters in the year 2010. The controlledgrowth scenario resultsin demandfor 19.8 millioncubic meters. There is a need to assessthe energyrequirements and brine disposalassociated with desalination. In order to supplythe expectedincrease in demand,the "Mekorot" water companyhas requested an additional100 dunam site next to the existingbrackish water desalination units in order to install additional seawater desalination units and increase its productioncapacity.

8.5. MARICULTURE Maricultureoperations are currentlylocated in the Gulf of Aqaba.Pollution in the form of particulate matter and nutrients from fish food have been shown to alter sediment underlyingfish cages and surroundingwater quality.

95 Control of pollution from mariculture operations is possible with the relocation of maricultureoperations from the (Gulfto land-based operations in ponds. The National Center for Mariculture in Eilat is conductingresearch and plans to establisha pilot- scale land-based integrated pond system (IPS) for marine fish rearing. IPS is far more protective of the marine environnientthan in-situ marine fish cages because it allows for the removal of nutrients and wastes prior to discharge to the Gulf environment. In addition, by using a seawater supply channel, it is possible to move intensive maricultureactivities several kilometers away from the sea shore. The IPS proposed by the NCM is based on three component production modules (Figure 7): * A main production modulefbr intensivefish farming. The fish are fed a pelletized diet at an optimalrate and raised at standing stock densitiesof 15 kg/m3 . Fish yield is projected at 25 kg/m3/year. * A sedimentation pond that is also used for shellfish production. Settling sedimentsand particulate matter are taken up by micro-algaewhich in turn feed clams raised in densitiesof 1000 to 2000 individualsper M2 . Yield is projected at 5 to 10 kg/m2/year. * An algae production pond ii which macro-algaetake up nutrient residues from the water. Algal biomassproduction is estimatedat 7.5 kg/m2/year. Improvementof water qualitywhile flowingthrough the sedimentationpond and algae production pond systemresults in effluentthat is suitablefor recyclingto the fish pond or discharge to the sea. The IPS also allows for the integration of additionalwater treatment facilities into the system to meet more stringent discharge water quality goals. While the IPS pilot plant is planned for a production of 50 tons of marine fish per year, commercial farm units are expected to produce 100 to 200 tons of marine fish annually. Facilities and equipment required for land-based mariculture activities are listed in Table 25.

8.6. FLOODCONTROL A number of measureshave been proposed for controllingfloodwaters in the outskirts of Eilat. These include: * Redirectionof channelsto central arteries. * Decreasing the linear slope of river channels to control sediment transport and decrease floodwatervelocity. * Planting of vegetation in river channels and on banks to control erosion and sedimenttransport. * Protectingbanks from erosion. * Evaluating methods for increasing rainwater infiltration to soil through use of terraces, steps, and planted areas. * Use of protective dikes.

96 * Use of flood warningdevices in the mountainchannels leading to major floodwater channels to allow time for removal of cars and people from the direction of the floodwaters. * Prohibiting against construction in floodwater channels, and incorporation of floodwater flow evaluationin planningat all levels. A master plan for flood control has been developed for the City of Eilat. At this writing, the master plan recommendationshave not yet been finalized. Flooding and depositionof transported sedimentin the Eilat urban area can result in catastrophic consequencesto the city. It has been suggested that flood control within the municipalityof Eilat be accomplished in one of two ways: total prevention of floodwater flow into built-up areas, and control of floodwater flow through urban areas.

Figure7. IntegratedPond System schematic diagram.

Fresh sea water Shellfish/ Backtosea Intensive Fish Sedimentation Macro-Algae Ponds Pond Pond

Source: NCM Recirculationof treated water

97 Table 25. Land based mariculturefacility and equipmentrequirements.

Facility/Equipment Comment Fish ponds Depth 1-2 m Pilot Scale: 2100 m3, Commercial Scale: 4200 m3 Sedimentation/Clamponds Pilot Scale 2100 m3 Commercial Scale 4200 m3 Macro-algaeponds Pilot Scale 2100 m2 Commercial Scale 4200 m2 Drum filters For removal of organics - Pilot scale capacity of 1000 m3/hr Aerobic and Anaerobic biofilters For removal of ammonia and conversion of nitrates to molecular N2. Pilot scale capacity of 100 m3/hr Oxygen supply, feeding and harvesting machinery Pumps, blowers and assortedwater treatment devices Control and measurement instrumentation Source:NCM

Total prevention of floodwater ilow into built-up areas is suitable for small and medium-sizedflood events. However, the preventionsystem is at risk of complete and catastrophicfailure duringlarge-scale floodingevents. Completeprevention of run-off penetration of urban areas can be accomplishedby: * Digging a drainagechannel to bypassthe city. * Establishinga series of reservoirs upstream of the city to collect stormwater and sediment. The method chosen to protect Eilat's urban area is a system of central drains and dams, which are meant to divert the flood water and silt from the city. Five inter- connectingreservoirs have been built in the new Shahmonneighborhood. A reduction in the catchmentof the reservoirs due to a blockage caused by silt, and the resulting collapseof the system,may cause far greater damage than the damage resultingfrom a large flood, and could threaten the establishedneighborhood. Control of floodwater flow through urban areas can be accomplished by planning urban roadways and drains to charmelfloodwaters. This method utilizes the city area optimally,it also offers cost savings,and does not require constant maintenanceexcept after flooding. Its disadvantagesare that there is a greater risk of relativelysmaller and more frequent floods, and of water pollutionas a result of urban runoff.

98 There are several possibilitiesfor treating urban run-off: * Installation of subsurface drainage systems. The advantage of this type of system is arguable in desert regions, where maintenanceis difficult on a regular basis, and where the systemdoes not function well on steep slopes. * Using roads as drains. The use of roads as waterwaysis an acceptable solution. Grades must be suitable and adapted to the anticipated amounts of water, taking into account the edging stones, pavements,crossroads, etc. * Artificial discharge of run-off water. The artificialdischarge of run-off water in the urban area of Eilat may prevent floodingand seawater pollution and replenish the groundwater. The discharge of run-off water in urban areas prevents the accumulationof run-off on the roads.

8.7. ECONOMICINSTRUMENTS Positive and negative economic incentives can help to reduce, prevent, or correct environmentaland social damage,and can encouragesustainable resource use. Negative incentives include taxes, surcharges, price increases, user fees, deposits, regulations, transferable rights, and permits, fines and other penalties. These are all designedto discourageharmful activityand cover the costs resultingfrom it. Positive incentives includetax credits or reductions, refunds, rebates, subsidies,price reductions, improved technologies, research and development support, and other positive inducementsand innovationsdesigned to encourage less harmful or benign activity. Through a variety of incentivesand the enforcement of the "polluter pays" principle, the plan will encourage private and public sector investments in environmental protection.

99 9. GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN The EnvironmentalAction Plan of the Israeli sector of the Gulf of Aqaba addresses the main principlesand suggested environmentalpolicy, institution-relatedand investment needs, and identifiespriorities for action. Policy aspects include considerationof planningfactors that have a dominanteffect on environmental protection and a.n institutional facet that would strengthen local environmentalcapabilities necessary for implementationof the recommendationsof this plan. It shouldbe noted that in Israel the legal and regulatory framework, as well as human resources and nature conservai;ionaspects, are adequately developed to fulfill environmentalprotection goals.

9.1. PRINCIPLESOF THE GULF OF AQABA ENVIRONMENTALACTION PLAN The principlesof the GAEAP are presentedin the followingsections.

9.1.1. Long-Term PreventivePerspective Current environmental management systems are not efficient at managing environmentalresources for sustainability,particularly in the face of uncertainty about long-term values and impacts. These systems are inherently reactive rather than proactive. There is a need to develop long-term perspective and solutionsto improve environmentalmanagement. Therefore,the first principleof the GAEAP aims at establishmentof a permanentlocal capacityto prevent, contain, and managethe undesirableconsequences of development while facilitatingbalanced, sustaitiable economic growth. These goals can be achieved by using proactive measuressuch as involvementof environmentalprotection decision- makers at the early stages of the planning processes, and using integrated regional planningtools.

