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STEM The Journal of Undergraduate Research is an annual publication by the Center for Undergraduate Research that features the scholarship of undergraduates at the University of Kansas.

COVER Claire Zimmerman, Senior in Visual Communication Design Mentor: Andrea Herstowski, Associate Professor of Design See page 34 to learn about Claire’s project designing a typeface representing the characteristics of Trier, Germany. Contents

undergraduate research

On the Translation of Fear: A Study of Ecuadorian Kichwa Speakers and the US Immigration System ...... 1 Gustin Bova

“Wi Snackt Wedder Platt!” Bringing Low German back to Bremen and Lower Saxony through the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ...... 14 Sara Sofia Anderson

Estimating Fluid Local Velocity within a Novel 3D Collagen Matrix Perfusion System ..... 25 Ana M. Villanueva

Type in Trier: The Relationship between Letters and the Oldest City in Germany ...... 34 A. Claire Zimmerman

“I Don’t Want to Grow Old and Weak Like You!”: Conceptions of Idealized Masculinity in Pre- and Post- Revolutionary Iranian Cinema ...... 40 Benjamin Ale-Ebrahim

Better Adherence, Better Outcome: Differences in Depressed Participants’ Adherence to Elements of the Therapeutic Lifestyle Change Protocol ...... 52 Carina Fowler

Chinese export porcelain and global spaces of imagination ...... 56 Julia Reynolds

“Strong Female Characters” An Analytical Look at Representation in Moffat-Era Doctor Who ...... 64 Nichole Flynn

Q&A How did you become involved in doing research? My experience working at the Centro Hispano here in Lawrence, where many clients speak an Indigenous Mexican language, and my time spent studying Kichwa (at KU and in Ecuador), provided me with my research idea. Then, to provide the helpful thrust of necessity, there was my Latin American Studies Capstone class (a requirement to graduate), looming closer and closer. Thus, at the nexus of inspiration and obligation, was my project born.

How is the research process different from what you expected? I had to reformulate my research question profoundly. Also, it turns out that Gustin Bova people, in general, are much more helpful than I originally assumed. hometown What is your favorite part of doing research? Lawrence, Kansas The unexpected discoveries (which can also be maddening!).

Major Latin American & Caribbean Studies

academic level Senior

research mentor Peter Haney, Assistant Director of the Center for Latin American & Caribbean Studies Bartholomew Dean, Associate Professor of Anthropology

On the Translation of Fear: A Study of Ecuadorian Kichwa Speakers and the US Immigration System Gustin Bova

Abstract This study addresses the situation of Ecuadorian Kichwa-speaking migrants who, upon arriving at the US border (and being put into Expedited Removal), claim a fear of returning to Ecuador. The study draws data primarily from the Credible Fear Interview stage of this process. The author performed interviews with Kichwa-English interpreters who have worked in Credible Fear Interviews, and complemented this with bibliographic investigation. The study ultimately argues that conflicting understandings grounded in language, class, and culture, along with procedural issues, are likely leading officials to deny the Credible Fear claims, and applications for relief, of Ecuadorian Kichwa speakers at an excessive rate. The study draws on the experience and judgments of interpreters, viewing them as both credible experts and constituents of the process itself. The study concludes with questions for further research and points for practical consideration.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 1 Introduction 1993). And finally, scholars in the also speak Spanish at an advanced Over the last few decades, field of interpreting/translation level, and Kichwa at an intermediate Indigenous Latin Americans have studies have done extensive work level). Three of these interviews migrated to the US in greater and unsettling notions of interpretation, were performed with one interpreter: greater numbers (see, e.g., Fox and cross-cultural communication, and Kinti, so the majority of my data Rivera-Salgado 2004). Many of these language comprehension in legal come from my conversations with migrants, upon arriving at the US settings (Hale 2008; Hertog 2002; her. Throughout the work, I consider border, speak little to no Spanish. Mikkelson 2008). However, research my interviewees’ accounts to be The principal sending regions for remains scant on Indigenous Latin both raw data on legal processes these migrants are Southern Mexico, American migrants and the US themselves and authoritative analysis Central America, and, to a lesser legal system—on the nature of of those processes (plus related extent, the Andes. While these communication in these encounters political and cultural phenomena). I migrants are easily distinguished and the implications for due process attempt to engage both aspects of my in their home countries, the United (one exception being León 2014). collaborators’ contributions in order to States immigration system has In this paper, I seek to examine illuminate the multi-faceted, historical often failed to accommodate their the interactions of a particular and transnational interactions that linguistic and cultural distinctness. population with a particular aspect they described for me. Ultimately, They have been frequently of the US legal system: namely, those the lack of certain quantitative data4, incarcerated, interviewed, processed of Ecuadorian Kichwa-speaking the small number of interviewees, and deported in a language they migrants3 with the Credible Fear and the inability to perform direct do not command (e.g,, Camayd- Interview (and, by extension, the observation substantially limit this Freixas 2008, 2009). They have, full Merits Hearing). In doing so, I study, but it is my hope that it will in criminal trials, been deemed seek not only to expose a problem still prove valuable, as the germ of mentally deficient, emotionless, but to explain its nature in detail, something more. and monstrous due to lack of in order to strengthen efforts interpretation.1 And while recent at reform. I ultimately conclude II. Background: events, including the “border crisis” that conflicting understandings Ecuadorian Kichwa of 2014, have brought increased grounded in language, class, and Speakers; the Credible attention to these migrants,2 they culture, along with procedural Fear Interview remain a largely invisible and issues, are likely leading officials to disadvantaged population within the deny the Credible Fear claims, and Ecuadorian Kichwa US legal system. applications for relief, of Ecuadorian For starters, it is generally agreed Although scholars have worked Kichwa speakers at an excessive rate. upon that there are approximately to address closely related issues, While the claim is indeed modest, two million speakers of Ecuadorian there is a dearth of research on it accounts fairly for the study’s Kichwa (e.g., Adelaar and Muysken this particular topic. For example, limitations, and the discussion that legal scholars have worked to supports it applies to a broad array of establish the right to interpretation immigrant populations. in one’s best language, even for undocumented migrants who speak I. Methodology rare languages (Ackermann 2010; To begin, my principle method of Davis et al. 2004; León 2014). And discovery for this study was the anthropologists and linguists have qualitative interview. I performed 5 analyzed the interface of Indigenous one hour-long interviews with three defendants and Neo-colonial Kichwa-English legal interpreters: legal systems—particularly in the Kinti, Charlie Uruchima, and Australian and Alaskan contexts Amy. I performed the interviews Two Kichwa women outside their home. (Cooke 2002; Eades 2008; Morrow primarily in English (although I

1. See the cases of Nicolas Dutan Guaman and María Guaman Guaman, which are discussed in greater detail in a forthcoming MA thesis by Charlie Uruchima (New York University) 2. See, for example, “Immigrants Who Speak Indigenous Languages Encounter Isolation” (New York Times 2014), or “Language Barriers Pose Challenges For Mayan Migrant Children” (NPR 2014). 3. A note on terminology: I will switch between the terms ‘migrant’ and ‘applicant’ in this work, depending on what I want to emphasize. 4. Namely, the precise success rate of Ecuadorian Kichwa-speakers in the Credible Fear Interview or Merits Hearing. The available quantitative evidence only allows us to see that Ecuadorians in general are relatively unsuccessful at getting Asylum in particular (only one part of the overall process), which is suggestive but not conclusive (see: EOIR Asylum Statistics Chart).

2 | journal of undergraduate research and Kichwa’s status Immigration and Nationality Act, the as an official language Credible Fear process took on new of Ecuador, but, all in importance, as the new legislation all, Kichwa culture and created the process of Expedited language face a complex, Removal. Today, after expansions uncertain future, full of in 2002 and 2004, the Expedited mixing, adaptation, and, Removal process looks like this: if potentially, great loss. a migrant arrives without a valid As for the migration document of entry, or with a falsified of Ecuadorians to the document, and is picked up by US United States, it is more Customs and Border Protection substantial than many (CBP) either at a designated port of might think. According entry, at-sea, or within 100 miles of to 2010 Census data, a US land border (without proof of at there are around 665,000 least 14 days’ continuous presence), Ecuadorians in the US, then CBP may enter that migrant making Ecuador the into Expedited Removal (Howard, 9th largest source of Accessed 2015). What this means Map of Ecuador—the provinces with the largest “Hispanic” migrants in is that the migrant will be swiftly Kichwa-speaking populations circled in red. the US (Motel and Patten deported, without any hearing before Wikimedia Commons 2015 2012).6 As Jason Pribilsky, an Immigration Judge, unless he/she7 2004, 620). These speakers are an ethnographer of Ecuadorian is able to claim an exception. The concentrated in the Andean migration, reports, approximately most common of these exceptions highlands, with greatest prevalence 70% of these migrants come from is claiming fear of returning to in the provinces of Imbabura, the Azuayo-Cañari region (Pribilsky one’s country of nationality. When Chimborazo, and the Azuayo- 2007, 8), a largely rural region with a migrant makes this claim, CBP Cañari region. Their language is a substantial Kichwa-speaking refers her to a U.S Citizenship the Ecuadorian variant of the larger population. As for these migrants’ and Immigration Services Asylum language Quechua, which is spoken target location in the US, the Pew Office for a Credible Fear Interview. throughout the Andean region.5 Center reports that 66% reside in Meanwhile Immigrations and This language owes its expansion the Northeast region, with 40% Custom Enforcement detains her to the Incan Empire, which used it residing in the New York Metro Area (Campos and Friedland 2014). as the language of administration. (Brown and Patten 2013). There are Ultimately, the result of the Credible Like all Indigenous communities no concrete statistics on the number Fear Interview will determine in the Americas, Kichwa speakers of Kichwa-speaking Ecuadorian whether a migrant gets to have a full have suffered greatly under colonial migrants in the US; however, one hearing before an Immigration Judge. and neocolonial regimes, and they source (an apparently Evangelical I provide, for reference, Graphic continue to face discrimination/ Protestant organization), estimates 1 (next page), which lays out the racism from the dominant mestizo the New York area Kichwa-speaking application for relief process that population. Today, Kichwa survives population at 10,000 (All Peoples these migrants face. in rural areas and the commercial Initiative 2010). The Credible Fear Interview tourist center of Otavalo. Many itself is typically a 45 minute-1 Kichwa speakers also speak Spanish, Credible Fear Interview hour long interview, conducted by and all speakers use a certain The Credible Fear Interview process an Asylum Officer. In it, the officer amount of Spanish loanwords. was created in 1991, by the former follows a somewhat standard script Currently, Kichwa is endangered Immigration and Naturalization of questions. He asks first about in most communities of use. This Service, to address an influx of basic background information, rather bleak picture is offset by the Haitians fleeing that year’s coup including whether the migrant has Indigenous political movements that d’etat (USCIS 2012a, 9). Then, in family members in the US. Then, rocked Ecuador throughout the 1990s, 1996, with the amendment of the he asks whether the migrant has a

5 It may be more accurate to describe Quechua as a language family, since the differences between ‘dialects’ can be as great as the differences between the Romance languages. Given that interpretation, Ecuadorian Kichwa would be a language unto itself within the larger family. 6 Peru and Venezuela, nearby countries twice the size of Ecuador, both account for fewer US migrants. 7 From here on out, I will switch gender pronouns freely.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 3 applicant’s case, but instead seek only to establish whether the applicant has a “significant possibility” of establishing eligibility (for Asylum or Withholding) in a full hearing before a Judge (USCIS 2012a). In February 2014, however, the Asylum Division of the USCIS released revisions to their instructional materials for Asylum Officers that raised the Standard of Proof used in Credible Fear Interviews (memo, Lafferty 2014). USCIS workload summaries after February 2014 suggest that these revisions have already led to markedly decreased success rates. The essential context for these revisions, as Campos and Friedland argue in a 2014 article for Note: Ecuadorians are consistently among the top 5 nationalities for Credible Fear Interviews performed (USCIS Statistics), but, as mentioned, they rarely end up with the Immigration Policy Center, is successful Asylum Claims (Merits Hearing stage) a conservative political backlash against supposed “asylum abuse” Graphic 1: The overall process (Campos and Friedland 2014).10 It is in this politicized context, then, that fear of returning to her country of unwilling or unable to control” Ecuadorian Kichwa speakers enter nationality. If yes, the officer asks (USCIS 2012a, 20). In turn, “torture” the Credible Fear Interview. a number of follow-up questions.8 is the basis on which a person In doing so, the officer seeks to applies for Withholding/Deferral of III. My Interviews: Issues establish evidence (or lack thereof) Removal9, and it consists of: “some of Language, Culture, that the migrant has a Credible Fear action that would result in serious Class, and Procedure of Persecution and/or Torture. These physical or mental harm” that is A. What Kichwa Speakers Are terms, “persecution” and “torture,” “inflicted by or at the instigation of, or Actually Claiming are distinct, legal terms, with a with the consent or acquiescence of, To contextualize the following number of Board of Immigration a government official or other person analysis, I want to begin by Appeals and federal court decisions acting in an official capacity” (USCIS explaining, in concrete terms, the informing their interpretation. In 2012a, 35). These are the operational sorts of persecution/torture that a nutshell, “persecution” is the definitions that provide the basis Kichwa speakers are actually basis on which a person applies for Asylum Officers’ determinations claiming. As a jumping off point: for Asylum/Refugee status, and (and for Immigration Judges’ Shoshanna Malett writes in an it consists of: “serious harm or decisions in full hearings). online article that “the most suffering inflicted on account of race, A final, important note is that common claims from Ecuador are religion, nationality, membership in Credible Fear has traditionally those of Ecuadorians fleeing gang a particular social group, or political been easy to establish, with success violence and trafficking, [while] [t] opinion,” specifically when the rates of over 80% (USCIS Credible here are also numerous claims of perpetrator of such harm is “either the Fear Workload Summaries). This domestic abuse” (Malett, Accessed government or a non-governmental is because Asylum Officers do 2015). Regarding Kichwa speakers entity that the government is not make full judgments of an in particular, my interviews support

8 This questioning is, in theory, “non-adversarial” (USCIS 2012c). But, officers do probe for contradictions in the applicant’s statements, and my interview data suggest that this can turn the interview adversarial, thus making lack of legal counsel (which is the norm, especially for Indigenous migrants) particularly problematic. 9 A harder-to-obtain form of relief, that offers fewer benefits than Asylum, but that is available to some who are otherwise barred. Applicants typically apply for Asylum and Withholding simultaneously. 10 See, for example, the Dec. 2013 U.S. House of Representatives Judiciary Committee hearing titled “Asylum Abuse: Is It Overwhelming Our Borders?”. Or, from Feb. 2014: “Asylum Fraud: Abusing America’s Compassion?”.

4 | journal of undergraduate research the notion that some are making including surprise group-beatings of thing that they will say. And besides claims based on gang violence, and even the use of guns. Her that… their beliefs change and their and trafficking/the drug trade. In explanations, however, are probably parents or relatives, also, are against the most detailed instance, my opaque without a background the change of religion. interviewee Kinti described a man of Ecuadorian politics. To give employed as a janitor in central only the basics: Alianza País is This short exchange sums up Ecuador who was recruited against the dominant political party in the overall point well enough. his will to work as a drug mule by Ecuador; it is the President’s party, For context: it’s been a common higher-ups in his company. He faced and, while it initially drew support practice for decades now for foreign, threats of violence if he attempted from Indigenous movements, it Evangelical missionaries to pursue to quit, so he fled the country. has ultimately proven unfriendly Kichwa-speaking Ecuadorians Additionally, my data support, to Indigenous sovereignty and as potential converts. When strongly, the prevalence of domestic collective rights. Lista 35, or “list these Kichwas do convert, from a violence claims among Kichwa- 35,” is a synonym for the party, syncretic version of Catholicism speaking women. representing the party’s numerical to Evangelical Christianity, they There are also, however, two location on the Ecuadorian ballot. change a number of important other common claims among Pachakutik, on the other hand, is a behaviors. And furthermore, since Kichwa speakers that Malett does leftist, agrarian-Indigenous political it is individuals who convert, rather not recognize: namely, local- party that has had some success than whole communities, tensions level political persecution and in mainstream Ecuadorian politics, are created between the converts religious persecution. Regarding and generally opposes the politics and their own communities. For the first claim, in response to of Correa (the President) and his example, Kinti’s jest about “catholic a question about what types of party. With that background in place, drunkards” refers to the fact that situations Ecuadorians are fleeing, we can look at the claim Kinti is evangelicos give up alcohol—which my interviewee Kinti offered the relaying: namely, that Alianza País, is, of course, very important in following: at the local level, is using violence the syncretic Catholic-Indigenous K: it has appeared that, uh, few cases to intimidate Kichwa-speaking raymis (festivals). Beyond simply not have shown that women, or man, have Ecuadorians who are involved in drinking, these converts will often been kind of threatened by the political Pachakutik and refuse to support not participate at all in community parties. For example that, there were Lista 35. They are doing so without raymis, disapproving of the dancing a few instances I have interpreted explicit directives from Rafael Correa, and various forms of “idolatry.” that, list 35, which is the government but one could argue that they are This non-participation in essential list party, has been threatening to doing so with implicit permission/ community functions creates a the people: if you don’t work for me, acquiescence from the government divide within the ayllu (community) this is what’s gonna happen, or they (see persecution definition above). that sometimes, as Kinti reports, just beat up. It’s not the government The second claim overlooked bubbles over into physical assaults. directly acting, acting on the people, by Malett, as already mentioned, In sum, then, the four major bases but they’re locals, local governments, is that of religious persecution. In of Kichwa speakers’ Credible Fear like, small local governments in the one discussion on the topic, Kinti claims are: drug and gang-related communities, for example, who are transitioned out of a story about trafficking/violence, domestic abuse, working for Correa’s party, for example. discrimination in Ecuadorian cities, local-level political persecution, and They are the ones who are kind of, and into the following: religious persecution.11 um, bullying them, other people who K: It’s, the rest is pretty much, either are working with the Pachakutik, for the community, in the community, B. “Simple” Questions example, and that case has gotten a or religion, because he or she’s with Complicated Answers: little too much for some people… Protestant— Relocation and Injury G: Ohh yeah Relocation. I turn now to two Additionally, Kinti confirmed K: That’s an issue; he or she is interview questions whose elsewhere that these local-level Protestant. And the rest are catholic explication touches on a host of intimidations do sometimes drunkards who are trying to beat them larger issues. Regarding the first reach the level of physical assault, and that kind of thing; that’s the kind question: at a certain point in the