9.1.2. Preventionof Further EnvironmentalDegradation Maintenance of the ecologicalbalance of threatened ecosystems and containmentof marine pollution from land-based and marine sources should serve as a baseline for future rehabilitation. The GAEAP adopts the principle of preventive action through whichit is necessaryto prevent certain activitiesor expansionof existingactivities that have shown early signs of causing environmentaldamage - e.g., further expansionof mariculturein the Gulf

100 9.1.3. Resource Conservation The goals of the GAEAP are to provide incentives for use of renewable energy resources (e.g., solar energy and wind energy), conservation of resources (water, energy, etc.) and recyclingin order to decrease levels of environmentalpollution and reduce demand on local and global resources.

9.1.4. Promotion of Developmentthat MinimizesDamage to the Coastal and Marine Environment Protection of the marine and coastal environmentis possiblethrough displacementof activitiesand developmentaway from the sea and the coastline, and through providing alternativesto activitiesthat are likely to impact natural resources. An example is the establishment of artificial reefs and the Underwater Observatory, both of which function to relieve diver and visitor pressure from the natural reef and the nature reserve.

9.1.5. Reductionof Pollutionat the Source Pollution control can be achieved by controlling the sources of release of specific pollutants.For example, installationof a choke feeder at the phosphate loading pier in the port of Eilat will reduce emissionsof phosphate dust by approximately80%.

9.1.6. Removalof PollutingActivities from the Urban Area. Removal of environmentallydamaging activities from the city will reduce pollution impacts on residentsof Eilat. For example,transferring the airport to a location outside of the city will significantlyreduce noise and will relieve the city from potential risk and air pollutioncaused by aircraft. Future siting evaluationof projects that are potentiallydamaging to the environment (e.g., factories with significant emissions or discharges of pollutants) should recommendthat they be located away from the city itself.

9.1.7. Concentrationof Similar Activities By concentratingsimilar activitiesand/or facilities,land requirementscan be reduced, and potential uses for remaining open areas can be increased. For example, by concentratingthe activitiesof the existingand planned ports and port facilities,it will be possibleto free remainingshoreline areas for use as public beaches, and thus reduce pressure on existing beaches. Similar benefits can be achieved by concentrating infrastructurealong a restricted numberof corridors.

9.1.8. Adoption of EconomicIncentives The environmentalaction plan will encourage private and public sector protection through a variety of positiveand negativeeconomic incentives.

101 9.1.9. StrengtheningLocal Capacity Strengtheninglocal environmentalcapacity is important to overcome administrative and managementconstraints and to achieveeffective environmental management.

9.1.10. TransboundaryResponsibility and InternationalEquity Every nation is responsiblefor addressingenvironmental pollution generated within its own borders. Regional coordinal:ionof environmentalprotection efforts in the areas of planning, policy, and implementationwill result in increased efficiencyand decreased costs for addressingtransbounda-y environmental issues.

9.2. DEVELOPMENTTRENJDS OF THE EILAT REGION Planning decisions which address development direction of the city of Eilat and its surroundings will have long-rangingimpacts on the environmentalconditions of the area, and will define whether sustainabledevelopment of the city is possible. Analysis of the different options presented in Chapter 8 shows a number of preferable developmentoutcomes, some of'which are already accepted by the different planning levels. These are presented in the subsectionsbelow.

9.2.1. Tourism DevelopmentGrowth Rate The carrying capacity of the E lat region, and particularly its capacity for tourism developmentshould be examinedin light of the Eilat RegionalMaster Plan projections. These projections did not examine Eilat's tourism industry growth rates from the environmentalprotection aspect.

9.2.2. Level of Tourism Development The development of 4-star hotels represents the best combination of the number of workers per room and sufficietit variety of activities within the hotels. Activities centered in the hotels are likely to keep the majority of guests at the hotels, thereby relieving pressure from beaches and the natural environment. Establishment of additionaltourist attractions is a.so likely to produce the same effect, and is therefore recommended.

9.2.3. EconomicDiversity Diversificationof economic activityin the city is necessary in order to attract a more stable population, preferablyfamilies, which is impliedto be naturally more caring to their environment. Industrial (levelopmentis the most relevant sector which can achieve this economic diversification. It must be noted that decisions regarding the type and size of future industrialfacilities will need to be examinedclosely by decision makers, and environmentalimpact assessmentsprepared in order assure a continued level of environmentalprotection.

9.2.4. Directionof Urban Growth The city of Eilat should grow in a northward direction along the Arava valley. In addition, the tourism industry should also grow in that direction north of the present

102 hotel area on the north shore of the Gulf of Aqaba. Development of housing and hotels should account for seismic considerations. Tourism development should continueto be arrested on the south shore in order to protect the natural resources.

9.2.5. Regional InfrastructureTrends The mainrecommendations regarding infrastructureare discussedbelow.

9.2.5.1. Ports Decreasingthe size of the ports and concentratingport activitiesas much as possiblein one continuous area will relieve developmentpressures from sensitivecoastal areas. This measure includesincorporating the plannedpassenger port into the combinedport area. Parts of the shoreline that are liberated in this manner can be converted to bathing beaches and relievevisitor pressure from existingbeaches.

9.2.5.2. Airports Removal of the airport will free the city from air and noise pollution and risks brought about by aircraft traffic within the confines of a populated area. Therefore, it is recommendedthat this issue be examined.

9.2.5.3. Roads Paving the Eilat Bypass Road and the South Beach Bypass Road will redirect heavy traffic to and from the port, as well as internationaltraffic away from the city of Eilat. This will alleviatetraffic congestionfrom Eilat' s main thoroughfare, thereby decreasing levels of air and noise pollution and reducing the risk of accidents associated with transport of hazardous substancesthrough a denselypopulated area. In paving these bypass roads, it is necessary that planners address the issue of visual impact on the unique desert scenery surrounding Eilat, and allow options for the free passage of migratinganimals across these roads.

9.2.5.4. Border crossings Relocation of the border crossingwith Egypt from Taba to Ein Netafim and relocation of the crossing with Jordan from the existingArava crossing to a location north of the Aqaba airport will result in redirection of internationaland national away from the city of Eilat. The impacts of these new traffic patterns will be similarto those discussedin the previous section on roads.

9.2.5.5. Railroads The option involvingIsrael's use of the Jordanianrailroad for transport of phosphates and potash to Eilat shouldbe evaluated. At the same time, it is also recommendedto examinethe possibilitythat these materialsbe shippedout of the Port of Aqaba instead of the Port of Eilat. Use of railroads for transport of materials is clearly an environmentallydesirable alternative to current use of trucks.

103 9.2.5.6. Concentrationof linear infrastructure From the points of view of land conservationand scenery impacts,great importanceis placed on concentrating linear infrastructure along a limited number of corridors. Linear infrastructureincludes exi3tingand planned water, wastewater and oil pipelines; communicationand electricity lines; and roads. Infrastructure that is dependent on planned projects includes a seawater supply channeland brine discharge pipelineto be used for the energy towers project, land-based mariculture facility and seawater desalination plant. In addition, a special corridor along the border with Jordan is reserved for the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal. The two corridors that shouldbe reserved for infrastructureneeds are: * Parallelto the Arava road (road No. 90), and * Parallelto the Israeli-Jordanianborder.

9.2.5.7. Siting of industrialand infrastructurefacilities The decision to integrate and site industrialand infrastructurefacilities in the Gulf of Aqaba area shouldbe based on the followingcriteria: * Avoidance of projects that have the potential to pollute the environmentor alter the natural scenery. * Placementof facilitiesaway from residentialareas. * Concentration of facilitiesin areas zoned for that purpose, preferablyin areas that have alreadybeen impacted, such as the Timna area.

9.2.5.8. Improvingthe urban landscape Improving the urban landscape will transform Eilat into a more pleasant city for visitors and improve the resident's outlook of the city. Adapting the city environment to the surrounding desert can be performed by increasinguse of shaded areas, use of insulatingbuilding materials, and adaptingbuilding materials to the environment.

9.2.5.9. Flood control Flood control necessitatesplanning and establishingof operationalsystems that can be employedto managed large quantities fo water and sediments (see Section 4.1.1). A number of measuresthat have been proposed are mentionedin Section8.6.

9.3. POLLUTIONPREVENTION

9.3.1. Preventionof MarinePollution from Land-basedSources The followingare the main recommendationsregarding preventionof marinepollution from land based sources.

9.3.1.1. Phosphateand potash dust All of the required elements for the control of phosphate and potash dust are the responsibilityof the Ports Aut]lority where their installation and operation are in

104 advancedplanning stages (See Section 4.2.2.1). The cost of phosphate and potash dust control elementsis estimatedat 2.3 milliondollars and includes: * Choke feeder for suppressingdust emissionsduring ship loadingoperations. * New unloading infrastructureincluding a vacuum system to control dust release during truck unloading. * A dust monitoringsystem.

9.3.1.2. Wastewaterconveyance system The wastewater pipeline system in the city of Eilat is old and subject to frequent failures. A computerizedimaging survey of the system is needed. This survey will identifythe parts of the systemthat need to be repaired or replaced.

9.3.1.3. Southernshore The environmentalsensitivity of the south shore between the InteruniversityInstitute and the Taba Border Crossing needs to be specificallyaddressed. The following measures are needed in additionto the measuresthat have alreadybeen taken: * Prevention of use of the area east of the road for parking. This can be accomplishedby placing barriers along the eastern side, and establishingparking areas in the valleyson the western side of the road. * Wideningthe beach by relocating the roadwaythat lies between the Interuniversity Institute and the Princess Hotel westwards using semi-opentunnels to go through the mountains.

9.3.1.4. Phosphoricacid transport Transport of phosphoric acid through the port of Eilat is likely to result in accidents and may cause environmental pollution (see Section 4.2.3). Establishment of a passengerport in proximityto the planned acid terminal may present an unacceptable risk to the public. Therefore, it is recommendedto reexaminethe need to transport phosphoricacid through the port of Eilat.

9.3.1.5. Construction Sedimentsproduced by construction activities are swept into the water. There is a need to prevent this source of pollutionusing enforcement.

105 9.3.2. Preventionof Marine Pollutionfrom Marine Sources. The recommendationspresented in this section address the most relevant of the marine sources of marinepollution.

9.3.2.1. Oil spills Although there has been a significantdecrease in the number and size of marine oil pollution incidents, oil spills represent the greatest potential danger to the marine environmentin the Gulf. A mid-size incident is sufficientto cause heavy damage to marinebiota and to the tourism i:ridustry. The relatively small quantities of crude oil that are transported from Egypt in old, unstable tankers do not justify the damage that is likelyto be caused as a result of an accident. It is therefore recommended that the State of Israel either subsidize the transport of the oil from Egypt to an alternate site along the Mediterranean shore, or insist the old tankers be replacedwith newer ones. Additionalrecommendations associated with marineoil pollutionprevention address: * Completionof equipmentneeds of the MarinePollution Control Unit at a total cost of $ 2,325,000 (see Annex 5Y. * Training of a larger team of specialiststo control a possible future large sized oil spill. This team shouldpreferably be recruited among workers from the ports.

9.3.2.2. Mariculture Control of pollution from mari-cultureoperations is possible with the relocation of maricultureoperations from the Gulf to land-based operations in ponds. This land- based system is more protective of the marine environmentthan in-situ marine fish cages because it allows for the removal of nutrients and wastes from seawater used to grow fish prior to its discharge to the Gulf environment. In addition, by using a seawater supplychannel, it is possible to move intensivemariculture activities several kilometersaway from the sea shore. Plans of the National Center lor Mariculture to establish a pilot-scale land-based integrated mariculture pond system (IPS) should be funded, and eventually, all maricultureoperations shouldbe moved to land. Fundingfor the proposed pilot s,,ale systemis estimatedat $4,390,000 over 3 years.

9.3.2.3. Marina and pleasure boats. Contrary to the condition at the ports, the condition of pollution control at the northern marinaand on pleasure boats requires immediateand actionthrough: * Declaration of the Gulf of Aqaba as a "no discharge zone" through legislation promulgatedby the Ministryof the Environmentor by the Municipalityof Eilat. * Establishmentof a boat fue ing station at the marina that is equipped to prevent spillsto the Gulf during fueling. * Installationof equipmentto r emove used oil and batteries from the boats.

106 * Installation of equipment for removing sanitary wastewater from the boats to the municipalwastewater treatment system. * Installationof dumpstersto collect garbage from ships. * Installationof wastewater collectionand disinfectionequipment on boats. * Storage of marine pollutionfighting equipment at the marina, and worker training and practice in the use the equipmentto control spills. * Interdiction of residentialuse of boats moored at the marina or at the lagoon. * Interdictionof commercialactivities on marine structures and boats moored at the marina and the lagoon.

9.3.2.4. Lagoon concept The lagoon concept needs to be examined in light of the different environmental problems and maintenance problems associated with the western lagoon and the northern marina in Eilat (see Section 4.2.5.2). An environmentalimpact assessment shouldbe carried out before any additionallagoons are constructed.

9.3.3. Preventionof Pollutionfrom Other Sources. The recommendationsaddress pollution from other main land-based sources which impactmostly on the terrestrial environment.

9.3.3.1. Wastewatertreatment plant The existing WWTP is not impermeable, and leakage from the plant is polluting groundwater. Because of a lack of data, groundwater monitoring is necessary to determinethe distributionand severity of groundwaterpollution from this source. This source of pollutionwill be eliminatedfollowing construction of the new WWTP.

9.3.3.2. Solid waste treatment The proximity of the sanitary landfill to the new Shahmon neighborhood, the air pollution that is caused by fires at this site, and other sanitary impacts justify the immediatetransfer of the landfillfrom its present site to the Nimra site.

9.3.4. NaturePreservation A number of aspects need to be examined,in addition to actions have already taken place.

107 9.3.4.1. Zonation scheme Subdividingthe marine area and the shore east of road No. 90 into three levels of protection will enhancenature preservation: * Complete protection zone - located between the Interuniversity Institute and the border with Egypt; and between the two oil port piers. * Controlledprotection zone the Eilat Nature Reserve and two artificialreefs. * Development zone - the rest of the area.

9.3.4.2. Completion of declaration of Nature Reserves The areas that are under the most danger from development impacts are not yet declared as nature reserves. These areas include an eastern expansion of the Eilat Mountains Reserve, Shahmon MIountain,Shoret Heights, and the marine area that extends south of Nahal Shlomc' to the Gulf It is imperative that these areas be declared as nature reservesin order that they be affordedthe full necessaryprotection.

9.3.4.3. Development of integrated coral reef management plan. Althoughcoral reefs are under continuousthreat, no integrated coral reef management plan has yet been developed. This plan must be based on the data obtained from the reef monitoringsystems which will provide an indicationof the condition of the coral reefs. In the absence of any monitoringdata, certain of the planning decisionsregarding the coral reefs are arbitrary and impede managementactions, such as controlled closure of parts of the reef for recovery. Additionalsubjects that need further examination: * Plan for control of diversat dive sites along the shore, and * Research on the impact of thc:divers on the coral reef (See Section 9.5.1.3).