11 An important note here is that Asylum Officers test all of these claims against Department of State Reports on country conditions. To briefly sum up the Reports on Ecuador: they generally deny government complicity in harm to Indigenous people, and they do not mention the local-level political persecution or Evangelical-Catholic conflicts that Kinti describes (US DoS 2013, 2013, 2014). This downplaying and absence of issues is likely to undermine the strength of some otherwise valid claims.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 5 Credible Fear Interview, after having pitachu char-charini [Translation: I don’t bleak. The options largely consist heard some/all of an applicant’s basis ha-have anyone]? Or how do they say it? of informal work as an ambulatory for Fear, the Asylum Officer will K: They will say mana, mana pita salesperson of cheap consumer ask about the possibility of internal riksinichu, llankanichu, manapi, goods like candy and cigarettes, or relocation. For Ecuadorian migrants, mana llankayta charinichu, mana folkloric artesanía, if one has the time the question is typically along the pita llaktapi riksinichu nin, mana and resources to make it. It’s also lines of “can you move somewhere ayllukunata llaktakunapi charinichu; possible for women to find domestic else in Ecuador and be safe?,” or mishukuna makan nin, mishukuna cleaning work (which is low-paid “why can’t you just move to a city in riman, shina nishpa nin [Translation: and unprotected), and for men to Ecuador, like Quito, or Guayaquil?.” no, no I don’t know anyone, I don’t work, find a limited amount of construction This simple question is essential to no one, I don’t have work, I don’t know work. The issue, however, is not only the Asylum Officer’s analysis of the anyone there, they say, I don’t have family scarcity/availability of jobs; it’s also applicant’s case, since, as Officers in those places; mestizos hit, they say, the discrimination and abuse they are informed by their instructional mestizos insult, that’s what they say]. face both within urban workplaces materials, the ability to safely relocate and on the street (“mestizos hit”; internally may be sufficient basis for a We see, then, in Kinti’s rendition, “mestizos insult”). Kichwa speakers negative Credible Fear finding (USCIS that the Kichwa-speaking migrants face extensive exploitation and verbal, 2012a, 23). Furthermore, the February feel alienated from Ecuadorian physical, and sexual abuse at the 2014 revisions (mentioned above) to cities on three grounds: one, lack hands of some patrones in the big those instructional materials urge of family, two, lack of work, and cities, and, beyond that, they may be Officers to give more weight than three, discrimination/abuse. The first subject to abuse by random passersby, before to the possibility of internal ground, lack of family, is given its simply for being present in the city. relocation (Lafferty 2014). This simple particular meaning by the context This is because Ecuadorian urban question, then, currently carries more of rural Ecuador. These Kichwa- society, at its worst, sees these indios weight than ever. speaking migrants are from tiny as filthy, backwards, and, crucially, as My primary collaborator, Kinti, towns in the Andean countryside, belonging only in certain spaces. For quoted a number of the answers where the main support network is all these reasons, Kichwa speakers that Kichwa speakers usually give the ayllu, a community composed do not want to relocate internally, to this question of relocation. We primarily of extended family particularly to the big cities (which discussed the topic a number of members (although, as Pribilsky are seen by Asylum Officers as times, but the following excerpt is argues, migration from Ecuador has providing anonymity and protection). most representative: been rapidly changing this). Many This explanation, however, even G: And when the officer asks, cuz the of these Kichwa-speaking migrants if a Kichwa speaker provides it officer asks, right, like, why can’t you have spent their whole lives in this in detail (which is often not the just move to Quito? What exactly do small-town context, where everyone case), may still prove insufficient. people respond to that? is related to everyone, and many As Kinti recounted during one K: If that’s the case, then their response of them have never traveled to conversation, the Officer will often most often is that we don’t know other areas of Ecuador (particularly turn to questioning how it is that the anybody, uh, for example, the freshest the women). The second ground, person can migrate to an entirely thing I can remember yesterday was lack of work in the cities, refers to different country (the US), but not to a case she said, this woman said you the incompatibility of the rural- a different part of her own country. know, I don’t have anybody in Quito agricultural skillset with the big The answer to this question that or anybody close to the cities, I don’t city labor markets. While many would likely help Kichwa speakers’ have anything, I am indigenous person Indigenous folks who live close cases is that Ecuadorian government therefore I am, I am denied all the work to urban centers travel to sell officials are systematically possibilities and there’s no such jobs vegetables in open markets, they persecuting them, and they therefore or anything. I can’t go anywhere. And can only do so because they have cannot seek safety elsewhere in I don’t want to return where they’re land in a nearby rural area. The the country. That, however, is not gonna kill me… prospects for a Kichwa speaker of the case in Ecuador. Some officials, G: … and it’s just, so it’s just like, mana finding permanent work in a city are then, might see that as reason

6 | journal of undergraduate research enough to deny Credible Fear (or “deeply ingrained into the repertoire have never returned. In his work, relief). However, there is a more of people’s behavior, and [how] Pribilsky discusses this transnational subtle, but very real, answer to the values associated with migration economic system of migration and question of why Ecuadorian Kichwas become part of the community’s remittances that Azuayo-Cañari would relocate to the US rather than values” (Massey et al. 1998, 47). families depend on (Pribilsky Quito. In my interview with Charlie In his works, Jeffrey H. Cohen 2007). For this reason, when a rural Uruchima, I reiterated the question clarifies the term further, arguing, Kichwa speaker in those regions about internal relocation, which led in the context of Oaxaca, that a experiences an act of persecution, to the following exchange: culture of migration exists where: the notion of migration—as a G: Did—what are your thoughts one, “migration is pervasive—it means of escaping, of achieving, of about that question, did you hear that occurs throughout the region and reuniting—is already profoundly question? has a historical presence”; two, “the present in his mind and social C: Yeah, I heard that question; I think decision to migrate is one that surroundings. We even see Charlie she [the Kichwa speaker in a CFI that he people make as part of their everyday go so far as to suggest that reasons interpreted for, on the one occasion that experiences [italics mine]”; and other than migration culture are he has done so] said she didn’t know three, “the decision to migrate is “tangential,” while simultaneously anybody else outside of her town. But accepted by most… as one path emphasizing the legitimate trauma that’s, I mean, also, migration culture is toward economic well-being” (2004, of the Kichwa speaker he interpreted huge… places like Cañar, people today, 5). Finally, as Cohen emphasizes for. Ultimately, we see him conclude that’s where you find a lot of, they have in a later work, the idea of cultures that migration culture and the a lot of like young people coming, still of migration is underpinned by the traumatizing event, together, make migrating today, because their parents belief that migrants are “rational the overall migration decision have migrated already, so, they see social actors,” and—particularly “easier” than it would otherwise be. migration as… like a reunion. relevant for this analysis—“[e] The train of thought that Charlie G: A reunion? ven… refugees who flee cultural, lays out could lead one to question C: Yeah. And I mean I was thinking economic, religious, and social the validity of Ecuadorian Kichwa more like the migration culture, culture problems and persecution in their speakers’ asylum claims (asylum, aspect of it. But I mean there’s also like home communities and nations after all, exists for the persecuted, tangential reasons for it as well. You are typically making calculated not simply for migrants seeking know it’s, it’s like well if something decisions about their futures” economic well-being).12 I would happens, and then… especially as (Cohen and Sirkeci 2011, 13). argue, however, that it shouldn’t traumatizing as like, for example, her My interviewee Charlie do so. As Cohen and Sirkeci argue case, if something like that happens, Uruchima, in the passage in the passage quoted earlier, even then you already know, like, well, above, refers to Cañar as a site of refugees, when they migrate, are everybody else is doing it, so I guess, “migration culture.” We’ve already making “calculated decisions about now I have to do it… discussed that the Azuayo-Cañari their futures.” To grapple adequately G: I have to, I have to migrate, is that region accounts for the majority of with the diasporic and transnational what you mean? Ecuadorian-US migration, but we world of today, we have to be willing C: Yeah, yeah haven’t discussed what that looks to accept the complex considerations G: Ok like in those communities. Having that motivate both migration and C: And that’s what I feel like, [?], it traveled to Cañar myself, I can requests for protection. We need to makes the decision easier you know? vouch from personal experience that look at the claims of, for example, some feel as though the middle has Ecuadorian Kichwa speakers, Charlie, then, who is a graduate been cut out from them. Essentially, through a multi-faceted lens. When student, reiterates the Kichwa the older generation is there, and they experience acts of persecution/ speakers’ explanation of not children are there, but the young torture, these acts are immediately knowing anyone in other areas of adults—those of most productive contextualized within patterns the country, but then proceeds to working age—are gone (hence of migration that are profoundly introduce a new element: “migration Charlie’s observation of young economic in nature. The motives culture.” In the academic literature, migrants following their parents). may comingle. And we have to this term is usually found as As a sign of this, one sometimes consider that, for Ecuadorian Kichwa “culture(s) of migration.” The term observes big US-style houses, built speakers, the closest thing to home, refers to how migration can become by remittances, to which migrants apart from their rural Ecuadorian

12 With the same logic applying equally to Withholding of Removal and Torture.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 7 ayllu, may not be Quito or another the other hand, has usually not communicative competence. Put simply, area of Ecuador, but rather New York seen a medical doctor because of this concept represents the fact that City. It may be that Spring Valley, NY, geographical distance, cultural people learn not only how to say for instance, is the only other place difference, a language barrier, or the things, but also when, where, and where they have blood-relations, and, chance that the doctor is prejudiced with whom to say them, a process therefore, accepting community. against indios. Without a medical labeled acquisition of competence Injury. Turning now to the second doctor’s diagnosis, the Kichwa (Hymes 1971). In the case of the not-so-simple question, I start with speaker may not know exactly what Credible Fear Interview, the Asylum the fact that Asylum Officers—as injuries he suffered (or, if he went Officer behaves incompetently they seek information about the to a traditional healer [yachak], he by requesting details that aren’t potential persecution/torture that may have a diagnosis that will appropriate for the female Kichwa an applicant has experienced—try not translate well in the Interview speaker to give (particularly to an to elicit specific information about context). To make matters worse, often opposite-gendered stranger). the injuries that the applicant without the medical doctor’s visit, he And the Kichwa speaker responds suffered. In doing so, Officers also lacks a record of when exactly by providing only the “superficial” probe for discrete, at-least-vaguely the injuries occurred. Taking all amount of detail that is appropriate. medical injuries to record: “broken of this together, then, the Kichwa As Kinti stated in another interview, wrist,” for example, or “lacerated speaker may seem imprecise about regarding Kichwa speakers talking forehead.” The Officer seeks this both the exact nature of his injuries about physical harm: information for two reasons: one, to and when they occurred, which K: … if the man, or somebody has establish the severity of the harm may, for the Officer, undermine the done it, private parts, [it] just… sounds inflicted, and, two, to establish apparent severity of the case and/or too ridiculous. Even the word doesn’t credibility. Regarding the second the applicant’s credibility. sound even appropriate to even come point, the migrant needs to recall To make all of this a little more up with. in detail the nature and duration of complex, there also exist a number These notions of what is her injuries, and remain consistent of particularities surrounding gender “ridiculous” and “appropriate” in her story. All of this may seem and gender-based violence. In one are grounded in strong cultural necessary and unproblematic to interview, Kinti transitioned from a understandings of what can be the reader, but, on many occasions, discussion of translating the word said, where and to whom. Kichwa- Kichwa speakers offer answers that “torture” into the following: speaking women (particularly are both unsatisfactory to Officers, K: Even if [they are] wounded, without any previous legal advice) and that do not accurately represent sometimes the person does not want are likely to hue to these notions their cases. For example, in the case to tell those private things, that’s like of what’s appropriate during the of a beating, a Kichwa speaker may an intrusion, private matter can be interview—to the detriment of their describe what his assailants did to described in part, another thing, that’s cases. Taken altogether, then, when him, but, when pressed for the exact another thing that they don’t want Asylum officers elicit information injuries he suffered, simply describe to, especially women, for women to about harm experienced by Kichwa again the actions of his assailants. describe all those injuries that they speakers, they tend to impose a Kichwa speakers often also give have received; they don’t really wanna distinct medico-cultural system, and contradictory/vague accounts about tell, they just tell superficial things to violate gendered communication when exactly incidents occurred. and they think if they do describe norms—and, as a result, they Tellingly, Officers also always ask the details of what happened to them, may reach erroneous conclusions whether the applicant saw a doctor, might be, I don’t know, but they don’t about severity of harm, or about an and, if not, then “why not.” And want to so… applicant’s credibility. therein lies the issue. In essence, the Officer’s expectations around Kinti, then, moves from a C. Issues of Interpretation Per Se injuries are rooted in a society (or translation difficulty (“torture”) Terminology. A first lens for looking class within a society) that goes into the issues of privacy and at issues of interpretation per se to and listens to doctors. In other “intrusion.” This demonstrates that in these interviews is that of legal words, the Officer bears/represents communication of harm revolves terminology. For starters, any a particular set of medico-cultural not only around terminology but interpreter who needs to translate norms. The Kichwa speaker, on also around culturally-situated the peculiar register of Legal English

8 | journal of undergraduate research into a non-European language will a fairly unproblematic manifestation Fundamentally, this issue hinges encounter substantial difficulty, of this, in which the Kichwa speaker on the opaque nature of the legal lacking the assistance of common simply understands the Spanish register, which is further exacerbated Latin and Greek roots. And these term more readily than an equivalent in the Kichwa language context. difficulties are, naturally, much Kichwa neologism15. For example, The Ontology of Harm. Building greater when working with a most Kichwa speakers are more on the issues just discussed, a more language like Kichwa, whose familiar with gobierno than the profound translation problem exists speakers come from small-scale properly Kichwa equivalent kamachik. around the concept of “harm”— societies, free of elaborate legal Additionally, another unproblematic an essential component of the bureaucracies. Here, issues of culture, phenomenon is when a Kichwacized persecution and torture definitions class and education all intermingle. Spanish word has become the listed earlier. In the Asylum Officers’ For instance, on the one hand, many norm in a community, and is more instructional materials, we find Kichwa speakers maintain a radically precise than a natively Kichwa that either physical or mental harm distinct legal system, a community equivalent. For example, decidina may be the basis for a persecution justice system that involves public is a Kichwacization of the Spanish claim or a torture claim (USCIS shamings, beatings and cold-water infinitive decidir; a more purely 2012a). The underlying philosophical baths,13 with its own concepts Kichwa equivalent would be arinina notion, then, is that the realms of the and rationale. On the other hand, [literally ‘to say yes’], but, since that physical and mental are distinct, but Kichwa speakers are simultaneously word may mean to decide, to commit, both can be the site of something subject to the Ecuadorian national to agree, or to consent, it may be best called “harm.” Furthermore, in a legal system, a system that is to use the more precise, Spanish- legal sense, this “harm” may or more-or-less similar to the US legal derived term. There arises, however, may not be sufficient to ground system. This means that Kichwa a more problematic situation when a a persecution/torture claim. It is speakers could have the chance to Spanish term may not be understood the Asylum Officer’s job to elicit acquire comparable terminology. by the Kichwa speaker, but, since the information about the type of harm However, Kichwa speakers are likely Kichwa equivalent is equally unclear experienced and its severity.16 My to have had no interactions with that or would take too long (dicussed in collaborator Kinti and I discussed national legal system (or to have greater detail below), the interpreter the issues around communicating had only alienating and antagonistic feels compelled to use the Spanish harm in all three of our interviews. ones). Arguably, this is because term anyways. For example, Kinti By the time we had the following Kichwa Indigeneity, in Ecuador, is provides an explanation for the exchange, I had already understood simultaneously a class-marker. To term única oportunidad, which she the basic idea, and was trying to speak Kichwa predominantly means, sometimes leaves in Spanish: elicit the actual language involved: unequivocally, to have received very K: Única oportunidad. I have, that’s G: Um, so you’re saying one, one hard little State education and to have only opportunity you have, so, what thing is like the idea of harm, like harm very little money14, which is a social am I gonna say? Kunan, kaypika in Kichwa is a general— position from which the official legal tukuyta ninki. Kunanman, chay kipaka K: Harm in Kichwa. Idea… is like system will appear opaque/hostile. mana ima tiyankachu [Now, here you Chukriy These issues of language, culture, say everything. After now, there will not G: Chukriy class, and education all intertwine to be anything]. Maybe that’s it. K: Chukriy is the harm, physical make translating legal terminology harm… now Chukriy in the into Kichwa especially difficult. As we see, the original term psychological, there is no description A particularly interesting element loses precision in the Kichwa for it … of this terminological dilemma, for version, and the Kichwa version G: You can’t say chukriy umapi [harm interpreters, is the issue of when is substantially longer. And since in the head] or something like that? to use Spanish terms (and/or the Kichwa speaker will likely not K: You can say chukriy umapi, so Kichwacized Spanish terms), rather understand the original Spanish umapi will be physical wound on your than attempting a fully Kichwa term, the interpreter ends up stuck head equivalent. There is, on the one hand, between two undesirable options. G: Oh, right.