9.3.4.4. Increased enforcement The human resources availablef3r enforcementare limitedrelative to the severity of problems faced. Expanded staffing is needed to enable enforcement efforts to be carried out at all hours of the (lay, along the shoreline. Additional staffing is also needed to allow for effectivepatrolling of the Eilat MountainsReserve, particularlyin lightof the lack of controlledacc-.ss to this preserve. User fees collected from groups at the time of issuanceof entrancepermits to the Eilat MountainsReserve can be used to support additionalenforcement staff. Sanctionsmust be sufficientlystringent to serve as an effectivedeterrent to violationof environmental protection laws and regulations. Tough sanctions should be held specificallyagainst tour operators, includingrescinding their certification. It is proposed that a computerizedhike coordinationsystem be establishedfor the Eilat MountainsReserve. Cost of the systemis projected at $5,000 (see Annex 4).

108 9.3.5. Conservation This aspect is not sufficientlydeveloped. The followingactions are suggested.

9.3.5.1. Resourceconservation 9.3.5.1.1. WaterConservation. Water conservationmeasures include: * Identificationand fixingof leaks in the municipalwater pipeline. * Installationof computerizedsprinkder systems in all privatelyowned gardens. * Limitationof watering of public and privategardens to nighttimehours because of the high evaporationrates duringdaytime hours. * Plantingof vegetationadapted to desert conditions. * Installationof water conservationdevices on taps and toilet tanks in hotel rooms. * Informing hotel guests of the need to re-use towels and to shower instead of bathingin order to save water. * Reuse of wastewater that remains after supplyingagricultural needs for watering public parks and the planned golf course and polo fields. The possibilityof reuse of wastewater for establishmentof a constructedwetland shouldbe examined. 9.3.5.1.2. Energy Conservation * Completionof installationof automaticswitches to turn off lights after guests leave their hotel rooms. * Use of energy-efficientlighting in hotels and municipallighting systems

9.3.5.1.3. Recyclingof Solid Wastes The issue of recyclingmust be decidedat the nationallevel. At the time of this writing, there do not exist any incentivesto encourage recyclingbecause of low solid waste disposalcosts. Eilat is expected to be one of the last areas to implementwide-scale recycling because of its distance from the center of the country, where the only recyclingfacilities are located. Nevertheless,the followingshould be evaluated: * Encouragement of the food manufacturers and distributors in Eilat to reduce packagingfor their products. * Evaluationof establishmentof internationalregional recycling facilities. * Source separationof compostablefood waste.

109 9.3.5.2. Use of environmentallyfriendly energy sources Use and R&D of environmentallyfriendly energy sources such as the sun and wind shouldbe encouragedas follows: * Use of sun and wind energy. * Research and developmentin the subjectsof solar energy use for: * Wastewatertreatment. * Seawater or brackish water desalination.

9.3.6. Local EnvironmentalAdministration Strengthening The need to strengthen local environmentaladministration is in absolute contradiction to the decision of the Municipalityof Eilat to dismantlethe Regional Environmental Unit, since the local communityand administrationare likelyto be the most concerned and affected by the ecologicaland economichealth and productivityof the marine and coastal zone, and the most impacted by poorly planned development and environmentaldegradation. The numerous environmentalproblems in Eilat and their complexity require the presence of a strong local environmentalunit. Furthermore, Eilat must be responsible for the trans-boundaryimpacts of pollution produced within its borders. Because of Eilat's distance from other population centers in Israel, it is not possible to enforce environmentallaws and address environmentalissues by remote control. In light of these problems, the decision of the MOE to cut its funding of the Regional EnvironmentalUnit is counterproductive. The existingsituation justifies: • Expansion of the RegionalE:wvironmental Unit to include experts from at least the followingdisciplines: * Environmentalplanning * Air pollution * Marine pollution * Solidwaste * Hazardous materials * Environmentaleducation * Significantincrease in the budget of the RegionalEnvironmental Unit to allow it to perform proactive functions in the various environmentaldisciplines as well, but specificallyin the realms of environmentaleducation and data collection. * Developing a plan followed by legislativemeasures at the local level, to charge polluters according to the "polluter pays" principle. In parallel, the MOE, the Municipality of Eilat and the Eilot Regional Council should increase their participationin the fundingo'the EnvironmentalUnit.

110 * The Regional EnvironmentalUnit should be responsiblefor coordination of the different entities involvedin environmentalprotection. Within this framework, responsibilities,authority, and enforcementcapacities of each organizationshould be clearlydefined so as to avoid duplicationof responsibilities. * The RegionalEnvironmental Unit shouldbe responsiblefor the implementationof the GAEAP. * Update local environmentalbylaws, especially industrial wastewater quality standardsfor discharge to the municipalwastewater treatment system under the Model Bylawfor Local Authoritiesof 1981.

9.4. ADOPTIONOF ECONOMICMECHANISMS The introduction of the Gulf of Aqaba Action Plan should be accompaniedby the followingeconomic steps: * Establishing revenue-generating mechanisms, including impact fees on new construction in the coastal zone, user fees, bed tax, water supply fees, and concessiontax for certainactivities (e.g., diving). * Adoption of "polluter pays" principle to ensure that the financial burden for preventionand control of pollutionrests with the party that was responsiblefor its generation. This principle can be adopted to address dust release, wastewater release, and storage of hazardousmaterials. * Provision of a system of positive incentivesfor not polluting,including tax and price reductions,refunds, subsidies,and research and developmentsupport. * Provision of incentivesto entrepreneursfor establishingartificial reefs and other attractionswhich would relievevisitor pressure from naturalassets. * Cost sharing of monitoring and control operations in cases of transboundary pollution.

9.5. MONITORINGAND RESEARCH Despite the existenceof some 2,500 publicationsrelated to the Gulf of Aqaba, there are significantinfornation gaps. To support future assessmentsof impacts owing to environmentalchanges, it is essential to establishan informationbaseline for use in future evaluations.

9.5.1. MonitoringPrograms The plan suggeststhe followingmonitoring programs.

9.5.1.1. Seawaterquality monitoring. The objectivesof the program are to assess the current water quality and to establish measuresto improvewater quality. Proposed seawater qualitymonitoring programs are as follows (see Annex 1 for more detailed descriptions):

111 * Evaluationof phosphaterelease associatedwith loading operations. Sampling of water quality priorto, during, and after phosphate loading operations on ships would allow the quantificatiornof phosphateinputs to the Gulf, and of elevationof phosphate concentrations above baseline levels in the water. The cost of this evaluationis estimatedat some $ 46,000. * Evaluation of seasonal concentrations of dissolved phosphate. Monthly measurementsof dissolvedand suspended phosphates along Israel's shore would provide informationon the seasonal distributionof phosphates. The cost of this evaluationis estimatedat $ 60,000 * Sediment phosphate evaluation. Sediment phosphates would be sampled in areas surroundingthe Port of Eilat. Phosphates in sediments act as a long-term source of release of phosphates to surrounding water. A one-time sampling program to determine phosphate concentrations as a function of distance and direction from the port of Eilat is needed to evaluate quantities of phosphate deposited from port activities, and to provide a baseline for evaluating future changes in sediments. The cost of this evaluationis estimatedat $ 25,000. * Evaluation of petroleum hydrocarbonconcentrations in water. Petroleum hydrocarbon concentrationsi:l seawater would be sampled and analyzed on a monthlybasis to develop a baselineand evaluate the severity of potential impact from this source of pollution. The cost of this evaluationis estimatedat $50,000. * Noise monitoringaround Eilat Airport.

9.5.1.2. Air quality monitoring The goals of this program would include a baseline air quality assessment and an emissionsinventory. Results of suicha program could be used for pollution control planningand management(see Annex 1). It is proposed that two air qualitymonitoring stations be added to the four stations that are planned in the cargo port area. These two additional stations should be placed outside the port. In addition to meteorological instruments and equipment for measurementof airborne dust cor,centrations,these stations should be equipped with NO, monitoring instruments. NOCXis the primary pollutant emitted by vehicles and planes. Cost of the air qualitymonitoring stations $ 200,000.