13 Altogether called La ley indígena, as recogized in the Ecuadorian constitution. 14 With the possible exception of the Otavaleño merchant class. 15 Words typically developed and promoted by (bilingual) Kichwa professors and Indigenous activists that often do not take hold in rural Kichwa communities. 16 On a related note, in the earlier mentioned 2014 memo, the Asylum Division chief described new specifications as to what mental pain or suffering may constitute torture. Given the memo’s political context, we know that this means new limitations on what claims can constitute torture—thus encouraging officers to reject more claims and/or restrict their questioning to physical harm.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 9 K: So, it wouldn’t be, it might be torture, but the distinction cannot (Silverstein 1979; Wooland and shunkupi [in the heart] (laughs) be effectively translated. Bambi 1994). By “time,” I refer to G: Shunkupi the amount of time an interpreter K: Shunkupi, maybe that might be In the first case, while both types takes to communicate a given the only word might suit for that of harm are absolutely relevant to chunk of language. John Haviland, because chukriy is emotional, mental, the claim, the simple term chukriy an anthropologist and Tzotzil everything, hm-mm, it’s all included may elicit only part of a person’s interpreter, is quoted in an LA Times in there, it’s a bundle … and the only story, and, if the Officer does not article as saying: word that I can use for emotional or ask more follow-up questions, that “’[Court officials] can get very psychological is ‘have you become part may be lost. In the second case, impatient­—they can’t see why a simple crazy because of it?’ if the Officer does try specifically to question like ‘Do you waive your right G: Uh-huh elicit information about non-physical to a jury?’ takes three paragraphs to K: … ‘did you get like crazy,’ ‘you are harm, and does so using phrases translate… [i]n the case of someone lost your mind or something?’ like psychological or emotional pain/ from an Indian village, there is nothing G: What’s-what’s-- harm/torture, the interpreter has a equivalent to a trial or a jury or a legal K: Uma-uma-uma illak tukurkanki? difficult time translating the phrases. right… I usually have to tell a little [Did you become cra-cra-crazy? Literally: Kinti recounts that sometimes she narrative about what the issues are.’” without a head] (laughs) has had to ask the person if she went (Kim 2009) G: Uma illak tukurkanki, uh-huh crazy, as the best way to get across K: Shunku illak. Uh, chinkarishka the notion of psychological harm. His quote sums up well the issue tukurkanki. [Without a heart. Uh, did This, as she explained in another at hand. Court officials become you become lost?] interview, has its own consequences, “impatient,” reflecting a judgment G: That, ok, sure. since the person will often get grounded in a belief about language, K: So, uh, those kinds of things might defensive and reply in the negative. when the interpreter seems to take reflect them to think differently from All of this has serious implications, too long to translate a given phrase. the physical harm. since this 45 minute-1 hour long The underlying belief in question, G: Hm-mm. That, so that might sort of interview is generally an applicant’s then, must be that languages in work, but… única oportunidad to get their story general are more-or-less similar— K: Sort of not quite exactly. across, and if miscommunications particularly in that a relatively short occur around the nature and phrase in one language should We see, then, in Kinti’s severity of harm inflicted, it may translate into a comparably short explanation, that chukriy’s principal sink an entire claim. In fact, a phrase in another. This belief clashes meaning is physical harm; however, central point that Kinti re-iterated to with the reality of English(Spanish)- the term’s full meaning includes me, throughout our talks, was that Kichwa interpretation, leading to psychological/mental/emotional many Kichwa-speaking applicants, frustration, loss of meaning, and, harm as well. The particular especially women, have experienced perhaps, denial of due process. difficulties arise when one needs to psychological torture, but that lack To make matters more distinguish types of harm. Altogether, of awareness about what is relevant complicated, this belief (like any I theorize from my interviews that to their claims, lack of vocabulary belief) does not operate on its the concept of harm leads to a and education around issues of own. Instead, it is intensified by two-fold problem in Credible Fear mental illness, and, sometimes, lack two external factors. First, as my Interviews with Kichwa speakers: of specific, sensitive, or appropriate interviewee Amy pointed out to questioning on the part of the Officer, me: in legal proceedings, time is 1. The Officer asks about prevent them from adequately money. Asylum Officers, for example, general“harm” experienced, explaining their experience. are pressured to keep Credible implicitly seeking either physical Language Ideology and Time. Fear Interviews to one hour or or psychological harm, but the Operating as context for the previous less, in part because of demands translation into Kichwa leads to two points are the interrelated on productivity and keeping labor responses exclusively about issues of language ideology and costs down. This is particularly the physical harm, or time. I define “language ideology” case when an interpreter is present, 2. The Officer asks specifically here, simply, as users’ beliefs (often since interpreters receive a high about psychological harm/ wrong) about the nature of language hourly wage and are paid by the

10 | journal of undergraduate research minute.17 And second, the Asylum does not contain specific content language, culture, and class, along Officers’ instructional materials about working with Indigenous with various procedural issues, specifically indicate that one sign languages. Following Marisol León, I are likely leading officials to deny of “misinterpretation” is that “[t]he believe that more training programs Kichwa speakers’ Credible Fear interpreter uses many more words for Indigenous languages are claims, and applications for relief, to interpret the question than the needed (León 2014). While creating at an excessive rate18. In doing so, question appears to have required” programs for each distinct language I have had to face the complexity (USCIS 2012e, 17). Conversely, may not be realistic, interpreters of analyzing a charged legal the lesson says nothing about for all Indigenous languages are proceeding informed by various interpreters needing additional bound to face similar problems, so histories and larger contexts. It is, time/words depending on the generalized trainings should be for example, imprudent to discuss language. These two external factors, feasible. Second, there is the issue of a Kichwa speaker’s utterances in a then, exacerbate the effects of a recognizing dialectal variation. All Credible Fear Interview without an misguided belief about the nature three of my interviewees reported understanding of what it means to of interpretation and linguistic either interpreting, or being asked be a monolingual Kichwa speaker in diversity. One interviewee even to interpret, dialects of the Quechua the Ecuadorian context. By the same reported a story in which s/he was language other than Ecuadorian token, it is impossible to understand interpreting telephonically, and, Kichwa. As stated before, the an Asylum Officer’s positive or because of perceptions around difference between these “dialects” negative Credible Fear determination length of interpretation, was cut off can be as great as those between without understanding the current without notice by an Immigration the different Romance “languages.” US political climate regarding Judge, and later reprimanded by his/ Inter-dialectal interpretation may immigrants. I have done my best her employer. As my collaborator be acceptable in a cooperative to provide the necessary context to Amy stated, regarding Kichwa medical setting, for example, but make intelligible these interactions interpreting in general: it should never be used in high- between Kichwa speakers and the A: The idea can be interpreted, I stakes, typically adversarial legal US immigration system. There just think that you have to have a settings (Mikkelson 2008). And remains, however, substantial room much wider latitude as to what third, there is the issue of breaks. for research on both my particular the interpreter can do in order Put simply, my interview data topic and related topics. For example, to make [the languages] mesh. suggest that Indigenous language sociolinguistic studies of Credible Not even mesh, that they’re interpreters, probably due to their Fear Interviews that are based on understood. That the client scarcity, are sometimes asked to direct observation are necessary understands what—that both work for multiple hours without for understanding the specific parties understand what’s going on. a break. Interpretation scholars mechanisms through which claims and the National Association of are (or are not) unjustly denied. For this section’s purposes, it is Judiciary Interpreters and Translators And furthermore, such studies sufficient to note that, for Kichwa, (NAJIT) agree that interpreters need are necessary for determining the the “wider latitude” Amy refers regular, frequent breaks in order effects of the Asylum Division’s to must include extra time, and to continue interpreting effectively 2014 changes in protocol. Direct a tolerance for seemingly lengthy (e.g. NAJIT 2007). While these observation-based analysis of interpretations. assorted working conditions do not Asylum Merits Hearings would be Other Working Conditions. Finally, point to issues as profound as the equally valuable, and, in all cases, a few assorted issues around previous themes discussed, they are such research is especially crucial for working conditions remain to be absolutely capable of undermining cases where Indigenous language addressed. First, there is the issue a proceeding’s fairness. They, interpretation is used (i.e. where the of training. Sometimes, interpreters therefore, merit consideration, and chances for miscarriage of justice of Indigenous languages have no present easy targets for reform. are higher). Ultimately, my hope training at all; for example, they would be that such research would are, occasionally, recruited at local IV. Conclusion serve the Indigenous applicants restaurants and hired on a one- In conclusion, via all of the above, themselves, not in an isolated sense, time-only basis. Other times, as I have sought to support the but as part of a larger effort to create with Amy and Kinti, their training claim that intermeshed issues of a more humane immigration system:

17 In immigration proceedings, payment for interpreters is likely coming from the Lionbridge corporation, which received a $100,000,000 DOJ contract in 2009 to provide interpreting services for the EOIR. 18 Again, I base this claim on my qualitative data and the available quantitative evidence. Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 11 one that recognizes the transnational P. Calderón, Michael and Rekha • Use of interpreter pre-CFI so and diasporic nature of the world Sharma-Crawford, Virginia Raymond, applicant can receive legal counsel today. One that, for example, allows Max Kautsch, Alexandra Free, Kichwa speakers who have suffered Marcela Renna, and Laura Herlihy. • Accommodation for narrative harm in their communities to decide preferences (essentially: allowing to migrate to the US, where they can Appendix A applicant to tell her story freely, reunite with family—rather than Practical Recommendations rather than structuring through rigid sending them back to those who • Extra latitude and time to interpret Q & A) (see Conley and Barr 1990; hurt them, or insisting that they for Indigenous language interpreters Cade 2011) should relocate to unfriendly cities in as a matter of common practice their “home” country. • Release on own recognizance as • Regular breaks for all interpreters default for Indigenous language Acknowledgments speakers so they may access My thanks go out to the University • More thorough education on resources through community19 of Kansas Center for Undergraduate country conditions for asylum Research for providing me with an officers, including relevant languages • Development of specialized training Undergraduate Research Award to and migrant networks for Indigenous language interpreters carry out this project, to my advisors: Peter Haney and Bartholomew • Critical consideration of • Conferences for Indigenous Dean, to the interpreters who shared Department of State’s Country language interpreters, and, thereby, their experiences and insights with Report which downplays Ecuadorian creation of network among me: Kinti, Charlie Uruchima, Amy, State complicity in oppression interpreters (a suggestion I owe to and Maricela, and, for other types my interviewee, Amy) of invaluable support, to Jaime

19 A suggestion I owe to Virginia Raymond, JD, who requested such in a Dec. 10, 2014 letter to Jeh Johnson and Eric Holder.

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Miller, Maxwell Alan, Lynn W. Davis, Adam Prestidge, and William G. Eggington. 2011. “Finding Justice in Translation: American Jurisprudence Affecting Due Process for People with Limited English Proficiency Together with Practical Suggestions.” Harvard Latino Law Review 14: 117. Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 13 Q&A How did you become involved in doing research? From 2010-2011, I spent a high school exchange year in Lower Saxony just outside of Bremen and noticed speakers of High German regularly using Low German colloquialisms. My personal interest in this topic grew in the spring of 2014 when I visited my former host family and saw a poster advertising a concert for De Fofftig Penns, a band that performs electronic hip-hop music in Low German. I expressed an interest in researching the growing interest in the Low German language in this region to my German advisor, Dr. Lorie Vanchena, and my honors thesis was born.

Sara Sofia Anderson How is the research process different from what you expected? I don’t think I was aware of how many questions I would have to ask myself hometown and be able to answer, how narrow and subsequently in-depth my topic Lindsborg, Kansas would become. You can find all the answers you started searching for, but in the end, these answers raise many more questions. Major German Studies, Global & What is your favorite part of doing research? International Studies As a German Studies major, my favorite part of this research was incorporating sources in both German and English into my project. Since my academic level topic is current and evolving, a large portion of my research involved reading Senior local news from the region, which I enjoyed. This version of my paper is actually a translation of my thesis, which was written in German. research mentor Lorie Vanchena Associate Professor of Germanic Languages & Literatures

The German version of this article is available at ugresearch.ku.edu/Anderson “Wi Snackt Wedder Platt!” Bringing Low German back to Bremen and Lower Saxony through the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages Sara Sofia Anderson

Abstract Since 1992, when the Council of Europe created the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, 25 member states, including Germany, have ratified the Charter. The Charter protects several minority languages in Germany, but only one regional language—Low German—is included. My thesis argues that the Charter has had a positive impact on preserving Low German by supporting developments in education, politics, and daily life. I demonstrate this using the federal states of Bremen and Lower Saxony as my two case studies. While these are not the only federal states in the Low German region, the year I spent studying near Bremen in Lower Saxony (2010-2011) woke my interest in the Low German language and its importance in the culture of these particular states. Their schools, for example, have implemented creative solutions to fulfill the stipulations of the Charter. As I show, Bremen and Lower Saxony can serve as models for other regions of Europe that want to preserve their native regional and minority languages, an important part of their cultural identity.

14 | journal of undergraduate research I. Introduction the socioeconomic class of those Europe’s 60 regional and minority people who speak them.5 languages attest to the continent’s Low German was the official linguistic diversity. This linguistic language of the Hanseatic League, landscape affects Europeans far the former commercial power of and wide: approximately 55 million the North, from the 14th to the 17th speakers of these languages live centuries. The language became a in every country on the continent lingua franca with which the people except Iceland.1 could make themselves understood.6 One of these languages, Low As trade in Europe became more German, which Germanic language concentrated in the South in the scholar Frerk Möller describes 17th century, economic power was as “one of the small languages of not the only aspect of the Hanseatic Europe,”2 is spoken from the North League that disappeared: the power Sea to the Baltic, between the Weser of Low German declined, too. High and Elbe Rivers, in the cities and German became the administrative on the plains of Northern Germany. language of the “German”-speaking Although data about the exact territories, and by the end of the number of Low German speakers is 17th century, Low German was contested in the linguistic literature, hardly more than a conversational an estimated 2.5 million Germans language generally concentrated in use Low German today.3 rural areas.7 Since this shift, Low In Germany, Low German German has existed as a regional is colloquially known as Platt or language, relative to High German. Figure 1: The federal German Plattdeutsch and formally referred In 1992, the Council of Europe state of Lower Saxony is denoted to as Niederdeutsch. Low German is passed the Charter for Regional or in red, while the federal state of often understood as the “language Minority Languages, which aims Bremen is the beige area located of the low lands,” but the name has to preserve these 60 European within Lower Saxony.9 a different etymological background: languages. The Charter perceives “low”, which was once known as these languages as cultural assets plat, referred to the language being and protects them.8 The Council of The Institut für niederdeutsche clear and understandable to the Europe recognizes Low German Sprache (Institute for Low German average person.4 However, the term as a regional language in eight of Language) describes the protection of Low German has to do with the Germany’s 16 federal states; each Low German as the “task of society geographic region from which it state selects different measures in as a whole.” 10 Bremen and Lower comes, which is flat and near the sea. the Charter to protect the language. Saxony have adopted exactly this The official language of Germany, This paper presents a case study of approach. The Charter for Regional High German, historically comes two of these federal states: Bremen or Minority Languages has had a from the geographically “higher” and Lower Saxony, where Low positive impact on the preservation of South. The names of these two German has substantial cultural Low German in Bremen and Lower languages are not associated with significance. Saxony, as evidenced by initiatives in

1. “Minority Languages: Facts & Figures,” Mercator: European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning, http://www.mercator- research.eu/minority-languages/facts-figures. 2. Frerk Möller, Plattdeutsch im 21. Jahrhundert (Leer: Verlag Schuster, 2008), 11. 3. Ibid., 11. 4. Ibid., 132. 5. Jan Wirrer, “Niederdeutsch”, 133. 6. Carl Undéhn, “Schnack mol wedder platt!” Språktidningen (februari 2013), http://spraktidningen.se/artiklar/2013/02/schnack-mol-wedder- platt. 7. Jan Wirrer, “Niederdeutsch”, 132. 8. François Grin, Dónall Ó Riagáin und Regina Jensdóttir, Language Policy Evaluation and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 61. 9. Wikipedia contributors, “Niedersachsen,” Wikipedia: Die freie Enzyklopädie, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Locator_map_Lower-Saxony_ in_Germany.svg 10. “Sprachenschutz in Deutschland: Konferenz in Berlin,” Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache, 24 November 2014, http://www.ins-bremen.de/ fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/presse/ins241114.pdf.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 15 politics, education, and daily life in sovereign rights for a country—a and minority languages in Europe: these two states, which could serve as necessary step to ensure that they were threatened, oppressed models for other regions of Europe: mutual democratic decisions can be or beginning to disappear. In they have implemented measures reached with other EU countries— 1984, a debate began in Strasbourg that are successfully preserving their membership in the Council of that continued through the 1980s native language. Europe is not governed by a legal and into the post-Cold War era, contract. Rather, the Council of culminating in 1992 with the II. The politics of Europe supports the assembly passage of the Charter for Regional or Low German of member states in order to Minority Languages. The Council of Europe, the determine minimum standards in Some scholars remain critical European Union, and how they various domains and to assure the of the Charter. For example, M. support language rights fulfillment of these standards. This Nic Craith, professor of European The Council of Europe was founded paper focuses on one aspect of the Culture and Heritage at Heriot Watt in 1949, soon after the Second World area of “human rights”—the right to University in Scotland, criticizes War. The mission of the member one’s own language. how the Charter defines “Europe” states was—and remains—to and asks whether immigrants are support human rights, democracy, The Charter for Regional or not Europeans. She asserts that the and constitutionality in Europe. Minority Languages Charter ignores the linguistic and Although this mission was naturally The title of the Charter distinguishes cultural multiplicity and the diversity also included in the founding between regional and minority that exists in Europe.15 According to principles of the European Union languages, but what is the Craith, the Charter also perpetuates (EU), the Council of Europe remains difference? Languages of migrant the idea that languages are of an independent organization, located groups and dialects of the official greater importance than dialects.16 in Strasbourg, France. Today, there languages of countries do not count Grin, Riagáin and Jonsdóttir also are 47 member states in the Council as regional or minority languages. mention that the Charter does of Europe and 23 in the EU.11 For In other words, the population of a not encompass sign languages.17 countries that do not want to become certain region must recognize the Although these criticisms are members of the EU, the Council languages as actual languages and relevant, I can refute them. Indeed, of Europe offers an opportunity not as dialects, and the languages the Charter was written with the for European as well as global must be native to that region.13 As interests of European countries in collaboration outside of the EU. For Jan Wirrer, Low German scholar at mind, but other countries can sign countries that would like to become the University of Bielefeld, explains, the Charter: it does not concretely members of the EU, membership in minority languages include those define the sociopolitical space of the Council is often a strategic first that belong to an ethnic or religious Europe. Furthermore, the founders step toward achieving this goal, as minority. Low German is therefore of the Charter wanted the definition it offers international recognition of not a minority language, but a of “language” to remain open to their commitment to human rights, regional language.14 Six minority interpretation, so that a dialect group democracy, and constitutionality.12 languages are recognized in could identify as a language group, The current member states of the EU Germany, but Low German is the for example. Most important is that a were all members of the Council of only recognized regional language. unified European body—the Council Europe first. In the 1980s, members of of Europe—acknowledges the While EU membership means the Council of Europe began to diverse multilingualism of Europe as the subsequent loss of some recognize a problem with regional an important aspect of its heritage.

11. Further information about the Council of Europe and the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages can be found on the Council of Europe website: http://www.coe.int. 12. M. Nic Craith, “Facilitating or Generating Linguistic Diversity: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages,” in Minority Languages in Europe, ed. Gabrielle Hogun-Brun and Stefan Wolff (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 56. 13. Peter Kraus explains that programs for the instruction of migrant languages do not exist to preserve linguistic diversity; instead, they exist to ensure that the speakers of these migrant languages do not become “semi-lingual,” which can result in social discrimination. According to Kraus, the language programs that exist for first-generation German residents of Turkish heritage are good examples of programs for migrant languages. Kraus, Peter A., A union of diversity: language, identity and polity-building in Europe, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 99-100 and 106-107. 14. Jan Wirrer, “Zum Status des Niederdeutschen,” Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik 26 no. 3 (1998): 334. 15. M. Nic Craith, 59. 16. M. Nic Craith, 61. 17. François Grin, Dónall Ó Riagáin and Regina Jensdóttir, 64.

16 | journal of undergraduate research The Charter also recognizes that Cultural Activities and Facilities, and regional and minority languages are Economic and Social Life. In addition How well do you speak Low German? a threatened part of Europe’s cultural to these sections, Lower Saxony also Bremen and northern Lower Saxony, 1984 heritage. Language is a living aspect ratified some stipulations from the of culture, and one goal of this article Transfrontier Exchanges. Charter is to enable speakers of these languages to use their language in Low German: Northern 50% 50% private and public life. Since many Germany’s regional language international charters and contracts In a survey by the Gesellschaft für focus on specific groups of people, angewandte Sozialpsychologie (Society this Charter is quite unusual in that for Applied Sociology or GETAS) it makes the languages themselves from 1984, more than a third of “Well” or “very well” the focal point of the document.18 As respondents—35 percent—answered Lower capability level of today, 33 of the 47 member states that they could speak Low German of the Council of Europe have signed very well or well.22 This survey Figure 2. Source: Frerk Möller, Plattdeutsch im 21. the Charter; 25 of these have chosen included the regions of Schleswig- Jahrhundert (Leer: Verlag Schuster, 2008), 16. and ratified specific stipulations from Holstein, Hamburg, Northern which member states can choose.19 Lower Saxony/Bremen, Southern How well do you speak Low German? Germany signed the Charter in 1992 Lower Saxony, and parts of North Bremen, 2007 but ratified it in 1998. M. Nic Craith Rhine-Westphalia: in other words, describes the ratification process linguistic regions in the former as “intensive,” because it requires Federal Republic of Germany (FRG 23% participating countries to choose or West Germany). Fifty percent which specific stipulations to ratify.20 of the respondents from Bremen The countries choose not only the and Northern Lower Saxony—the 77% stipulations they will accept, but since largest percentage of self-identified most countries have more than one Low German speakers in the former regional and/or minority language, FRG—answered that they could “Well” or “very well” they must also choose the languages speak Low German very well or to which each stipulation will well.23 See Figure 2. The importance Lower capability level apply. Grin, Riagáin and Jensdóttir of Low German in Bremen and describe the process with the French Lower Saxony could not be denied. Figure 3. Source: Frerk Möller, Plattdeutsch im 21. Jahrhundert (Leer: Verlag Schuster, 2008), 32. term table d’hôte, which implies that Between 1984 and 2007, however, the countries choose stipulations the number of Low German 21 for every “course.” Sixty eight speakers in Germany declined by How well do you speak Low German? stipulations are offered as options in more than half. In a 2007 survey by Lower Saxony, 2007 the Charter; at least 35 stipulations the Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache must be chosen for each language. (Institut for Low German Language), 14% Bremen and Lower Saxony chose only 14 percent of respondents many of the same stipulations for self-identified as able to speak Low Low German. These stipulations are German very well or well. Although taken from the articles addressing Bremen’s 23 percent was above 86% Education, Media, Administrative average, Lower Saxony represented Authorities and Public Services, the average with 14 percent of “Well” or “very well”

18. Craith, 57-58. Lower capability level 19. A complete list can be accessed on the Council of Europe website: “European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, CETS No. 148: Signatures and Ratifications,” http:// Figure 4. Source: Frerk Möller, Plattdeutsch im 21. conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=148&CM=8&DF=&CL=ENG. Jahrhundert (Leer: Verlag Schuster, 2008), 32. 20. Craith, 57. 21. François Grin, Dónall Ó Riagáin and Regina Jensdóttir, 64. 22. Frerk Möller, Plattdeutsch im 21. Jahrhundert, 14-15. 23. Ibid., 16.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 17 respondents self-identifying in this points to interesting information less Low German than older way. 24 See Figures 3 and 4. Given the about the linguistic landscape of the generations. Throughout Germany, data, it is no surprise that protecting respondents. In 1984, 21 percent of only five percent of the 2007 survey the Low German language has survey participants responded that participants 35 years and younger become a political topic. they spoke a little Low German.26 could speak Low German very well or It must be noted that the In comparison, in 2007 23 percent well; only 26 percent of participants regions in the 2007 survey probably of Germans answered that they in this age group understood the contributed to the different results. could somewhat speak Low German. language very well or well.29 The 1984 survey included Northern Another 25 percent identified as The differences in the results Lower Saxony and Bremen as a being able to say only some words: of this age group and the 50+ age single region. The southern part of in other words, they could not speak group are astonishing: in 2007, 21 Lower Saxony, a separate entity in the language proficiently.27 This percent of participants in the older the 1984 survey, had a substantially last number suddenly becomes group could speak Low German well smaller number of people that self- noteworthy when one considers or very well, while 58 percent could identified as Low German speakers that these participants probably understand the language well or very (26 percent could speak Low would have answered that they well.30 These data distinctly illustrate German very well or well).25 In the could not speak Low German in why Low German is recognized as a 2007 survey, however, Bremen and the first survey. The problem is threatened regional language. Lower Saxony were separate regions, clearly not that Low German is One task of the Charter is to and Lower Saxony encompassed disappearing from the regional enable the population of a given both the northern and southern culture. Rather, the problem is that region to continue using the language parts of the federal state. the number of Germans who can in private and public life with both Furthermore, it must also be competently speak Low German oral and written competencies. noted that the 1984 survey included is sinking, which the Council of Attaining this goal requires state only the western part of the entire Europe recognized when it adopted funding, which in turn requires Low-German-speaking region, the Charter in 1992. commitment from politicians. which extends into the former East These data encompass only the Germany. In contrast, the 2007 speakers of Low German. Naturally, The politics of implementing survey included the Low-German- there are also Germans who the Charter speaking regions of the former East understand Low German, even if The small number of Low German Germany as well, which includes they do not speak it with any degree speakers does not correspond with Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and of proficiency. In the 2007 survey, general public opinion regarding parts of Saxony and Brandenburg. 58 percent of people in Bremen the importance of funding Low German reunification and the and 47 percent in Lower Saxony German language programs. In subsequent addition of new regions self-identified as having a very 2007, 76 percent of the population in to the 2007 survey could also explain good or good understanding of Low Bremen—three out of four people— in part the different results. German.28 However, it is important and 81 percent of the population in The wording of answers was for a living language to remain Lower Saxony responded that they another important variable in the spoken: understanding regional believed Low German language two surveys. The 2007 survey offered languages is useless if the goal is for programs should be better funded. somewhat and only a few words as these languages to survive in today’s Only 17 percent in Bremen and 15 answers to the questions “Do you global society. When the number of percent in Lower Saxony responded speak Low German?”, while a little speakers is distributed according to that they did not think that Low was an option in the 1984 survey. age, it becomes clear that younger German should be better funded. Although this is a small change, it Germans speak and understand Only four and three percent

24. Möller, 32. 25. Ibid., 16. 26. Ibid., 14. 27. Ibid., 32. 28. Ibid., 28. 29. Ibid., 65, 67. 30. Ibid., 65, 67.

18 | journal of undergraduate research respectively did not have an opinion, Educational and Cultural Affairs preservation of their regional and and only two and one percent in Lower Saxony, stated in October minority languages could introduce respectively had no answer or did not 2014 in an interview with Die Welt similar councils charged with know. 31 An overwhelming majority of that the representatives had rarely focusing on how such issues can be the population in these federal states been so united on an issue.35 Low better navigated in their respective believed in fostering and promoting German is even sometimes used political systems. the Low German language. among the representatives in the The native language of most Was the language not already Lower Saxon Landtag: when former Germans is High German, the being funded at the time of the 2007 representative Claus-Peter Poppe official language of the country. survey? In Germany, the Charter left the parliament for the mayor’s Camille C. O’Reilly, social came into effect in 1999. In 2007, the office in October 2014, he gave his anthropologist at Richmond, the Council of Europe wrote its third farewell speech in Low German. American International University progress report on the Charter in The Bundesrat für Niederdeutsch, in London, argues that these Germany. In response to this report, or Federal Council for Low German, Germans take the connection the Council of Europe’s Committee calls for the implementation of the between language and culture as of Ministers recommended measures Charter. Since 2002, the Federal a given. People who identify with that Germany should take to ensure Council represents the interests of another language, e.g. a regional or the continued preservation of its the entire Low-German-speaking minority language, often have to regional and minority languages. population in northern Germany. defend the connection between this Among the recommendations: increase Representatives of Low German language and their culture.39 Just the number of class hours for Low speakers from the eight federal because High German is the official German and create concrete guidelines states where Low German is spoken language of Germany does not mean for Low German instruction in determine the “lines for modern that this is the only language that northern German schools.32 language politics.”36 During the can define the culture. Sükru Senkal, Only after a fourth report from legislative period that ended June a politician with Turkish heritage the Council of Europe in 2011, 2015, the Federal Council’s 18 in Bremen, stated it best: “I know which addressed the critical need members designated education through my own experience how for increased funding for Low politics as the focal point of their important one’s language of origin is German instruction in the schools, work, probably in reaction to the for one’s identity.”40 Because the Low did the discussion about increased negative report from the Council German language is an integral part funding become a priority.33 In of Europe (2011), which addressed of Bremen’s culture, Senkal actively the Lower Saxon Landtag, or state education.37 Christiane Ehlers, chief advocates for the further protection parliament, in Hannover, the capital executive of the Federal Council for and preservation of Low German. of Lower Saxony, discussions still Low German and a research fellow The Council of Europe’s call for take place today among politicians at the Institute for Low German better integration of Low German regarding continued funding for Language, believes the importance in the northern German school Low German.34 Although there are of this work lies in its human rights system in 2011 reinvigorated the naturally differences in opinion, focus.38 Other regions of Germany issue in the Bremen Landtag. In Frauke Heiligenstadt, Minister of and Europe that want to focus on the 2012, the Landtag established the

31. Möller, 54. 32. “Recommendation RecChL(2008)3 of the Committee of Ministers on the application of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages by Germany” (Council of Europe, 1032nd meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies, Strasbourg, 2008). 33. “Empfehlung RecChL(2011)2 des Ministerkomitees über die Anwendung der Europäischen Charta der Regional- oder Minderheitensprachen durch Deutschland” (Europarat, 1114. Sitzung der Stellvertreter der Minister, Straßburg, 2011) 34. Despite the fact that Lower Saxony did not ratify the stipulations relating to education at the elementary and secondary level, Low German is slowly becoming a part of the curriculum in this federal state. For further information on this topic, refer to the section Low German in the education system. 35. “Plattdeutsche Debatte im niedersächsischen Landtag,” Die Welt, 22 Oct 2014, http://www.welt.de/regionales/niedersachsen/ article133552534/Plattdeutsche-Debatte-im-niedersaechsischen-Landtag.html. 36. “Bundesraat för Nedderdüütsch mit frischem Wind,” Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache, 2 Juli 2014. http://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins- bremen/user_upload/presse/ins020714.pdf. 37. Education politics are discussed in the section Low German in the education system. 38. “Bundesraat för Nedderdüütsch mit frischem Wind.” 39. Camille C. O’Reilly, “When a Language is ‘Just Symbolic’: Reconsidering the Significance of Language to the Politics of Identity” in Minority Languages in Europe, ed. Gabrielle Hogun-Brun and Stefan Wolff, 20. 40. Frauke Fischer, “Bremer wollen das Plattdeutsche retten,” Weser Kurier, 23 April 2012, http://www.weser-kurier.de/bremen/vermischtes2_ artikel,-Bremer-wollen-das-Plattdeutsche-retten-_arid,120991.html.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 19 Low German Advisory Board overlooked that Low German…is Grundschule Neuenkirchen has (Beirat Platt), charging it with nevertheless supported in the affected offered Low German as an elective making a more concerted effort to school types, and Lower Saxony does since 1995; the school began the place Low German in the center not need to fear a comparison with initiative after passage of the Charter of society again by concerning other states. Lower Saxony feels but before Germany ratified the itself in particular with the obligated to fulfill this requirement, even document.46 Other schools in Lower implementation of the Charter in without having officially subscribed to Saxony utilize other methods aimed Bremen.41 Politicians and experts the measures.44 at preserving the regional language: from Low German associations and Andrea Cordes, the consultant for institutions are among the members In other words, Lower Saxony regional and minority languages of this advisory board. The group offers an insightful contrast to Bremen. in Lower Saxony, is an elementary aims to establish Low German in the school music teacher. Not only does schools and to make the language Elementary school programs she teach songs in Low German in visible in the regional culture again. For the first time in 2014, many class, but the students learn numbers elementary schools in Bremen in Low German, for example, so that III. Low German in the offered Low German on their lesson they learn practical applications for education system plans, and not solely as an elective. the language.47 Different stipulations in Bremen To anchor this initiative further, In March 2014, the Lower and Lower Saxony supplemental activities such as Low Saxon Ministry for Educational Bremen and Lower Saxony approach German reading competitions are and Cultural Affairs recognized Low German differently in their encouraged. At the Grundschule four elementary schools as “Low respective education systems. Bremen Arsten, for example, the entire school German Schools”; these schools ratified the stipulations of the Charter learns the same sentence in Low actively engage with their students’ that focus on the preservation of Low German every week, which does acquisition of Low German and German in elementary and secondary not just enhance the pupils’ Low can be used as examples for other schools, but Lower Saxony did German lessons, it also helps create schools looking to achieve similar not.42 Schools in Lower Saxony are a community within the school. In results. When a school is awarded therefore not required to make Low Bremen, the Institute for Low German this honor, it receives a certificate German a part of the elementary and Language helps search for qualified and a plaque using the typical secondary curriculum.43 teaching staff and supports the pronunciation and spelling of their However, my research shows that advanced training of these teachers.45 regional variety of Low German. Lower Saxony has nevertheless made The Lower Saxon State Education Such recognition is important for important advancements regarding Authority (Landesschulbehörde) in encouraging continued participation the preservation of Low German in Osnabrück, encourages schools in Low German initiatives, especially its education system. Roland Henke to sign up to be a Starter-School as Lower Saxon schools are not confirms this conclusion in the or a Project-School; schools have required to offer Low German. Such following statement: various options, given that Low recognition and support from the However, it is also possible to live and German is not a required subject. At Ministry of Educational and Cultural implement the spirit of the Charter three schools in the Municipality Affairs can help preserve similar without having formally drawn a of Schwanewede, Low German programs in the future. legal regulation…It is, however, often is offered as an elective. The

41. “Neu in Bremen: Beirat Platt,” Bundesraat för Nedderdüütsch/Bundesrat für Niederdeutsch, Oktober 2012, http://www.bundesraat-nd.de/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=134%3Aneu-in-bremen-beirat-platt&catid=62%3Abremen&Itemid=76&lang=de. 42. Both Bremen and Lower Saxony ratified the stipulation for Low German in preschools. However, since the initiatives in elementary and secondary schools provide a better overview of the influence of the Charter in the school system, I chose to focus mainly on these areas of the school system. 43. Frerk Möller, “Niederdeutsch: das sozio-kulturelle Umfeld,“ in Niederdeutsche Sprache und Literatur der Gegenwart, hrsg. von Dieter Stellmacher (New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 2004), 291. 44. All translations my own unless otherwise noted. Roland Henke, “Niederdeutsch (und Saterfriesisch) in der Schule“ in 10 Jahre Europäische Sprachencharta in Niedersachsen, hrsg. von Jörg Peters und Gabriele Diekmann-Dröge (Oldenburg: Isensee Verlag, 2010), 70. 45. For further information about the Institute, refer to the section Culture and daily life. Frauke Fischer, “Plattdeutsch als Profil,” Weser Kurier, 27 Juli 2014, http://www.weser-kurier.de/bremen/politik2_artikel,-Plattdeutsch-als-Profil-_arid,908136.html. 46. Jutta Kuper, E-mail Message to Author, 27 August 2014. 47. Jochen Brünner, “Wie man Plattdeutsch besser verankert,” Weser Kurier, 22 April 2013, http://www.weser-kurier.de/region/delmenhorst_ artikel,-Wie-man-Plattdeutsch-besser-verankert-_arid,552753.html.