9.5.1.3. Coralreef monitoring A coral reef damage monitoringprogram shouldbe developedand implemented.The goals of this program would be to: * Describethe current conditionof the reef. * Evaluate damage that has occurred over time, and in relation to development activities. * Provide a managementtool for predicting and mitigatingdamage resulting from human activity, and for evaluatingthe effectivenessof managementactions - such

112 as pollution control measures, levels of permitted activity, and reef closures to allow of portions of the reefs to regenerate. It is recommendedthat the monitoringprogram be coordinatedwith sirnilarprograms in neighboringstates, and use historical data to improve the value of the information developed. Examples of the investigationsproposed under the coral reef damage monitoring program are (see Annex 1); * Coral Reef Damage Evaluation. This evaluationproposes to use historicaldata in the form of detailedmaps and records of speciespresence, diversity, and density to evaluate the extent of damage and regeneration of coral reefs as a result of changesin human activitypatterns. The cost of this evaluationis $26,000. * ArtificialReef Generation Study. Artificialreefs exist at severallocations along the shore of Eilat. This study proposes to track biota on submergedobjects in the Gulf. Parameters to be reviewed would include species presence, diversity, and density, as functions of location, depth, substrate, and time since submergence. Understandingthe artificialreef colonizationprocess will provide natural resource managers and planners with a tool necessary to plan and manage existing and plannedartificial reefs. The cost of this evaluationis estimatedat $75,000.

9.5.2. ResearchPrograms Research should be undertaken to assist in resolution of specific management problems,enhance resource protection efforts, and assist in the interpretation of the resourcesto visitors. Examplesof the proposed research programsare: * Gulfof AqabaBiological Database. This databasewould be developedbased on publishedand unpublishedstudies conducted in the Gulf of Aqaba. The goal of the databasewould be to provide natural resourcemanagers a basic tool for evaluating and predicting physicaland chemnicaloceanographic processes; and for evaluating and predictingthe extent and nature of damage and recovery periods of biota and coral reefs in the Gulf of Aqaba. Cost of this programs is projected at $25,000 (see Annex 1).. * Trilateral (Egypt-Jordan-Israel)Program for Research and Monitoring Aimed at EcologicalManagement of the Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Gulf Of Aqaba. The goal of this program is to establish a joint Egyptian-Jordanian- Israeli program for evaluating the status of Northern Red Sea coral reefs and developingthe tools for their conservation.The program will be an extensionof the pending program which was submitted to the US-AID for research and monitoringof the Marine Peace Park (MPP) already establishedbetween Jordan and Israel. The proposed integrated and comprehensiveprogram will result in a balanced scientific assessmentof future trends in the coral reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba, and the needed database for the zoning and land use plans. The resulting database will provide the authoritiesin the countries surroundingthe Gulf with a sensitiveearly warningsystem in case any change or deteriorationof the coral reefs is detected. This will allow adequate corrective action to be taken before any

113 irreversible damage occurs. Furthermore, activities related to the study, conservationand enjoymentof the coral reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba will generate considerable economic incentives and opportunities for the development of specializedhuman resources il this region. Cost of this project is $900,000 (see Annex 2). * Monitoring EnvironmentalImpacts From Sea-Cage Aquaculture. The aim of this project is to employstate of the art remote sensing technology to monitorthe environmentalimpact of fish farms on surroundingwaters. Because this approach has not been previouslyused, the initialphase of the project will focus on analyzing the multispectral data to determine the most informative spectral channels by comparingthese to the field-sampledwater qualitydata. In addition,the output of digital imagery data from aerial sensors will be compared to that from satellite sensors in order to decide w:lich approach is more informative and most cost- effective.After establishingthe optimalmeans of carrying out this work, the waters around several differentfish farms situated in the Red Sea and in the Mediterranean will be sampled by both remoi:eand direct means in order to calibrate the remote monitoring approach. The hope is to ultimatelyestablish a generic algorithm that will allow remote sensing to replace traditional oceanographicmonitoring of the waters around fish farms. The cost of carrying out this study is $875,000 spread over 4 years (see Annex 3). * Land-Based Mariculture Pilot Plant. The objective of this project is to prove the technical and economic viability of developingintegrated and intensive fish, shellfish,and seaweed farmingoperations in the Arava Valleyusing seawater from the Gulf of Aqaba. This project is described in greater detail in Section 8.5. This project can be implementedwithin a short time-period.The pilot plant could be in full operation within one and a half years of funding approval. Total investment requirementsover 3 years are S4,390,000(Annex 3).

9.5.3. Data Management Improvement of environmentaldata management systems is necessary to generate informationthat is relevant to address specificenvironmental management problems. Data management systems should include the introduction of an independent GIS system in the Regional Unit to facilitate the incorporation of environmental data collected into an integrated database and to produce relevant and timely outputs at a cost of $100,000.

9.6. PUBLICPARTICIPATICIN Although public support for environmentalprotection efforts becomes more essential with time, in Eilat publicparticipation is still in an incubatorystage. Public involvement in environmentalissues has been led by NGOs located outside of the Eilat region. Their involvementhas also been limited,in part because of Eilat's distance from the center of the country. Public support can be an effective counterbalanceto narrowly based opposition of coastal stakeholders to implementation of environmental protection programs and actions.

114 The establishmentof a committeewhich includesas its membersrepresentatives of the public is suggested. The goal of the committee would be to provide a forum for environmentaloversight of the region and of specificprojects and encouragementof environmentalpublic education and awareness. Establishmentand administrationof this committee will includethe followingstages: * Identifythe target groups and target communitiesto be recruited. * Decide what specificissues and goalswill be addressed. * Select methodsand tools for implementingand assessingthe selected issues. * Identify optionsfor action.

9.7. EDUCATIONAND PUBLIC AWARENESS The education and public awarenessprograms shouldbe designed to enhancepublic awarenessand understandingof the marine and coastal environment,and to promote the need for protection of these resourcesthrough increased appreciation and support. The public should be provided with accurate information about current resource protection and relevant activities.Public education and informationefforts should be directedat the followingtarget populations: * Israeli vacationers. Some 70% of the total hotel visitors to Eilat are Israeli vacationers. In addition, there is an unknown number of elementary and high schools pupils that arrive in school groups and as individualsand do not stay in hotels, but make intensiveuse of natural sites and may even sleep there overnight. Tourists.l Most of the tourists to Eilat are European, and it is assumedthat their environmentalawareness is high. Although they consist of some 30% of all visitors, they tend to stay in Eilat longer than Israeli vacationers (4.5 days comparedto an averageof 2.8 days). * Tour operators. Tour operators play a significantrole since they come into contact with a wide range of visitors. This category includes tour guides, diving guides,cruiseboat operators, etc.

e Pupils.. School age childrenare future decision makers.They make up some 26% of the city's population. * Teachers. Preschool and school teachers can directly influenceand educate their pupils. * Tourismindustry workers.Workers in the tourism industry are characterizedby their relativelyyoung age, and by the transient nature of their stay in Eilat. This is often expressed through an uncaring attitude towards the environment. The importance of this segment of population is notable since some 60% of the workforcewill be associatedwith the tourism industryin the year 2000. * Officialsand media.Decision makers at the differentlevels have a great influence on the future of the region, and thus they need to receive in-depth and current updates on the environmentalconditions and threats. This populationalso includes managers of infrastructurefacilities (e.g., ports), factory managers, and formersof public opinion(e.g., mediareporters).

115 * Other populations of the region. Socio-economic evaluation is necessary to effectivelydirect environmentaleducation efforts to the remainingpopulation. Visual aids need to be distributedat locationsfrequented by the different visitors. The visual aids should be multi-lingualin nature, For example, videos could be shown on arrivingflights and at the airport, in closed circuitvideo networks within hotels, and on boats sailing to the different toujrist attractions. The different means of advancing environmentaleducation and awarenessfor different sub-populationsare presented in Table 26. Proposals within the frameworlc of education and public awareness actions are describedin Annex 4 and: * Establishment of a Visitor Center. This center would serve to disseminate information on the importanc.-of protection of the marine and coastal zone. Cost of establishmentof the center is estimatedat $400,000. * Preparation of advertisingmaterial on the subject of the importance of protecting the marine and coastal zone. Examples of the types of material are presented in Table26. Material preparation costs are $100,000. * The Red Sea Partner-Ship.A shipthat would sail between the Gulf of Aqaba states and would deliver a message of peace and environmentalprotection. Cost is estimatedat $1,200,000.