20 | journal of undergraduate research Low German after A look at the future Bremen plays a leading role in elementary school According to the recommendation by the maintenance of this regional At the Lower Saxon Realschule the Council of Europe’s Committee language by working not only Edewecht, pupils can learn Low of Ministers (2014), Low German with schools in the Low-German- German as a foreign language; should eventually have the same speaking region, but also with indeed, Low German fulfills the status in the curriculum as all authors, musicians and media outlets, foreign language elective. The Lower other subjects in Bremen schools.52 so that Low German can remain Saxon Ministry for Educational and Although this is an honorable goal, accessible to people in this region.54 Cultural Affairs has named another such large steps require time. Above Without the Institute’s outreach, the Realschule in Leer a “Low German all, school districts need time to Low German language would not School.”48 Unfortunately, there are hire educated teachers and to secure have become so well established in fewer Low German initiatives in teaching materials. The schools in the five areas of culture and daily life the secondary schools at this time Bremen—and in Lower Saxony—have that I discuss in this section. than in the elementary schools. The already made significant steps toward secondary school programs, however, preserving the Low German language. Literature and theater are projected to grow as elementary Low German in elementary From 1990 to 2000, an average of school programs develop. Roland school classes could inspire young 150 new Low German books were Henke emphasizes: “The goal must students to continue learning published every year in Germany.55 therefore be to win more elementary languages. This is especially There is also an initiative throughout schools for the preservation of important in today’s globalized the Low-German-speaking region regional and minority languages. society, where communicating to make literary translations in Low The fruits of early multilingualism with other regions of the world has German accessible in bookstores and could then be harvested at the become an integral component of libraries. Classics such as Gulliver’s secondary level.”49 many people’s professional and Travels by Jonathan Swift and Animal In Lower Saxony, the universities personal lives. In the spirit of the Farm by George Orwell have already in Göttingen and Oldenburg offer Charter, it would be important for been translated into Low German.56 Low German courses of study within such classes to offer students a solid The importance of such translations their German departments. The foundational knowledge of the will be evident as the initiatives in University of Bremen focuses not language so that they can remain the schools continue to expand. only on its Low German curriculum, lifelong learners of Low German and Through collaborative efforts but also on its students’ professional its accompanying culture. in 1992 between the Lower Saxon competency: they can now complete city of Soltau, the Freudenthal- internships at Bremen schools for IV. Culture and daily life Gesellschaft57 and the University university credit.50 Additionally, The Institute for Low German of Göttingen, the Bibliothek many community colleges and adult Language (Das Institut für Regionalliteratur der Lüneburger Heide education centers throughout the niederdeutsche Sprache) (Regional Literature Library of the Low German linguistic region offer To speak a language is a part of the Lüneburger Heide) was founded in Low German courses that provide human experience: it is through Soltau. It makes approximately 1500 greater access to the language in languages that people experience books and magazines accessible, communities.51 their own cultures.53 The Institute many of which are in Low German.58 for Low German Language in The library at the Institute for Low

48. Susanne Schrammar, “Sechs Schulen ausgezeichnet - Kultusministerin Heiligenstadt verleiht erstmals die Titel ‘Plattdeutsche Schule’ und ‘Saterfriesische Schule,’” Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium, 6 März 2014, http://www.mk.niedersachsen.de/portal/live.php?navigation_ id=1820&article_id=122583&_psmand=8. 49. Roland Henke, “Niederdeutsch (und Saterfriesisch) in der Schule“, 73. 50. Frauke Fischer, “Plattdeutsch als Profil,” Weser Kurier, 27 Juli 2014, http://www.weser-kurier.de/bremen/politik2_artikel,-Plattdeutsch-als- Profil-_arid,908136.html. 51. Frerk Möller, “Niederdeutsch: das sozio-kulturelle Umfeld,“ 297. 52. “Recommendation CM/RecChL(2014)5 of the Committee of Ministers on the application of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages by Germany,” Council of Europe, 1200th meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies, Strasbourg, 2014. 53. Camille C. O’Reilly, 17. 54. “Was macht das Institut?“ Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache, http://www.ins-bremen.de/de/das-ins/aufgaben.html. 55. Frerk Möller, “Niederdeutsch: das sozio-kulturelle Umfeld,” 318. 56. Ibid., 322. 57. Further information about the Freudenthal-Gesellschaft: http://www.freudenthal-gesellschaft.de. 58. Frerk Möller, “Niederdeutsch: das sozio-kulturelle Umfeld,” 308.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 21 German Language in Bremen is also Magazine”), Meissner emphasized speaking regions agreed that Low open to the public. that it is a natural reaction in today’s German is heimatlich to them.66 Jutta According to Frerk Möller, “theater globalized society to demonstrate a Kuper, a Low German teacher in in Low German is an integral factor greater interest in local or regional the Municipality of Schwanewede of this linguistic landscape.”59 issues.62 Eunike Piwoni, a sociologist in Lower Saxony, confirmed: “Low There are three professional Low at the University of Bamberg, points German is always connected German theater associations in to Germany’s 20th century history— with cultural topics…very heimat- Germany, one of which is for Bremen most notably the Holocaust—as an related.”67 Marketing the “heimat- and Lower Saxony (the other two influential factor shaping German related” regional or minority are in Schleswig-Holstein and national pride. Due to the tragic language could be an effective Mecklenburg-Vorpommern). But events of the Second World War, strategy in other parts of Europe. professional actors are not the only many Germans must confront Ireland offers a good example of this people who use Low German on how they will overcome the past, approach: Campbell, Bennett and stage: throughout northern Germany, according to Piwoni, and this process Stephens demonstrate in their study there are an estimated 4,240 theater can lead to feelings of shame.63 In of the Irish language that regional groups that perform pieces in Low this case, regional and minority traits can be effectively used to gain German.60 One example comes from languages could play an important a wide clientele.68 the East Frisian region of Lower role in Germany, since they are British linguist Gertrud Saxony: in 1992, Das niederdeutsche bound to specific regions and groups Reershemius supports this Theater für Kinder und Jugendliche of people instead of to the country observation. In the 1980s, tourism (Low German Theater for Children and its problematic past. became an important part of the and Youth) was founded by various Meissner also believes that the economy of Eastern Friesland, a East Frisian organizations in the increased interest in Low German region in Lower Saxony that has region. This theater group creates could be seen as a reaction to historically retained its own dialect an interest for Low German among the infiltration of the English of Low German. At that time, the the younger generation, because the language in German and European growing tourism industry needed theater pieces themselves are directed media sources, particularly in an identity to market the region as toward a young audience and can advertisements.64 In 2011, Der a tourist destination and chose to easily be performed by younger Spiegel reported that most German form that identity by capitalizing actors.61 Theater programs for consumers do not understand what upon the East Frisian dialect. This children and youth are vital for the German businesses try to convey language, which had previously been preservation of a regional language. in their English advertisements.65 stigmatized, suddenly became an The Low German language could important part of the regional culture. Tourism and marketing: Low counterbalance this problem: the Today, this language helps the region German as economic commodity language offers many consumers represent itself as bilingual.69 While a Germanistik student at the in northern Germany something Reershemius analyzed 12 issues University of Hamburg, Kristina “foreign” that is also heimatlich, or of the Ostfriesland Magazin between Meissner wrote her Master’s connected to home. In the 2007 July 2008 and June 2009 to gain an thesis about the Low German survey by the Institute for Low overview of the use of Low German language. In an interview with the German Language, 91 percent in public texts. Primarily in High Swedish Språktidningen (“Language of Germans from Low-German- German, the Magazin reports on

59. Frerk Möller, “Niederdeutsch: das sozio-kulturelle Umfeld,” 309. 60. Ibid., 309. 61. Ibid., 315. 62. Carl Undéhn, “Schnack mol wedder platt!” Språktidningen, Februar 2013, http://spraktidningen.se/artiklar/2013/02/schnack-mol-wedder-platt. 63. Eunike Piwoni, “Latent but Not Less Significant: The Holocaust as an Argumentative Resource in German National Identity Discourse,” German Politics and Society 31, no. 3 (22 Sept 2013). 64. Carl Undéhn, “Schnack mol wedder platt!, http://spraktidningen.se/artiklar/2013/02/schnack-mol-wedder-platt. 65. “Denglische Werbung: Worst Case ist keine Wurstkiste.” Der Spiegel, 4 May 2011, http://www.spiegel.de/karriere/berufsleben/denglische- werbung-worst-case-ist-keine-wurstkiste-a-760476.html. 66. Frerk Möller, Plattdeutsch im 21. Jahrhundert, 24. 67. Jutta Kuper, E-mail Message to Author, 1 March 2015. 68. Karen Campbell, Billy Bennett and Simon Stephens, “Utilising a Minority Language to Develop Brand Identity: An Evaluation of Current Practice Using the Irish Language,” Irish Marketing Review 20, no. 1 (1999): 68. 69. Gertrud Reershemius, “A New Role for Low German? Language Insertion as a bilingual practice in the process of language shift,” Journal of Sociolinguistics 15, vol. 3 (2011): 384 & 392.

22 | journal of undergraduate research the Eastern Frisian region. Since minority language is added to a Bremen. With hit songs such as the Magazin is intended for both text. However, these language “Löppt,” “Dialektro,” and “Platt,” inhabitants of the region as well communities must also be defined the band raps about Low German as for tourists, the challenge is to in public space. In Eastern Friesland, and the culture of northern use the language in such a way Low German is integrated into Germany. The band received the that readers who only speak High public spaces by means of street Heinrich Schmidt Barrien Prize German can still understand the signs, advertisements, building in 2010, which honors the famous purpose of the Low German.70 names, etc., in order to preserve Low German author. The prize was First, Low German is inserted the regional language identity in a created in 2000, after the ratification into the text only in certain contexts, physical way.75 As these examples in of the Charter, to encourage people e.g. in columns, aphorisms and Eastern Friesland show, the Charter and institutions to work toward humorous texts that do not focus fosters the use of Low German in preserving the Low German on current events.71 In this sense, private and public spaces. language. The band often creates Low German never competes with new messages in Low German for English, since Low German often Low German in the Bundesliga their fans using the smartphone draws on nostalgia and local topics, In Bremen, Low German app Snapchat and is active on the whereas English is used to focus on experienced its soccer debut in the social media platform Instagram.78 current regional and national topics German Bundesliga, the federal In 2013, the band was chosen and on the future.72 soccer organization, in recent years: to represent the federal state of In most cases, Low German is since 2013, the Werder-Bremen Bremen in the Bundesvision Song used as a marketing method: names team’s fan shop has advertised in Contest. This was a new recognition of some business and products are Low German. During the 2014/15 of the Low German language, which either completely in Low German, season, fans could buy scarves with could previously be heard at the Liet or they consist of a mixture of High Low German inscriptions for the first International competition; musicians German and Low German. An time. The team’s slogan “Lebenslang who perform songs in a regional or example of this is Dörpmuseum Grün-Weiß,” or “Lifelong Green- minority language can participate in meaning “village museum,” where White,” was translated into the Low this contest. Liet International was a Dörp is the Low German component German “Op Ewig Gröön-Witt” Frisian initiative that first took place meaning “village,” and Museum is the for new fan articles. This strategy in 2002. Since 2006, the competition High German component meaning may have been influenced by that has taken place annually, each year “museum.”73 Reershemius believes this used by Spanish soccer team FC at a different location in Europe. The is an intelligent strategy since Low Barcelona, whose slogan “Més que Council of Europe began to oversee German seems authentic and elicits un club” is in Catalan, not Spanish.76 the competition in 2008, after agreeing the consumer’s nostalgic feelings that Such measures bring the regional that the competition embodies the are tied to the language.74 or minority language into the public message of the Charter for Regional or Reershemius’s research shows arena and contribute to a greater Minority Languages. De Fofftig Penns that regional and minority languages awareness and appreciation of these participated in this competition in can be strategically used to assure a languages and their cultures.77 2009, after which a new competition particular society of its values. The was formed solely for songs in Low reader—or the consumer—feels as Music German: called Plattsounds, it takes though he/she is part of a special De Fofftig Penns, founded in 2003, place every year in the Lower Saxon community when a regional or is an electro hip hop band from city of Oldenburg.79

70. Gertrud Reershemius, 390. 71. Ibid., 388-389, 392. 72. Ibid., 391. 73. Ibid., 390-391. 74. Ibid., 390, 392. 75. Ibid., 386. 76. Further information: http://www.fcbarcelona.com/club/board-members/detail/card/more-than-a-club. 77. “Plattdeutsch in der Bundesliga,“ Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache, 23 Juli 2014. http://www.ins-bremen.de/de/aktuelles/presse/news/detail/ artikel/plattdeutsch-in-der-bundesliga//backpid/103.html?cHash=0ce181da0d476e4ec4cfce548e684053. 78. The band’s username on both Snapchat and Instagram is defofftigpenns. 79. “Press Release: Liet International, Oldenburg, Germany, 12 December 2014,” Liet International, 24 Nov 2014, https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/ education/minlang/Source/PressReleases/LietInternational2014pressrelease.pdf. For more information, refer to www.liet-international.com. 80. Further information about Ina Müller: http://www.inamueller.de/#seite-op-platt. 81. “Spannende Geschichten von Plattdeutschen aus der ganzen Welt,“ NDR Fernsehen, http://www.ndr.de/fernsehen/sendungen/start158.html.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 23 Another musician is Ina Müller, Büttenwarder) from High German topics, the conference attendees who comes from a Low-German- into Low German. The “new” Low discussed the issue of creating a speaking family near Cuxhaven in German series premiered in 2013, stronger presence for Low German Lower Saxony. She is the moderator 16 years after the original series in the German media: despite for Inas Nacht, or “Ina’s Night,” a first began to air, marking the first the progress already made, the beloved television program that often time a series was translated into Council of Europe desires a greater features songs in Low German.80 Low German. The original actors presence.87 Naturally, the position of recorded the dubbed version, which Low German in the German media Digital media: television consisted of a “lightly stylized could be improved upon, but as I and radio ‘literary’ Low German.”83 have demonstrated above, Bremen Between 1982 and 2006, NDR 1 Niedersachsen broadcasts and Lower Saxony have already Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR, a variety of radio programs in Low made great strides. Northern German Broadcasting), German that are also accessible as televised the series Talk op Platt podcasts. Among these are a daily V. Conclusion (Talk in Low German). The series program, Hör mal ‘n beten to (Listen “One generation is all that is was then renamed Die Welt Op Platt a little bit), and a weekly program, necessary for a language to (The World in Low German). With Düt und dat op platt (This and that in disappear from daily life.”88 With this new name and the new globally Low German).84 In contrast, Radio this statement, Stefan Mähl, a oriented topics presented in the Bremen uses a modern method to linguist at the Swedish University of show, NDR illustrated not only that provide access to Low German: Uppsala, describes the importance Low German could be international, since 2009, the station offers an of protecting not just Low German, but showed that the language still online Low German course. The but other regional and minority carries important meaning for lessons consist of listening and languages as well. There are 59 Germans from the Low-German- grammar exercises and vocabulary other languages in Europe that are speaking region who live abroad.81 pertaining to the themes of each either repressed or threatened. The This initiative has contributed to a lesson (the theme of the first lesson speakers of these languages need more comprehensive appreciation of is “Die Kneipe,” or “The Pub”).85 their governments to take concrete the Low German language. NDR’s In 2012, Radio Bremen expanded measures that ensure the continued Low German competition, Vertell on this program by creating a free use of these languages. This case doch mal, is also popular throughout smartphone app, Op Platt, which study about Low German in Bremen Northern Germany.82 This contest offers short lessons and current news and Lower Saxony shows measures collects Low German short stories headlines in Low German.86 These taken in one region that can already about a given topic and publishes services are an effective variation on claim success. the best 25 in a book––an effective language education and encourage One critique of such language method of encouraging members interest in Low German among protection is that many of these of the audience to utilize their own younger listeners. languages are “only symbolic.” This language skills. In November 2014, a conference statement implies that Low German A noteworthy initiative by took place in Berlin that focused has no real communicative function NDR was its translation of the on the languages in Germany in society and thus raises many cult television series Neues aus affected by the Charter for Regional questions. Are some languages more Büttenwarder (Something New from or Minority Languages. Among other important than other languages?