116 Table 26. Methods for advancing public environmental education and awareness for different target populations.

Method Population Segment

brad Toits Tour Pups Teats Taxsunm offi0ias Oher Vastnn Opertns hiuwy

Courses + Seminars + + + Workshops + + + Lectures + + + + + + + + Field Tours + + + +

LocalTV + + + + + + + Local Radio + + + + + + + Videos + + + + + + + + Newspapers + + + + + Internet + + + + + +

Books + + + Brochures + + + + Newsletters + + + Training + Materials Posters + + + + Transit posters + + + + + Stickers + + + + 4 T-shirts and + + + + +

Exhibitions + + + + + Information + + + Stations Periodic + Examinations Wayside + + + Direction Signs

117 9.8. TRANSBOUNDARYE,NVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION Transboundary environmental issues include: oil spill pollution, protection of endangerednatural resources, air pollution, marine pollution, groundwater pollution, tourism impacts,and transportationimpacts. These issues can be addressedin the manner describedbelow.

9.8.1. Regional Environmental Strategy A regional environmentalstrategy will address the followingCZM-related issues: * Pollutioncontrol. * Natural resource conservatior. * Prevention systems. * Monitoring and research.

9.8.2. Regional EnvironmentalCoordination Council The establishmentof a regional coordination council is recommended. The council would be responsiblefor policydevelopment and coordination,program oversight, and dispute resolution. A committee of specialistswould serve the council in an advisory capacity. The council would decide, arnong other things, the need for trans-boundary environmentalassessments and cciordinationof planningin the border zones.

9.8.3. CoordinatedEmergency Response The coordinatedresponse capabilityto combat oil spills and possiblehazardous waste accidentsshould considerthe following: * Online communication. * Interchangeableand compatibleequipment for joint emergencyoperations. * Provisionof mutual trainingactivities.

9.9. MONITORINGAND EVALUATION OF THEPLAN A monitoringand evaluation process is needed to ensure dynamicimplementation of the GAEAP. This process shouldinclude the following: * Identificationof expected periormance. * Assessmentand measurementof the actual performanceof the Plan. * Establishmentof performnancevariances. * Post-evaluationof the Plan. In order to ensure implementationof the Action Plan, it is suggested that it be incorporatedinto the Eilat Shore NationalMasterplan (NMP 13).

118 10. ANNEXES

A-1 Annex 1. Evaluationof the Impact of Eilat's Developmenton the Environment

An in-depth analysis of the impact of the Eilat area's future development on the environmentis needed because of the rapid developmentthat characterizesthe area in general and specificallybecause of the accelerated tourism development. This evaluation must concentrateon the proposed developmentof the region as a whole and on tourism developmentwhile considering the area's sensitiveenvironment. This evaluationwill includeexamination of data and trends while performinga critical evaluation of growth projectionsfor the region in general and for the tourism sector; and evaluating the potential impact of these projections on the environment. In parallel, additional alternativeswill be evaluated and the preferred alternative will be selected. Cost: $40,000

A-2 Annex 2. Projects Proposed by the Eilat-Eilot Regional Environmental Unit

1. Evaluationof PhosphateRelease Associated with Loading Operations. This evaluation includes sampling prior to, during, and after phosphate loading operations on ships. The goal of the evaluationis to determine quantitiesof phosphate that are released during such operations, and elevation of phosphate concentrations above baselinelevels. Sets of 30 samples will be taken per ship one week prior to loading, during loading operations, and one week after loading. Sampling will evaluate dissolved and particulate phosphateconcentrations. This evaluationis priced for analysis of a total of four ship loading events spread out over four seasons.This is equivalentto 120 samples. Cost: Manpower: $25,000 Equipment:$6,000 Samplingand analysis:$15,000 Total $46,000.

2. Evaluationof Dissolved Phosphatein Seawater This evaluationwill includefiltration to measurelevels of phosphatein dissolvedand in suspended solid form. Monthly sampleswill be taken from the port to the border at Taba. This sampling program will extend over a year and provide information regarding the seasonal distribution of phosphates in water. Twelve monthly samples will be taken for a total of 150 samples. The data obtained can be compared to historicaldata from 1980-1981 Cost: Samplingequipment: $10,000 Boat rental and manpower:$30,000 Sampling,and analysis:$20,000 Total = $60,000

3. Sediment PhosphateEvaluation Phosphates are deposited in surroundingsediments as a result of ship loading activities at the Port of Eilat. Changes in phosphate concentrationin these sediments can take years, as phosphates are dissolved and released to the surrounding waters. Historical data from 1974, 1980, and 1981 exist. A one-time samplingprogramn to determine phosphate concentrationsas a function of distance and directionfrom the port of Eilat

A-3 is needed to evaluate quantitiesof phosphatedeposited from the port activities,and to providea picture of changesover the years. This study will consist of the following: * 35 sedimentsamples on a 2500 meter by 800 meter grid in front of the port of Eilat in order to map the depositiongradient. Sampleswill be taken every 250 meters usingGPS positioning,up to a depth of 15 to 20 meters. * 3 samples in control areas, one on the north shore of the Gulf, and two on the south shore. Cost: Equipment$7,000 Sampling, and analysis - $3,000 Manpower, divesand boat:rental- $10,000 Total: $25,000.

4. Evaluation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Concentrations in Water. This evaluation can be perfonr ed concurrently with the evaluation of dissolved phosphate. It would entail montfilysampling and analysis of seawater for petroleum hydrocarbonconcentration, and comparisonof results to historicaldata from 1980 and 1981. Monthlysamples would be laken in the manner describedabove. Cost: Samplingequipment: $10,)00 Sampling and analysis: $40,000 (if performed concurrently with phosphate sampling) Total: $50,000

5. Air Quality Monitoring This evaluation is proposed to evaluate the contribution of phosphate loading operationsto the total airborne dust concentrationduring loading operations. Such air quality monitoring is required by the Ministry of the Environment.Data would be collectedusing dust traps and a high volume sampler. Samplingequipment would be placed at two stations in proximityto the Coral Reef Tourist Resort, and the hills between the Shahmonneighborhood and the port. 4 stations Cost: $200,000

A-4 6. CoralReef Damage Evaluation. The extent of damage to the coral reefs in Eilat and the Sinai peninsulaas a result of developmentand tourism activitieshas not been studied in a methodicalmanner. Evaluation of changesover time, and with relation to developmentand activity on the reef will provide researchers and managers with the tools necessary to evaluate the effectivenessof various managementactions - such as pollution control measures, levels of permitted activity,and reef closuresto permit regenerationof portions of the reefs. Historical data in the form of detailed maps and records of species present, species diversityand density were collectedup to 1980's for the length of the Gulf of Aqaba, from Eilat to the tip of the Sinaipeninsula. These data were collectedevery 50 meters along the reefs of the Sinai peninsula.On the present Israeli shore of the Gulf, data were collected at a numberof sites, in depths of up to 30 meters, and includevarious biotypes - e.g., sandybottoms, aquaticvegetation, knolls and reefs. Replicationof the previous studies, and comparisonof present-day data to historical data will allow decision makers to evaluate impacts that have occurred in relation to changesin land-useand developmentpatterns since 1980. Mappingof the Israeli shore of the Gulf for the various biotypes, artificialreefs, and dive areas will provide an additional tool for integrated planning of coastal zone development.