82. Christoph Ahlers, “Platt im NDR“ in 10 Jahre Europäische Sprachencharta in Niedersachsen, hrsg. von Jörg Peters und Gabriele Diekmann-Dröge (Oldenburg: Isensee Verlag, 2010), 140. 83. Paul Barz, “Hochdeutsch nur im Notfall: Die Kult-TV-Serie ‚Neues aus Büttenwarder’ wird platt gemacht,“ Die Welt, 16 Mai 2014, http//www. welt.de/110282. 84. For the complete list of Low German offerings by NDR throughout northern Germany, see http://www.ndr.de/kultur/norddeutsche_sprache/plattdeutsch/Plattdeutsch-in-Radio-und-Fernsehen,platt710.html. For the Low German offerings in Lower Saxony specifically, see http://www.ndr.de/ndr1niedersachsen/sendungen/Plattdeutsche-Angebote- auf-NDR-1-Niedersachsen,ndrnds230.html. 85. “Plattdeutschkurs: Moin moin, un willkamen bi de Plattsnackers,” Radio Bremen, 6 Mai 2009, http://www.radiobremen.de/wissen/dossiers/ plattdeutsch/plattdeutschkurs/intro100.html. 86. “Wi snackt Platt! Plattdeutsch-App fürs Handy,” Radio Bremen, 14 September 2012, http://www.radiobremen.de/wissen/dossiers/plattdeutsch/ platt2198.html. 87. “Recommendation CM/RecChL(2014)5 of the Committee of Ministers on the application of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages by Germany,” Council of Europe, 1200th meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies, Strasbourg, 2014. 88. Carl Undéhn, “Schnack mol wedder platt!” Språktidningen (februari 2013), http://spraktidningen.se/artiklar/2013/02/schnack-mol-wedder-platt.

24 | journal of undergraduate research Are only some languages worth Saxony, as I demonstrate in this life have given the inhabitants of this protecting? According to O’Reilly, paper. This statement applies not region the opportunity to continue this statement suggests that only to the older generations, but speaking the language. Bremen and regional and minority languages also increasingly to the younger Lower Saxony can serve as a model are “somehow secondary or of generation, a group of people who for other regions of Europe that lesser significance,” which can lead now have greater access to the want to protect their regional and to a lack of appreciation for these language because of the Charter. minority languages. If Bremen and languages.89 The preservation of regional and Lower Saxony continue their efforts Low German belongs to and minority languages is a defining step to maintain Low German, younger shapes the identity of this region. to ensure the continued linguistic generations will also eventually view Although High German is the diversity of a place, and thus its the language as worth protecting. official language of Germany, Low cultural heritage. The efforts of German is present in the lives of Bremen and Lower Saxony in politics, the people of Bremen and Lower in the education system and in daily

89. Camille C. O’Reilly, “When a Language is ‘Just Symbolic”: Reconsidering the Significance of Language to the Politics of Identity” in Minority Languages in Europe, ed. Gabrielle Hogun-Brun and Stefan Wolff, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, 18 & 30.

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26 | journal of undergraduate research “Press Release: Liet International, Oldenburg, Germany, 12 December 2014.” Liet International. 24 November 2014. https:// www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/Source/PressReleases/ LietInternational2014pressrelease.pdf.

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Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 27 Q&A How did you become involved in doing research? After my freshman year of school as a Mechanical Engineering, I approached Erin Mannen, a Mechanical Engineering PhD student with a Biomechanical focus working in Professor Lisa Friis’ lab. She talked to me about her project regarding a novel Spine Testing Machine and she suggested that proposing a project for an Undergraduate Research Award (UGRA) would be an excellent experience and enable me to work as part of her research over the summer. I got the UGRA and I became involved in her lab and her research. Ana Villanueva How is the research process different from what you expected? The research process is different than I expected because projects do not hometown always go as planned. Sometimes it is necessary to find several different ways Lima, Peru to approach a problem and if everything fails, you have to think of a new solution. This process can be tedious and very time-consuming, especially if Major you are talking of an experiment with a one month duration. If things did not Mechanical Engineering work out at the beginning, the entire month’s work can be wasted. academic level What is your favorite part of doing research? Senior My favorite part of doing research is the thinking process and trying to find new solutions, new approaches that usually build up from existing research mentor literature. Research can be a long process and sometimes it can take you Sherry L. Voytik-Harbin, Professor of in a different direction than originally intended, but having results that Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University make sense and that take you a step closer to a solution is definitely a very Kevin P. Buno, graduate student, rewarding experience. Purdue University

Estimating Fluid Local Velocity within a Novel 3D Collagen Matrix Perfusion System Ana Villanueva

Abstract Traditional cell culture, performed on flat surfaces under static conditions, does not accurately represent physiologic conditions. As an alternative, groups have applied interstitial fluid flow (0.1- 2.0 µm/s) through a 3D cell-embedded extracellular matrix (ECM). Cells sense the flow via mechanotransduction, a process by which cells sense mechanical forces and resultantly respond with biochemical signaling. Previous work demonstrates enhanced cell morphogenesis under interstitial flow conditions. However, fluid flow is poorly described within these systems, stressing the need for a well-characterized 3D interstitial flow system. Understanding fluid mechanics within a perfusion system will help elucidate cellular response to flow- induced mechanical forces. The objective of this study was to quantify the fluid flow velocity through a controlled ECM. The changes in the collagen concentration are directly related to the fibril density of the collagen (stiffness). A fluorescent Rhodamine solution was pumped at a constant flow rate through a collagen matrix- containing chamber. The resulting flow front was visualized at the center of the chamber using a fluorescent microscope. A Matlab program was developed to track the light intensity between time points to provide measures of flow velocity.

28 | journal of undergraduate research The results suggest that collagen concentration affects the estimated velocity measurements. As collagen fibril density increases, the resistance to flow increases, leading to a decrease in estimated velocity. These results validate the device’s ability to consistently distribute flow over a range of ECM stiffness. Control and quantification of local fluid velocity is essential for future experiments in which cells will be embedded in the collagen matrix to observe cell response to fluid flow. Keywords: Cell, matrix, interstitial fluid flow, perfusion chamber.

Introduction that causes an organism to develop to Brinkman’s equation is the Interstitial fluid surrounds and its shape— and angiogenesis— assumption of continuum fluid and nurtures the cells in the tissues the process through which new uniform velocity, as they do not mimic and supports nutrient and waste blood vessels form from existing physiological conditions, instead of exchange. For more than half a vasculature—assays, such as local values for the velocity profile. century, the understanding of the the control of the flow rate and While few groups have been functionality of interstitial fluid has complex networks. However, a able to recreate these complex cell- increased and it has been established deficiency in these microfluidic matrix-fluid dynamics within in-vitro that it has a substantial role in cell systems is that groups have assays, their systems have been signaling and cell morphology (1). developed working microchannel limited on both a matrix and fluid flow It is also established that cells have configurations involving Human standpoint. When developing a 3D an improved and physiologically Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells perfusion culture system, it is essential relevant response in a 3D in-vitro (HUVEC) monolayers with cross to define matrix structure-mechanical system than in a two dimensional sections that do not resemble the in properties as well as quantify and (2D) in-vitro system (2). About 20% vivo cylindrical lumens(7). Novel validate the flow and velocity profiles of the human body is composed by techniques that solve this challenge through the fibrous system. interstitial fluid (3). However, groups by creating a network that lines This study addresses the two working with in vitro systems had up with the HUVECs are difficult main questions regarding interstitial long been considering interstitial to reproduce and low throughput fluid flow through tunable collagen fluid a negligible variable due to (8). Another disadvantage is the matrices: the effect of the matrix its slow velocity in the human lack of control of the extracellular structure on the velocity profile and body (0.1-2.0 µm/s), ignoring the matrix (ECM), assuming that the the flow rate measurement. mechanical forces and pressures mechanical forces are negligible. in the system. Recent works have When flowing a controlled flow rate, METHODS investigated the effect of interstitial the fluid path is observed on the top A. Device specifications fluid flow in tissue engineering, such of the matrix, instead of visualizing A compliant red silicon was acquired as inducing blood and lymphatic the flow going through the ECM. (McMasterr, Elmhurst, IL) with a capillary morphogenesis in vitro Perfusion systems at a macro and 1.58mm thickness. The device is (3), promoting morphogenesis in micro scale involving the cell, matrix a square cut from the rubber with perfused organ cultures(4), inducing and fluid dynamics are challenged by 18mm on each side. The inside cell and matrix alignment (5), and the compaction of the ECM and the chamber is a square with 8mm on inducing cell migration along fluid channeling around the matrix each side. Glass coverslips seal the streamlines (6). (5). The fluid mechanics of these chamber using glue (Gorilla Epoxy Currently, perfusion systems macro scale systems are solved using 25ml Syringe). Also, a pair of 23G for in-vitro cell culture purposes Brinkman’s equation to estimate needles were placed on opposite are used to study interactions velocity (9-11) and 3D modeling sides of the perfusion chamber between cells, their surrounding (computational fluid dynamics) of (Figure 1). A subsequent surface extracellular matrix (ECM) and the perfusion chamber (12). While the effect of interstitial fluid. a controlled fluid flows through the Advances in microfluidic perfusion collagen matrix, the effect of the systems have filled several gaps resistance in the system is not taken in morphogenesis—the process into consideration (13). A disadvantage

Figure 1. Perfusion chamber with 18mm on each side. The inside square has 8mm on each side. Glass coverslips sealed the chamber using epoxy glue. 23G needles.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 29 dye (Rhodamine 123, 50μM) was single time point) (Figure 5). It then pumped through the perfusion plotted the light intensity curve for all chamber at a constant flow rate of time points. Half maximum intensity 10μL/sec using a peristaltic pump of the fitted data (light intensity for (FCS2 & FCS3 Micro-Perfusion all time points) was plotted to find Pump (Low-Flow), Bioptechs, Butler, the location of the time points over PA) connected to the device (Figure the time per pixels. The results were 3). The flow rate was measured at plotted in a position over time graph the inlet and outlet of the device. The and its slope is the velocity. inlet value was set by the controls of the peristaltic pump and the outlet RESULTS value was measured by the distance The images of collagen traveled by the fluid on the outlet microstructure indicate that the Figure 2. 3D printed structure modeled in Solidworks to ensure stability and to center tubing at a measured time (Figure 4). collagen-fibril matrices have sufficient it with the microscope. porosity and mechanical integrity to support interstitial fluid flow as the treatment injecting the Poly-L- ECM remains intact throughout the Lysine to the chamber and rinsing it duration of perfusion experiments with Milli-Q ensures the adhesion of (Figure 6). Future studies would the collagen matrix to the chamber involve taking 3D stacks of the walls. The perfusion chamber was Figure 3. A peristaltic pump was collagen microstructure before and placed into a 3D printed structure to connected to the perfusion chamber after flow conditions, and using ensure stability (Figure 2). at a flow rate of 10μL/sec to flow fluid correlation techniques to determine through the chamber. the stress and strains on the ECM. B. Matrix Formulations Understanding fluid-induced ECM Type I collagen oligomers were deformation will provide insight on isolated from porcine dermis and its stability over time. standardized as described previously Results indicate that the flow rate (Kreger et al., 2010). Collagen- measurement at the inlet and outlet fibril matrices were prepared by of the device was not statistically neutralizing the oligomer solution different (Figure 7) over the range of according to established methods Figure 4. The outlet flow rate was collagen-fibril matrices tested. (Kreger et al., 2010). The oligomer measured by the distance traveled The measured average velocities by the fluid on the outlet tubing at concentration of the polymerization a measured time. were statistically different between reaction was modulated to obtain 50 Pa and 200 Pa matrices, with different collagen matrix stiffness 200 Pa measuring a slower velocity values, which is directly related to the D. Microscope imaging than 50 Pa (Figure 8). Interestingly, fibril density of the collagen (Kreger Upon initiation of flow, time-lapse however, the velocity increases et al., 2010). Collagen-fibril matrices images within the center of the and is statistically significant were prepared at 0.74mg/mL, 1.45mg/ tissue construct were collected using when comparing 200 Pa to 350 Pa. mL,1.94mg/mL and 2.56mg/mL to a 4X objective on a fluorescence However, velocities for 50 Pa and 350 achieve matrix stiffness values of 50Pa, microscope (Nikon Eclipse TE2000-S), Pa were not statistically different. 200Pa, 350Pa, and 600Pa, respectively. with a numerical aperture (N.A.) of The neutralized collagen solution was 0.2 and a B-2A filter. DISCUSSION injected into the perfusion chamber The flow rate measurement denotes and subsequently inserted into an E. Matlab Program that a range of matrix stiffness incubator to polymerize. A Matlab (MathWorks, Torrance, CA) does not have an effect on the flow program was developed to process rate. However, it was observed C. Interstitial flow in 3D system the time-lapse fluorescent images that an increase in fibril density To analyze the velocity of the and determine temporal changes imposes larger resistances that interstitial flow mimic, fluorescent in light intensity across an image (a would affect flow rate. Using a 600

30 | journal of undergraduate research Data points for Light Intensity vs. Location (pixel)

Light Intensity vs. Intensity across image Raw data Fitted data Combined data Location at all-time points

Pa stiffness ECM (n=2), the flow was significantly impeded (less than 10% of input flow rate), with no leaks found in the system (data not shown). This suggests that the Light intensity vs. Fitted data: Half max. for Light system has an upper-limit on the Location (pixel) Intensity vs. Location (pixel) Position (pixel) vs. Time pressure that can be applied to the inlet; however, further work must be done to form a more conclusive statement. Furthermore, the method for measuring flow rate should be improved, as error could have Figure 5. A Matlab program calculates the velocity profile. Using the fluorescence been introduced through a couple microscope, images are taken during the flow front experiment.T he program of ways. The tubing was very processes the images and plots a light intensity vs. location (pixel) curve for all images. Half the maximum intensity from the fitted curves for the light intensity compliant, making it difficult to keep vs. location (pixel) finds the location.T hen, it plots the light intensity vs. location straight when taking measurements. at all-time points of the images to obtain the curve for the position (pixels) vs. Additionally, slight human error time. The slope of the position vs. time is the velocity profile. Scale bar = 500 µm. could be introduced, as marking the start and end position by eye has its obvious limitations. A more accurate method would be to use a scale to weigh the volume of output fluid. This would eliminate all previously mentioned issues. 50Pa. Before 50Pa. After The velocity decreases as the fibril density (stiffness) increases, due to the change in resistance of the collagen matrix when the collagen concentration is changed. 50 Pa 200 Pa 350 Pa 200 Pa. Before 200 Pa. After The inconsistencies found for 350 Mean 0.09438 0.09596 0.09064 Pa could occur due to many factors STD DEV 0.00177 0.00315 0.00242 that come into play. First, the average max intensity of 350 Pa ECMs (n=4) Figure 7: Flow rate measurement (μL/s) for a flow front at the outlet of the was 141.6 units, while 50 Pa was perfusion chamber (error bars represent 83.42 units, and 200 Pa was 93.45 STD DEV of calculations). units. The light intensity of the 350 350 Pa. Before 350 Pa. After Pa matrix was 51.5% higher than Figure 6. A confocal microscope collected the 200 Pa matrix and 69.7% higher images of the microstructure before than the 50 Pa matrix. Since light and after the presence of the fluid flow. * The images of collagen microstructure * intensity is a correlated measure indicate that the collagen-fibril matrices of Rhodamine concentration, have sufficient porosity and mechanical these results suggest an increased integrity to support interstitial fluid flow as the ECM remains intact throughout Rhodamine concentration within the duration of perfusion experiments. the 350 Pa matrix. One explanation Scale bar = 100 µm of these results is that the increased fibril density decreases the diffusivity of the system, therefore leading to increased concentration. 50 Pa 200 Pa 350 Pa The concentration build-up occurs Mean 3.7186 3.4196 3.8479 when Rhodamine enters the system STD DEV 0.1769 0.1069 0.355 at a faster rate than it is able to travel Figure 8: Velocity calculations (μm/s) for through the ECM. Additionally, a flow front through different collagen preliminary experiments were matrix stiffness (error bars represent performed to optimize fluorescent STD DEV of calculations). Means with different letters are significantly relevant (*, p<0.05).

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 31 dye concentration (data not shown). this would require a closer study of measurement would be to use a scale These experiments determined the the obtained concentration profiles. to weigh the volume of output fluid. working range of the Rhodamine While there was no geometric The velocity decreases as the solution, and additional observations quantification on the concentration fibril density (stiffness) increases, of higher velocity measurements profiles, there are notable differences due to the change in resistance when more concentrated in the concentration gradients and of the collagen matrix when the Rhodamine solutions. An important shape that could inform streamlines. collagen concentration is changed. consideration on the optical setup For example, increasing fibril density However, further experimentation is the area of excitation. This area decreased the observed velocity from with different microscope settings significantly affects overall light 50 to 200 Pa, as it was measured and concentrations is required to intensity readings, as an excessively over the center of the construct. A confidently determine the cause for large illumination area results in possible explanation for this would the increased velocity in 350 Pa. background intensity contributed be that the streamline within the Images collected by the confocal by surrounding Rhodamine beyond 50 Pa is narrower, and therefore indicate that the collagen-fibril the field of view. It is therefore should move through the ECM faster; matrices have sufficient porosity important to choose the minimally however, the 200 Pa matrix has a and mechanical integrity to support acceptable illumination area, large wider streamline, therefore perceived interstitial fluid flow as the ECM enough to encompass the camera’s velocity would be lower. Further remains intact throughout the field of view while small enough development of Matlab code to duration of perfusion experiments. to reduce background noise. quantify concentration profiles, along The next step is the Fluorescence Secondly, the diffusivity of a species with COMSOL model development, Recovery after Photobleaching depends on its concentration, with will allow accurate predictions of (FRAP) technique to obtain higher concentration gradients streamlines within a device. diffusion coefficients to enter into increasing the rate of diffusion. the COMSOL model to estimate Therefore, employing a higher CONCLUSION the local fluid velocities for more concentration would in effect The flow rate measurement denotes accurate results (Figure 9). The increase the measured velocity, as that a range of matrix stiffness does control over local fluid velocity is the diffusive component of the flow not have an effect on the flow rate. essential for future experiments in will have increased. Therefore, the However, previous experiments which cells will be embedded in increased velocity in the 350 Pa suggest that an increase in the fibril the collagen matrix to observe cell could be attributed to background density imposes larger resistances response to fluid flow. illumination and altered diffusion. that would affect flow rate. A more Further experimentation with accurate method for the flow rate different microscope settings and concentrations is required to confidently determine the cause for the increased velocity in 350 Pa. Data suggests that flow remained constant between the different ECM formulations at the inlet and outlet of the tubing (Figure 7); fluid velocity decreased as the fibril density and matrix stiffness increased (Figure 8). An explanation, supported by the law of conservation of mass, would be that the velocity streamlines were narrower (and therefore faster due to a nozzle effect) in the 50 Pa matrix, and streamlines became increasingly Figure 9 . COMSOL program models the inside of the perfusion chamber and the wider (and slower) as the matrix trajectory of the fluorescent particles flowing through the device to estimate the local fluid velocities. stiffness increased since more fibrils obstruct the path. Probing

32 | journal of undergraduate research ————————— References

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[11] Interstitial flow promotes vascular fibroblast, myofibroblast, and smooth muscle cell motility in 3-D collagen I via upregulation of MMP-1

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 33 Q&A How did you become involved in doing research? I was unsure if research could be applied to a project outside of the sciences, but my Honors advisor, Dr. Anne Dotter, encouraged me to look into it. Ever since my first design class, I’ve been fascinated with typography and the endless amount of detail that goes into creating a cohesive set of letters. The subtle differences in letter drawings can convey unique subliminal ideas; text can seem professional, comical, chic, or angry depending on the typeface that a designer chooses. With that in mind, I wanted to try my hand at creating my own typeface during my semester abroad in Trier, Germany. I knew that other designers had created A. Claire Zimmerman typefaces inspired by specific places or objects, and I wanted to challenge myself to create a unique interpretation of my city within the limitations of a typeface. hometown St. Louis, Missouri How is the research process different from what you expected? My research process is very different from the creative process I take for designing. Major Though I try to manage my design process into steps, I change my mind frequently Visual Communication Design and allow myself to explore many different concepts and mediums before settling on a final piece. The research process has been much more streamlined. I have one academic level clear goal for my research and a fairly simple path for solving that problem. Senior What is your favorite part of doing research? research mentor I love the moments when a solution suddenly appears. Like when a letter suddenly Andrea Herstowski, feels right, or I read a quote that helps me understand. Pure inspiration. As cheesy Associate Professor of Design as it sounds, learning something new or finding sudden clarity is so worth all of the preparation that goes into that one moment.

Type in Trier: The Relationship between Letters and the Oldest City in Germany A. Claire Zimmerman introduction being in a city, in its letterforms? designed the typeface Gotham using There are countless elements that This is a particularly difficult task. inspiration from lettering on New make a city unique. The people, Type designers must try to create York City skyscrapers, and Kare language, location, climate, an expressive shape that is still created Monaco, Chicago and Geneva architecture, customs and currency of recognizable as part of the alphabet. for Apple computers in the 80s. Here a city all contribute to the experience There are only so many ways to lies my task: to describe the feeling of being in a place. Even the kinds of manipulate a letter, and many of those of a place in a sublime typeface letters, or fonts, which are used in a manipulations are of the slightest design. My research is inspired by city can add to its individuality. Is it detail. It is not unheard of though, the location of my semester abroad possible to draw one font that could and designers like Tobias Frere-Jones in Trier, Germany. When finished, encapsulate all of the type that is used and Susan Kare have successfully the typeface will not only be an in a city? Even further, can a typeface translated the characteristics of a expression of a time and place, but a translate the collective feeling of city to clear letterforms. Frere-Jones tool for communication.

34 | journal of undergraduate research BACKGROUND AND Comic Sans, the article would seem INSPIRATION immature and silly. In this example, A typeface is a set of letters drawn in it is evident that the way a letter is a similar style and used for print or drawn plays a role in our perception digital text. The letters in a particular of words themselves. In all, the work typeface have been standardized of a type designer requires intense so that they can appear the same and thoughtful attention to detail. in any application. The beginning But how does a typeface contribute of our contemporary definition of a to a city, you ask? Each city has its typeface dates back to the creation of own unique history, climate and movable type. Johannes Gutenburg, culture, and the type both adds to and the inventor of movable type, reflects that. The lettering for the Paris transformed the world of reading Metro, for instance, is a recognizable and communication by allowing part of the city. The signage was printers to set individual letters on a designed in 1900 by architect and printing press. Before movable type, furniture designer Hector Guimard. printers created woodcut blocks Guimard was inspired by the Art for a single page. The new, more Figure 2: The slight differences Nouveau movement and took cues malleable system allowed for a faster, between Arial and Helvetica. from natural forms for his typeface. cheaper means of printing and the ii While the Paris metro type is spread of information throughout distinction is between serif and quirky and organic, the typeface for the West. Gutenburg’s invention sans serif typefaces (Fig. 1). Serif the New York Subway is stark and changed the way we treat and typefaces are characterized by a neutral. Since the late 1960s, the New design typography.i small projection at the end of a York City Subway has used Helvetica Today, one encounters typefaces stroke. Sans-serif type does not have and Akzidenz-Grotesk in its signage. not only in printed materials, but any added projections. That year the city undertook the on the internet, mobile devices Within these categories, there are massive project of simplifying the and various computer programs. specific details that differentiate one way-finding system used for its maps There are multiple classifications typeface from another. For instance, and signs. Bob Noorda and Massimo for these typefaces based on the Arial and Helvetica may look similar Vignelli provided a uniform way- characteristics of their stroke width, from far away, but close up they use finding for the subway system.iii In style and shape. The most basic different angles and curves (Fig. 2). both New York and Paris, the type In Helvetica’s lowercase “a,” the for the subway system speaks to the angle between the bowl and the uniqueness of the city. This is just one shoulder is a smooth curve. In Arial way that type can be specific to a place. this same angle is sharp and pointed. Other experienced typographers The foot on Helvetica is a small have explored this idea of fonts 90-degree angle with curved lines. relating to a city. For example, the Arial’s foot does not make a big angle, studio of Hoefler & Frere-Jones but gradually veers to the right. created the font Gotham based on Though these characteristics type on buildings in Manhattan. may seem insignificant, even the These letters were created by smallest details contribute to how engineers and architects as labels we understand words. For instance, for buildings. Though the letters most scholarly articles are set in co-founder Tobias Frere-Jones found Times New Roman, Baskerville or are not part of a specific typeface, Garamond because they are legible, they reflect the style of the 1930s professional and do not distract and 40s. He collected hundreds of from the content of an essay. If a photos of these letters and used scholar sets his or her proposal in them as the basis for his drawings.iv

Figure 1: An example of type with and without serifs.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 35 side of Germany, a 30 minute drive 2. Collecting Inspiration away from Luxembourg. The Mosel Before beginning my classes in Trier, River runs through the city from I took time to visit other notable North to South. European cities. The type in each city The lifestyle in Trier is still varied greatly from one to the next. characterized by its history and The more I took pictures, the more I geography. The architecture of the realized that the type used for street town center retains an old world signs and building markers most charm; pastel buildings with ornate often reflected the feeling of the place. window frames are set close together For instance, in Valencia, Spain, on cobblestone streets (Fig. 4). The the house numbers are colorful, Figure 3: The complete alphabet for Gotham. population is largely Catholic, and floral and ornamental (Fig. 6). Easter holidays are public days off. Those characteristics are also Gotham is an assimilation of these visible in the downtown plaza examples, and directly reflects the (Fig. 7). This pattern continues city of its origin (Fig 3). for the following images. In Copenhagen, the street sign type CREATIVE PROCESS looks condensed and friendly, just My research follows the example of like the buildings along the city’s Hoefler & Frere-Jones mentioned famous Nyhavn Canal (Fig. 8, 9). above (and is still incomplete In Bruges, the sewer covers have because my semester in Germany an elaborate, traditional letter “b” is not yet over). Just as the designer in the center (Fig. 10). The Bruges found typography in Manhattan Town Hall shares this medieval, from which he based his font, I Figure 4: The Trier town square on ornate aesthetic (Fig. 11). Lastly, use found typography for my a busy Friday. in Gimmelwald, Switzerland, a preliminary sketches. Below is a brief chalet displays unique lettering that outline of my process. There are also few stores open on matches the quaint, organic feeling • Study Trier’s history, lifestyle and Sunday, a religious day of rest. In of the small mountainside town visual characteristics. addition, the river seems to create (Fig. 12,13). Taking pictures outside • Collect inspirational type that a relaxed lifestyle in the city. It is of Trier adds another spectrum to epitomizes the feeling of living in Trier. popular to barbecue and drink beer my research. • Sketch letters by hand and try to along the banks of the Mosel River. With this understanding of where find the appropriate proportions, One might see tour boats and kayaks to find type in the city, I looked style and weight for the letters float down the river while people for unique type on the streets and in the phrase “hamburgerfonts,” stroll or exercise on the adjacent buildings in Trier. On one town a standard phrase used by type walking path (Fig. 5). Classes are less outing, I noticed lettering on the designers to test how the letters strenuous than in the United States, side of a café in the town square read and look next to each other.v and restaurant service takes its time. (Fig. 14). The text reads (in Latin): • Refine and finish letters in Adobe “Ante Romam Treviris Stetit Annis Illustrator until they work as a Mille Trecentis. Perstet et Aeterna pace cohesive set. frvatvr. Amen.” (Translation: “1300 • Create usable typeface that others years before Rome was Trier / May can download and use with the it continue to consist, eternal peace program FontLab. to rejoice”). The building is called the Steip, nicknamed the “Red RESULTS House,” and acted as a meeting 1. Understanding Trier place, courthouse and inn in the late Trier is the oldest city in Germany, 17th century. The original building founded by Augustus in 16 B.C. At was destroyed in a bombing during one time, it was the capital of the WWII, but it was so important to the Roman Empire, and some Roman city that it was reconstructed and ruins still remain today. The city opened anew in 1970.vi Figure 5: A view of Trier and the is situated on the most Western Mosel River from above.

36 | journal of undergraduate research Figure 6: Figure 7: A city A house garden in the number in heart of Valencia. Valencia, Spain.

Figure 8: Figure 9: A street Nyhavn Canal marker in in Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. Denmark.

Figure 10: Figure 11: A sewer The Bruges pipe cover Town Hall. in Bruges, Belgium.

Figure 13: A view Figure 12: Type of Gimmelwald on a chalet in in the Swiss Alps. Gimmelwald, Switzerland.

Figure 14: An inscription on the Red House in the Trier town square.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 37 (Fig. 18). The wavy crossbar in the capital “A” takes inspiration from the lowercase “e.” The top point, or apex, of the “A” borrows from the split top of the lowercase “i.” I will continue to draw the rest of the alphabet with an attention to these details. The rest of my process will follow as I have already mentioned, from drawn letters, to the computer, to working font file. Once the typeface is a working tool, I can test how it works in applications. I would like to see the font applied to a proposal of the branding for Trier itself. I can showcase my letters on business cards and pamphlets that advertise Figure 15: A building marker on a house in Trier, Germany. for the city.

CURRENT CONCLUSION The most important element of my letters, in the end, is that they create the feeling of being in Trier. In Metro Letters, Deborah Littlejohn boils down how to create a successful place-inspired typeface: “No matter how strong the concept, how well drawn the letterforms, how exciting the technology, the most important criteria for making a decision about type as a representative of a city has to be concerned with how the type feels.”vii I was worried that during my process, I wouldn’t be able to tell Figure 16: A detail of a fountain inscription. if the letters had the quality I was looking for, that I wouldn’t be able The lettering epitomizes the 3. Sketching to translate a feeling into a form. description of Trier from my research: This Steip type, plus a few photos This has not been the case thus historic, relaxed and friendly. The from a nearby fountain and house far, though, and when the right lines are thin and flowing, peaceful. (Fig. 15.16), serve as the basis for my letter comes up, it is clear. It seems The “R” has an extended flourish. letterforms. Pieces that felt unique, the more I draw letters, the more I There are even playful swirling like the “a,” “e,” “R,” and “i” are can see the personality that certain additions to the “A” and “P.” The evident in my sketches (Fig. 17). proportions and widths create. The serifs help to make the type feel My goal is to take these antique type has a face, as its name implies, traditional. The lowercase “a” looks letterforms and translate them into that either fits the character of Trier unbalanced, but its awkwardness is a typeface that would be clear and or doesn’t. By the end of my time charming. The type as a whole has a even enough for contemporary use. here, I hope to have a complete unique character that differentiates With the inspiration that I have alphabet, including accent marks itself from other cities. already gathered, I can now translate and punctuation. their quirks to other letterforms

38 | journal of undergraduate research Figure 18: An explanation of the details in the Trier inspired typeface.

Figure 17: Sketches for the first letters of the typeface.

Figure 19: Final version of font.

————————— References

v i Dodd, Robin. From Gutenberg to Opentype: An Illustrated History of Heller, Steven and Philip B. Meggs. Texts on Type: Critical Writings on Type from the Earliest Letterforms to the Digital Age. Lewes, United Typography. NewYork, NY: Allworth Press, 2001. 26. Print. Kingdom: The Ilex Press Limited, 2006. 8. Print. vi “For exactly 40 years back “Ons Steip.” Volksfreund. volksfreund.de. ii “Hector Guimard Entrance Gate to Paris Subway Metropolitain Web. 20 May 2015. Station Paris, France c1900.” Museum of Modern Art. Moma.org. Web. vi 29 Oct. 2014. Littlejohn, Deborah. Metro Letters: Designing a Typeface for the Twin Cities. Minneapolis:, Design Institute of the University of Minnesota, iii The Design Museum. How to Design a Typeface. London, Conran 2003. 118. Print. Octopus, Limited, 2010. 23. Print. vi “Gotham.” Hoefler & Co. Typography.com. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 39 Q&A How did you become involved in doing research? I became interested in this topic while enrolled in Dr. Wuthrich’s capstone seminar course this semester.

How is the research process different from what you expected? The research process is not as straightforward as I expected. I had to narrow the scope and topic of my paper significantly from the beginning of the semester.

What is your favorite part of doing research? Benjamin Ale-Ebrahim My favorite part of doing research is learning new things about fascinating subjects and contributing to the academic body of knowledge. hometown Wichita, Kansas

Major Anthropology

academic level Senior

research mentor Michael Wuthrich, Assistant Director of the Center for Global & International Studies

“I Don’t Want to Grow Old and Weak Like You!”: Conceptions of Idealized Masculinity in Pre- and Post-Revolutionary Iranian Cinema Benjamin Ale-Ebrahim

Abstract Iranian women are often at the forefront of feminist discourse on gender roles in the Middle East. There can be no question that this is important work and there are many questions about feminine gender roles in the Middle East and Iran that remain unanswered. However, gender norms in this family-centered society are often shaped by their relation to the opposite sex. As such, social scientists must understand both men’s and women’s roles in order to gain an appreciation for the complexity of social dynamics in a predominantly gender-segregated country like Iran. While most literature on the subject of gender in Iranian cinema focuses on women, little has been written explicitly about men and masculinity. This paper will attempt to close some of the gaps in this research by contrasting the category of the “ideal Iranian man” in popular films from two major periods in Iranian cinema—the highly Westernized era of the 1960s and 70s and the politically Islamist era of the 1980s and early 90s. Just as the nature of the Iranian national consciousness underwent a drastic change following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, so too did the nature of Iranian gender norms. By analyzing two films each from the pre- and post-revolutionary eras using three important variables—class conflict and religious piety, male-female sexual dynamics, and age differences among men—I will trace the path of these changes and suggest reasons for the similarities and differences one can observe between pre- and post-revolutionary Iranian films.