Cost: Israeli Shore damageevaluation: Manpower $15,000 Equipment$10,000 Total: $25,000

7. ArtificialReef GenerationStudy Artificialreefs are planned at several locations in the Gulf of Aqaba. Artificialreefs consist of submerged hard substrate/structuresthat are colonized by reef-building organismsover time. The time required for colonizationand stabilizationof artificial reefs in the Gulf of Aqabahas not been studiedin detail. Artificialreefs can be used to relieve diver pressure on existing and over-visitedreefs. Understandingthe artificial reef colonizationprocess will provide natural resource managers and plannerswith a tool necessaryto plan and managedartificial reefs. This study proposes to track biota on submergedobjects in the Gulf. Parametersto be reviewed would include species presence, diversity, and density, as functions of location, depth, substrate,and time since submergence.Some of the sites to be studied were originallyevaluated in the 1980s.

A-5 The study would run over 4 years. Initial costs in the first year would include initial equipment acquisitionrequired for the study. Costs for each additional year include manpower,boat rental and bottled air for dives. Cost: First year: Manpower - $70,000 Equipment - $5,000 Total -$75,000

8. Gulf of Aqaba Biological Dat.abase Natural resource managerslack basic tools for evaluatingand predictingthe extent and nature of damage and recovery periods for coral reefs in the Gulf of Aqaba. In addition, there is very little background data regarding physical and chemical oceanographicprocesses in the Galf. Numerous studies have been published,in Israel and abroad on subjects on interest to managers.Unfortunately, these studies have not been collated or presented in a manner that can be of use to natural resource managers. This study proposes to address this omission through review of existing literature (published and unpublished)and development of a subject sensitive database that can be accessed by natural resource managers and workers in the Gulf of Aqaba. The database will serve as a readily accessible resource and decision-makingtool to managers and decisionmakers plamningprojects or actions in the Gulf. Cost: Manpower: $20,000 Computer and productioncosts: $5,000 Total: $25,000

A-6 Annex 3. Project Proposed by the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences

1. Trilateral (Egypt-Jordan-Israel)Program for Research and Monitoring Aimed at EcologicalManagement of the Coral-ReefEcosystems of the Gulf Of Aqaba. The goal of this program is to establisha Joint Egyptian-Jordanian-IsraeliProgram for evaluatingthe status of NorthernRed Sea coral reefs and developingthe tools for their conservation.The program will be an extension of the pending program which was submittedto the US-AID for researchand monitoringof the Marine Peace Park (MPP) already established between Jordan and Israel. The proposed integrated and comprehensiveprogram will result in a balanced scientificassessment of future trends in the coral reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba, and the needed database for the zoning and land use plans. The resultingdatabases will provide the authorities in the countries surrounding the Gulf with a sensitive early warning system in case any change or deteriorationof the coral reefs is detected. This will allow to take adequate corrective action before any irreversibledamage occurs. Furthermore, activities,related to the study, conservationand enjoymentof the coral reefs of the Gulf of Aqabawill generate considerableeconomic incentives and opportunitiesfor the developmentof specialized human resourcesin this region. Aimsof the project are: * Developmentof a model for the conservationand managementof the Gulf of Aqaba'sreef systemand their integrationin the regionstourism industry. . Protection of the area's terrestrial and maritime natural resources from destructionresulting from tourismdevelopment. * Adjustingthe magnitudeand level of developmentto the carrying capacityof the region'scoastal ecosystems. *Incorporation, whenever feasible, of the region's coral reefs into development schemeswith an tourism-basedeconomic potential. *Establishmentof a research and monitoringprogram to follow in real-timethe effects of developmenton the coral-reefs naturalenvironment. The work program is outlinedas follows: 1.Establishmentof a long terrn research and monitoringnetwork to follow natural and anthropogeniceffects on the coral reef ecosystemof the Gulf of Aqaba. 2.Identificationof "developmentsensitive" and "developmentneutral" zones for planning and controlling the development of the tourist industry in the area. Analysisand subdivisionof the sensitivezones. 3.Recommendationson the scale and nature of developmentof tourism and other projects accordingto each units' carryingcapacity. 4.Recommendationson the conservationof the region's ecosystemsand natural resources. Cost: $900,000

A-7 Annex 4. Projects Proposed by the National Center for Mariculture

1. Land Based MariculturePilct Plant The objective of this project is to prove the technical and economic viability of developingintegrated and intensivefish, shellfish,and seaweed farming operations in the Arava Valley on seawaterfrom the Gulf of Aqaba. The project offers the prospect of laying the foundation for a new major economic activity and related processing -Facilities,which are environmentallyfriendly in the Arava Valley. There is a substantialmarket for sea food products both in Israel and in Jordan, and the export potential,in regionaland internationalmarkets is considerable. The project will rely on the existing knowledge and experience accumulated a the NCM in Eilat. There will be continuouscollaboration with the Marine Science Station in Aqaba,Jordan. Whichwill providetwo persons to work on the project in Eilat. This project will assist in capability building of the Jordanian partners in the area of mariculture. The facilitywill be used for trainingtechnical operators of farms as well as for cooperation betweenJordanian and Israeli scientistsin the R&D of mariculture in land based facilities. In the longer term ,the success cf the project could lead to vertical integration with developmentopportunities and dc wnstreamprocessing. This project can be implementedwithin a short time-period.The pilot plant could be in full operationwithin one and a half years of fundingapproval. Cost: $4,390,000 over 3 years

2. Use of Remote Sensing As an Efficient Means To Monitor Environmental ImpactsFrom Sea-CageAquaculture The aim of this project is to employ state of the art remote sensing technology to monitor the environmentalimpacL of fish farms on surrounding waters. Because this approach has not been explored before, the initialphase of the project will focus on analyzingthe multispectraldata tc determinethe most informativespectral channelsby comparingthese to the field-sampledwater quality data. In addition, the output of digitalimagery data from aerial sensors will be comparedto that from satellitesensors in order to decidewhich approach is more informativeand most cost-effective.After establishingthe optimal means to carry out this work, the waters around several differentfish farms situatedin the Red Sea and in the Mediterraneanwill be sampledby both remote and direct means in order to calibratethe remote monitoring approach. The hope is to ultimatelyestablish a generic algorithmthat will allow remote sensing to replace traditionaloceanographic monitoring of the waters aroundfish farms.

A-8 The project will consist of the followingparts: Phase 1. 1. Acquisitionof water samplesand field measurementsat the studysites, 2. Laboratoryanalysis of samples, 3. Acquisitionof satellite and aerial digital imagerydata taken on the same day and time as water sampleswere collected, 4. Statistical analysis of satellite and aerial digital imagery data with the field/laboratoryresults, 5. Evaluationof the comparativevalue of satelliteversus aerial digitalimagery data. All of the above will be carriedout in the initialphase (first 2 years) of this study at the existingfish farmsnear Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba)to developthe technologyand to test it. Phase 2. Simultaneousacquisition of data (remote and field-collected)from several different farms, located elsewherein the Red Sea (Jordan, Egypt) and in the MediterraneanSea (Greece, Cyprus, Turkey) relyingon the conclusionsfrom the first phase of this study, b. statisticalanalysis of the data in order to generate a generic algorithmfor remote sensingaround fish farms. Phase 3. Summaryof the 4 years of data, and final additionalfield work in order to produce a generic algorithmto monitor environmentalimpact by remote sensing that is suitable for use in a variety of regions. Partnershipswill be formed with research institutionsin Jordan, Egypt, the Palestinian Authority,Cyprus, Greece, and Turkey. Cost: $875,000 spread over 4 years.

A-9 Annex 5. Projects Proposedby the NatureReserves Authority

1. Coral Reef ProtectionVisitor Center The Visitor Center will be built in proximityto the Underwater Observatory. Marine ecosystemsin the Gulf of Aqaba are endangeredas a result of human activity. This center would serve to disseminateinformation on the impacts of various activitieson the marine environment,and the importanceof protection of the marine and coastal zone. The Visitor Center will incladethe followingelements: * Three dimensionalsound and light exhibits * Computer systemswith instructionalsoftware * An informationcenter that includesa managerand two guides. * Distributionof informationand advertisingmaterial. Cost: Structure:$200,000 Exhibitsand computers:$200,000 Total:$400,000

2. IncreasingPublic Awarenesslor Protectionof Coral Reefs. This project includes: * Developmentand distributioncf video material,stickers and advertisingmaterial in differentlanguages; * Informationsessions; * InformationStations during holi days and vacationsfor visitorsto the coral reefs Cost: $100,000

3. ComputerizedHike CoordinationSystem for the Eilat MountainsReserve. The Eilat MountainsReserve receives some 120,000 visitorsper year. Most of these visitors are concentratedon a limitednumber of sites. Crowding at those sites results in environmentaldamage and hinders visitor enjoyment. This project consists of a computerized center whose puwpose would be to control crowding through coordinationof visitor traffic to sp?ecificsites: the Red Canyon,Nahal Geshron, Har Shelomo, and Nahal Mapalim. In addition,the Center would disseminateinformation on the Eilat MountainsReserve, and run field inspections. Cost: $5,000

A-10 Annex 6. Ministryof the Environment Requirementsfor CombatingMarine Pollution

Equipmentand TrainingCosts Item Description Cost (S) High Seas Boom 1600 meter 300,000 PermanentBoom To be placed on the south 500,000 side of the EAPC port. MediumBoom 2000 meter 300,000 AbsorbentMats For shore and coral reef 200,000 protection Skimmers 2 300,000 DedicatedBoat 700,000 AnnualCourse 30 participants, 1 week 25,000 Total 2,325,000 Source: Ellik Adler,Manager of the Marine PollutionPrevention Division, the Ministry of the Environment.

A-11 Annex 7. The Rted Sea Partner-Ship

This proposal consists of a ship that would sail between the Gulf of Aqaba states and would deliver a message of peace and environmentalprotection was proposed by Christa RachelBat-Adam, YaakovHayat, and DavidTroim. The Partner-Ship would be sailingbetween the four Red Sea nations and anchor at their desert shores. Seven guests .fromthe four countrieswould board her every week, each one from his home shore. Disabled people (especiallythose disabled in war) would be part of the team. On the ship, the guests will be involved in various activities, including activities associated with the environment and the importance of protection of the Gulf of Aqaba's natural resources. To meet this goal, scientists and specialists in environmentalprotection of the Culf of Aqaba will also be among the guests of the ship. Cost of the catamaran: $1,200,000.

A-12 11. REFERENCES Aharonson, S. and Y. Green. Eilat Scenic Plan. Municipality of Eilat. October, 1988. (in Hebrew). Angel, D.L., P. Krost, and H. Gordin. 1995. Benthic Implications of Net Cage Aquaculture in the Oligotrophic Gulf of Aqaba. European Aquaculture Society Special PublicationNo. 24. Ghent. Pp 129-173. Angel, D.L., P. Krost, and W.L. Silvert. 1997. Describing Benthic Impacts of Fish Farming with Fuzzy Sets: Theoretical Background and Analytic Methods. Submitted to Journal of Applied Ichthyology, June 1997. Angel, D.L., P. Krost, D. Zuber, and A. Neori, 1992. Microbial Mats Mediate the Benthic Turnover of Organic Matter in Polluted Sediments in the Gulf of Aqaba. Proc. U.S.-Israel Workshop on "Mariculture in the Environment", Eilat, Israel. June 1992. Augier, Henry. Protected Marine Areas. Council of Europe. 1985. Burton, Rosemary. Travel Geography. Pitman Publishing, 1995. Central Bureau of Statistics. Tourism and Hotel Services Statistics Quarterly Central Bureau of Statistics. Traffic Counts on Non-urban Roads, 1985-1995. Jkrusalem.May, 1996 Cooke R.U. et al., Urban Geomorphology in Drylands. Oxford University Press. 1982 ECDG - European Commission Directorate General. External Econornic Relations, June 1995. Upper Gulf of Aqaba Oil Spill Contingency Project - Project ImplementationReport Establishment of Oil Spill Centers. EnvironmentalLaw Institute. Protecting the Gulf of Aqaba. February, 1993. Government of Israel. DevelopmentOptions for the Middle East. 1995. Harza. Jordan Rift Valley Integrated Development Study. Jordan Rift Valley Steering Committee, 1997. ICLEI. The Local Agenda 21 Planning Guide. Interuniversity Institute for Marine Research, the Ministry of the Environment, and the Nature Reserves Authority. The Gulf of Aqaba Ecosystem in Light of Rapid Economic Growth of the Region. November, 1991. (in Hebrew). Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences in Eilat. The Ecosystem of the Gulf of Aqaba in Relation to the Enhanced Economic Development and the Peace Process. January, 1996. Interuniversity Institute of Eilat. Study program for the Academic Year 1997-1998. ISPAN, Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalData Survey. USAID. October, 1992. Israel Electric Company. Environmental lmpact Assessment: Eilat Gas Turbines. December, 1993 (in Hebrew). Kadir, Yuval. Survey of Environmental Actions at the Eilat Marina. The Ministry of the Environment. November, 1994. (in Hebrew).

A-13 Levin, Giora. Tourism trends in E ilat. February, 1991. (in Hebrew). Loya, Y. Possible Effects of Water Pollution on the Community Structure of Red Sea Corals. In: Marine Biology 29 (pp 147-185). 1975. Mann Roy. Coastal zone ManaggementGuidelines and Standards from Tourism and Urban Development in the Aqaba Region of Jordan. October, 1995. Ministry of the Interior and Israel Lands Authority. National Masterplan for Tourism (NMP 12). January, 1996. (in Hebrew). Ministry of the Environment. Nature conservation and the Coral Reef Ecosystem in the Israeli Part of the Gulf of Aqaba. September, 1997. Ministry of the Environment. The Environment in Israel. Jerusalem, 1994. Ministry of Tourism. Progranumatic Plan for Tourism Development in Eilat. November, 1994. (in Hebrew). Municipality of Eilat, Dec. 1994 (b). Improvementin Sewage Quality. PreliminaryPlan and Evaluation of Alternalives. (in Hebrew). Municipality of Eilat, Jan. 1994. Master Plan for the Municipal Sewage Collection System. (in Hebrew). Miunicipalityof Eilat. Urban and E conomic DevelopmentPlan for the City of Eilat. (in Hebrew). Negev Tourism Development Authority. Masterplan for the Negev Following the Peace Process. July, 1991. (in Hebrew). Ports Authority. Port of Eilat DevelopmentPlan. September, 1996. (in Hebrew). Ports Authority. Tender for Installation of an Air Monitoring System in the Port of Eilat. (in Hebrew). Rahmimov, Arieb. Masterplan for Housing in North Eilat. Municipality of Eilat, Housing Department. 1997'(in Hebrew). Red Sea Program on Marine Scierces. March, 1997. Shlezinger, Yehiem. Petroleum and Phosphates in the Gulf of Aqaba. The Nature Reserves Authority. 1980. (in Hebrew). Smithsonian Institution. National Forum on Ocean Conservation. Washington DC. November, 1991. U.S. Department of Commerce. Gulf of Farallones National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan. Marine and Estuarine Management Division. November, 1987. UNEP. An Approach to Environmental Impact Assessment for Projects Affecting the Coastal and Marine Environment. 1992. Warburg, Philip. Priority Measures Addressing Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalHazards. 1994. World Bank. Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan - Jordan. Environmental Division, Technical Department. Europe and Central Asia, Middle East and North Africa Regions. October, 1993.

A-14 World Bank, The HashemiteKingdom of Jordan. Gulf of Aqaba EnvironmentalAction Plan. Project Document. May, 1996. World Bank. Noorgwich Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management. EnvironmentalDepartment. November, 1993. Zohar, Aharon. The South Beach of Eilat: EnvironmentalConservation as a Basis for Regional Planning and TourismDevelopment. November, 1991. (in Hebrew).

A-15

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