40 | journal of undergraduate research Introduction and religious piety, male-female urban-rural, class, and age conflicts Iranian women are often at the sexual dynamics, and age differences as Iran slowly emerges from its forefront of feminist discourse on among men—I will trace the path of traditional way of life and becomes gender roles in the Middle East, these changes and suggest reasons a modern industrial nation. Iranian and for good reason. As the more for the similarities and differences cinema instructs theatergoers on obviously “gendered” half of the one can observe between pre- and how to cope with this new way of population, questions abound post-revolutionary Iranian films. life, “usually, though not always, regarding women’s social status, suggesting naïve solutions” (Sadr women’s representations in the Literature Review and 2006: 1). As an outlet for artistic media, and women’s roles in Gaps in Research and political expression and an constructing national consciousness. Though not comprehensive, a instructive tool for the reigning elite, There can be no question that this is substantial amount of research exists cinema in Iran would continue to important work and there are many regarding femininity and idealized influence the national consciousness questions about feminine gender notions of womanhood in Iranian in much the same way following the roles in the Middle East and Iran cinema. According to Hamid Naficy, 1979 Islamic Revolution as it had in that remain unanswered. However, women in pre-revolutionary Iranian the late Pahlavi era. due to predominantly patriarchal cinema can be categorized into Following the violent political social norms prevalent in the region, three main “types:” female “blood upheaval at end of the 1970s, Iranian women in Iran do not enjoy many of relations” of male characters, who cinema “was for a time virtually the same rights and privileges that are “pure” and “virtuous;” wives extinguished” (Sadr 2006: 187). their fathers, husbands, brothers, of male characters, who are also Women in Iranian films “went and sons do. Gender norms in pure to some extent; and “women back under the veil” and the new this family-centered society are entertainers,” who exist purely for regime’s censors restricted any often shaped by their relation to male characters’ pleasure (2011: 289). plotlines that did not conform to “a the opposite sex. As such, social Idealized women, the first two types rigid code requiring Muslim women scientists must understand both in the scenario outlined above, are be shown as chaste and maternal, men’s and women’s roles in order typically associated with the home never sexualized” (Sadr 2006: 188). to gain an appreciation for the and private spaces. Impure women The first few post-revolutionary complexity of social dynamics in a of the third type are associated with Iranian filmmakers to emerge from predominantly gender-segregated public spaces, like teahouses and the confusion and chaos of the country like Iran. brothels (Naficy 2011: 289). A man revolution were primarily concerned While most literature on the has the power to remake an impure with creating an “Islamic cinema” subject of gender in Iranian cinema woman by marrying her or giving (Mirbakhtyar 2006: 107-8) palatable focuses on women, little has been her his patronage. As such, women in to the ayatollahs newly in charge written explicitly about men and this era of Iranian film do not possess of the country. Once this new crop masculinity. This paper will attempt a great deal of agency and depend of producers and directors gained a to close some of the gaps in this heavily upon their male relatives and significant amount of filmmaking research by contrasting the category lovers to provide for them. skills, they began to look at cinema of the “ideal Iranian man” in popular Pre-revolutionary Iranian cinema “more and more as a form of artistic films from two major periods has a generally “bitter look, because expression, instead of viewing it in Iranian cinema—the highly most of its characters are anti-heroes, strictly through the lenses of religion Westernized pre-revolutionary alone in a world that offers them no and ideology” (Mirbakhtyar 2006: era of the 1960s and 70s and the hope of justice” (Mirbakhtyar 2006: 108). In other words, once cinema had staunchly reactionary and politically 98). Due to the oppressive political “proven itself” as potentially beneficial Islamist post-revolutionary era of conditions under the Pahlavi regime, to the goals of the revolutionary the 1980s and early 90s. Just as in which artists and intellectuals government, it was allowed to the nature of the Iranian national living in Iran were unable to voice flourish once more—albeit within the consciousness underwent a drastic their true opinions, the filmmakers limits of the official moral codes. change following the 1979 Islamic of this period focused their Women in the post-revolutionary Revolution, so too did the nature of narratives on “rebellious characters era continued to be portrayed on Iranian gender norms. By analyzing who were in conflict with a political screen as either innocent wives and two films each from the pre- and order and society that denied them mothers or corrupt degenerates post-revolutionary eras using three their basic rights” (Mirbakhtyar (Derayeh 2010: 151). In the early important variables—class conflict 2006: 99). They focus extensively on years of the revolution, women were

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 41 “structurally absent” from films in Iranian film, how the men of Theoretical Framework until the mid-1980s (Naficy 2012: post-revolutionary Iran compare to In the years since Michel Foucault 111-135). At this time, they began the men of the pre-revolutionary first published his monumental Power/ to gain a “background presence” era. Perhaps a look at masculinity Knowledge: Selected Interviews and until the late 1980s when women in another national film tradition Other Writings, 1972-1977 (1980), it were moved into the “foreground” can provide further context for has been essential to complicate such of Iranian cinema plotlines (Naficy understanding gender norms in categories as gender and sexuality 2012: 111-135). According to Najmeh Iranian cinema. when analyzing cultural change. This Moradiyan Rizi, the compulsory In their discussion of feminist process involves an Archaeology of veiling of Iranian women in film was literature on Hollywood cinema, Knowledge (Foucault 2012) in which intended to “control the female body Cohan and Hark write that by the researcher must investigate the and make heterosexual desire highly “concentrating on the female body history and political implications masculine” (2015). As women were as the primary stake of cinematic of cultural forces that construct compelled to don the veil in public representation,” feminist scholarship normative behavior. This essay seeks spaces, including on screen, they generally ignores “the problem to conduct a Foucauldian archaeology surrendered control of their own of masculinity that motivates of the category of the “ideal man” in bodies to the men in charge of public the system” (1992: 1). In other two important and contrasting eras of morality (Moradiyan Rizi 2015). Men words, one must study men and Iran’s cinematic history. continued to exercise control over masculinity in order to gain a According to the most Iranian women in the immediate nuanced appreciation for normative contemporary gender theorists, post-revolutionary years, just as they gendered behavior in any patriarchal especially Judith Butler in her had control over women in the late society, whether in the United influential Gender Trouble (2002), Pahlavi era. States or Iran. They further argue, masculinity and femininity consist of Despite political progress “the scant attention paid to the a performance in which we all engage toward freedom of expression and spectacle of men ends up reinforcing in our daily lives, often unaware that the improvement of the status of the apparent effacement of the we are simply acting in the ways we women’s rights in Iran beginning in masculine as a social construction are taught within the boundaries the late 1980s, women’s portrayals in in American culture” (Cohan and of our cultural upbringing. It is the Iranian film from the 1960s through Hark 1992: 3). By studying the job of the researcher, then, to make the 1980s remained defined by their construction and negotiation of explicit these ways of enacting subordination to men, while the masculinity on screen, one begins gender and their limitations within two-dimensional characterization to question the dominant ideal of any specific cultural context. This of female characters as either pure a patriarchal society that the man theoretical paradigm is especially (khaales) or morally corrupt (faased) is normal and undifferentiated useful for analysis of visual media, persisted. The ideal woman remains while the woman is abnormal and including film. Through content one’s mother, sister, or wife, while secondary to men. In this paper, I analysis, one can get at such the street entertainer or dancer will engage in a similar process complex notions as the definition of elicits no empathy, for she is merely in my analysis of Iranian gender masculinity and manhood in Iranian the object of one’s carnal desires. norms, with a particular focus on society and how these definitions Although the 1979 revolution masculinity. have changed over time. changed the language and codes Currently, there is no substantial Some studies exist that examine with which Iranian women were body of literature discussing how masculinity is constructed in oppressed on screen, her oppression masculinity in Iranian cinema Iran and other Muslim-majority did not relent. Rather, the defining during the immediate pre- and countries. Amar (2011) writes that event that shifted representations post-revolutionary eras. As such, masculinity in the Middle East is of femininity in Iranian film did not this paper can begin to address often understood in the popular occur with the 1979 revolution but this neglected topic by combining Western imagination as “in crisis,” several years later. What remains previous research on feminine “hypersexualized,” and dangerous to unclear is whether cinematic gender norms in Iranian cinema the order of the state. He proposes portrayals of Iranian men remained with analysis of masculinity in a more nuanced understanding constant over this same time period other film traditions. I lay out my of Middle Eastern men in critical and, if there was a thematic shift in theoretical framework for achieving scholarship, conscious of the history the representation of masculinity this goal in the section below. of colonialism in the region and

42 | journal of undergraduate research of class distinctions among each aggression and that of academic and the political aspects of manhood. society in question. As such, we effeminacy. As such, all men in I will now describe my reasons for can infer that the motivations and a predominantly Muslim society periodizing Iranian cinema in this representations of upper-class will fall somewhere on a spectrum fashion and for my choices in films Iranian men in cinematic portrayals from the virile young man, to analyze. are going to be significantly different promiscuous and womanizing, to I have chosen to focus my from those of middle- and lower- the respected older scholar, aloof research on what I view as two class Iranian men. There exists a and asexual. Homosexual tendencies distinct time periods in the history hierarchy of power, in which those are, theoretically, tempered by of Iranian cinema. The film of the in power—the Iranian clerics homosociality. That is, men are late Pahlavi era provides a baseline who determine media policy and encouraged to befriend one another with which to analyze the changes prominent film producers and but to seek sexual release with in Iranian society after the 1979 directors who work within politically women, not among themselves. revolution. As such, it is important determined boundaries—have Generally, although older men to understand how masculinity different motivations from those are well respected in traditional functioned in this time period in they seek to influence—the Iranian Iranian value systems, the old man order to grasp the changes that theater-going public. Because of the is perceived as impotent and lacking were to come. The film of the years inherent connection between Iran’s of some measure of masculinity. immediately following the 1979 theocratic elite and film production, Younger men possess a more potent Islamic Revolution, in which Iran social class and religious piety have form of masculinity, dangerous in its turned its back on the Western much to do with Iran’s conception disregard for social norms. world and asserted a distinctly of itself as a nation and these In this paper I intend to use Islamist political orientation on themes inevitably find themselves these three variables, namely class the international stage would, in being replicated on screen. differences and their relation to theory, differ in its portrayal of men Similarly, Bruce Dunne, in his religious piety, male-female sexual and masculinity from the Pahlavi Power and Sexuality in the Middle dynamics, and age differences era against which it rebels. By East (1998), writes that “sexual among men, to analyze and compare comparing these two contrasting relations in Middle Eastern societies four films from the pre- and post- eras, one following directly after the have historically articulated revolutionary eras of Iranian cinema. other, I hope to shed light upon the social hierarchies” in which men I will then determine whether or not effects of the 1979 Islamic Revolution are dominant and women are the frameworks provided above can on gender norms and idealized submissive. One’s gender identity adequately explain the phenomenon conceptions of masculinity in Iran. is traditionally inextricable from of masculinity in Iranian cinema or In choosing only two films from one’s sexuality. Therefore, in order whether they should be modified each time period, I have had to to be a “real man,” one must engage to reflect the Iranian case. This will be selective in which films I feel in heterosexual activity—ideally, be completed through analysis of a would provide the most valuable getting married and fathering “typology” of Iranian masculinity, as information for my analysis of children. Women are expected to described below. masculinity in Iranian cinema be mothers, protecting the nation’s over time. Primarily, I looked for moral foundation by instilling within Methodology films that attempt to depict life in the next generation the ideals of In this paper I will provide an Iran with some degree of realism. the past. Men are unquestionably archaeology of masculinity in two Heavily metaphorical or stylistic superior to women in this traditional major periods of Iranian cinema. films, like Mehrjui’s The Cow (1969) framework, and manhood rests in These two periods are: the late and Makhmalbaf’s The Cyclist (1987) sexual activity and virility. Both Pahlavi era of the 1960s and 70s, were excluded from my analysis. I masculinity and femininity serve and the 1980s and early 1990s still want to focus on fictional films, vital and complementary roles in immediately following the 1979 and so I excluded documentaries maintaining the structure of the Islamic Revolution. I will analyze and biographies from my study. state and of devout Islamic society. two films from each period, focusing Additionally, because I want to Finally, Peter Hopkins (2006) on how masculinity is presented understand the Iranian national contends that there are two across the spectrum of Iranian consciousness from an official dominant discourses of Muslim society, its foundations in sexuality perspective, I chose films that were masculinities—that of virile and men’s relationships with women, screened in Iranian cinemas and

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 43 therefore made it past government service (veteran/not veteran), social man,” which men are “successful” censors. I have not included films class, level of religiosity (devout/ and why, which men are “heroes” that were banned even for a secular), marital status (married/ and why, and issues of crime and time in Iran, including Bashu, the unmarried/divorced/ widower), punishment. Little Stranger (Bayzai, 1986) and health status, and parenthood status Hajji Washington (Hatami, 1998). (father/childless). In this way, I Men in Pre- Furthermore, I excluded any Persian- intend to create a profile for each Revolutionary language or Iranian-made films that major male character in these films Iranian Cinema are not set in Iran, such as Turtles in an attempt to understand his I will begin my analysis by Can Fly (Ghobadi, 2004). This left background and gain insight into the discussing two films from pre- me with a narrower set of films from motivations for his actions. This will revolutionary Iran. It is important to which to choose, but I still had to result in the compilation of several understand these films as a baseline exclude several options. At this stage “types” of Iranian man that will shed for the rest of my analysis, as post- of my search, I focused on films that light on the popular conception of revolutionary Iranian cinema is both had prominent male protagonists. masculinity in each time period. a continuation of and reaction to the This excluded Meshkini’s The Day Similarly, in creating profiles for themes present in the films from the I Became a Woman (2000), Majidi’s each major male character, I will late Pahlavi era. I will give a brief Baran (2001), and Farhadi’s About also pay attention to his sexuality synopsis of each film, followed by a Elly (2009), among others. At the and relationship with women discussion of the typology of Iranian end of this process, I was left with and girls. Especially in the post- men in the film of this period, Iranian-made feature films set revolutionary era when the sexes are expressions of sexuality and virility, in Iran that attempt to depict the so strictly separated from each other, and political implications in relation everyday life of men and boys. understanding a male character’s to the three main variables I have Where there were more than two relationship with the members of discussed above—social class and films that fit this category in either the opposite sex will shed light not its relation to religious piety, male- era, I chose the most popular ones only upon his personal relationship female sexual dynamics, and age among Iranian cinemagoers. with women but will also provide discrepancies between men. My list of films to watch for information on the “type” of Iranian this study is as follows: from the man he represents. Categories Qeysar (1969) late Pahlavi era, I have chosen and tropes that I will look for in Qeysar is the story of a young Qeysar (Kimiai, 1969) and Gozaresh this section include: relationship man’s quest to avenge his sister’s (Kiarostami, 1977), and from the with mother, relationship with honor after she is raped by three 1980s and early 90s, I have chosen father, relationship with children, brothers and commits suicide in Marriage of the Blessed (1989) and relationship with wife/fiancé, shame. This drama film follows Hamoun (Mehrjui, 1990). From aggressiveness towards women, these films, I will tease out common aggressiveness towards other men, themes in the popular depiction of passivity towards women, passivity masculinity in both the pre- and towards men, flirtatiousness, and post-revolutionary eras of Iranian other expressions of sexuality cinema. In order to do this, I will or virility. watch for the three variables I have Finally, I will consider the discussed above—class differences political implications of masculinity and religious piety, male-female in both eras of Iranian film. Whether sexual dynamics, and age differences as the model for the ideal family, a among men. metaphor for the Iranian fatherland, In addition to these three main or as a heroic martyr of the variables, I will pay close attention revolution, manhood in all eras of to what happens to men and Iranian film is inherently entwined boys in relation to the following with the politics of the time. Tropes categories: place of birth (urban/ I will look for in this section include: rural), place of residence (urban/ men’s roles in service to the state, rural), age, occupation, military characteristics of the “ideal Iranian

Courtesy: Film Society

44 | journal of undergraduate research Behrouz Vossoughi, one of the most government job and this causes fulfillment in a loveless marriage. famous Iranian actors of the time, conflict with his family. Mohammad The second important type of as Qeysar—the brooding hero. He has a wife named Azam and a pre-revolutionary Iranian man comes into conflict with several very young daughter at home. The is the older, socially conservative characters at various points in his narrative follows the daily life of father figure. In Qeysar this model quest, most notably with Mansour this small family through various can be seen in Qeysar’s uncle, while Ab-Mangol—one of the men arguments and internal struggles, in Gozaresh the older man who responsible for his sister’s rape— eventually ending with Azam accuses Mohammad of bribery and with his uncle, a cautious and attempting suicide and Mohammad falls into this category. In contrast reserved older man who advises his spending the night at a hospital by to the hot-blooded Qeysar, the nephew to refrain from violence. In her side. young man’s middle-aged uncle the end, Qeysar succeeds in killing There are a few distinct types of serves as a wise, restrained foil to all three brothers responsible for the pre-revolutionary Iranian man that his nephew’s youthful masculinity. death of his sister but suffers a life- emerge after viewing these two films. Upon reading the news that his threatening stab wound at the hands They can be broken down into three niece has committed suicide after of Mansour and is captured by the major categories: the brooding anti- being raped in a note she has left, he police in a dramatic end to this story. hero; the older, socially conservative refrains from telling his sister—the father figure; and the sexually virile girl’s mother—what truly happened Gozaresh (The Report) (1977) foil. Both Qeysar and Mohammad to her daughter, saying, “It’s good This film follows the story of one Firouzkoui fall under the category of that she left this world.” He believes middle-class Iranian family on the the brooding anti-hero. Despite their that the older woman should not cusp of the 1979 revolution; it is a obvious character flaws—Qeysar be exposed to the horrible truth, bitter portrait of modern Iranian life openly drinks alcohol and frequents stoically refusing to answer her pleas among the wealthy, Westernized bars while Mohammad gambles for more information. Furthermore, elite. The protagonist of this film and accepts bribes at work—they he expresses a different form of is a morally flawed tax collection are portrayed in a sympathetic light masculinity than Qeysar when he official by the name of Mohammad in their interactions with women criticizes his nephew for setting out Firouzkoui. After a dispute with and girls. Qeysar’s sense of duty to on a killing spree to avenge his sister. an older gentleman from rural avenge his sister’s honor implies that He urges the young man to respect Iran accusing him of taking bribes, his masculinity is inherently tied to the honor of his elders and not to Mohammad is laid off from his female chastity and macho displays worry his mother by embarking on of violence. He identifies himself as a a dangerous quest. In an argument pahlavaan (a “champion” or “hero”) with Qeysar, he calls him young and in an argument with his older uncle, thoughtless (“to javaan-i! bifekr-i!”). justifying his noble quest. Similarly, Qeysar’s uncle defends himself from though he is portrayed as a greedy Qeysar’s criticism by saying, “The scoundrel at work or a liar and a older you get, the closer to God.” It is cheat in his marriage, Mohammad clear, then, that the two central male is generally a protective and loving characters of this film have vastly father. When he takes his daughter different notions of what it means to with him to a bar—normally not be a man and what type of behavior something a good father would do— manhood entails. he hides the fact that he is drinking Similarly, one of Mohammad’s alcohol from her and brings her a elderly clients accuses him of sandwich to eat in the car while she accepting bribes and emerges as a waits for him. The protagonists of father figure, attempting to enforce these two films follow Mirbakhtyar’s traditional social norms. This (2006: 98-99) model of pre- man speaks with a rural accent revolutionary anti-heroes, stuck and unsuccessfully appeals to the in conflict between their internal traditional morality of the young Courtesy: Filmoteca desires and the existing socio- men who work in the tax collection political system in which they live. office. Outraged at Mohammad’s Qeysar seeks revenge for his sister’s attempt at bribery, he shouts, “Aren’t death while Mohammad seeks self- you ashamed, young man?” He

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 45 then appeals to a perceived common time with prostitutes, drinks alcohol, who served as instructive models identity, saying, “We’re all Muslims, and gambles his money away at to the Iranian theatergoing public. aren’t we?” He explains that he is casinos and encourages Mohammad These anti-establishment political happy paying his taxes because the to do so as well. Mostapha’s bachelor models, and a great deal of public government provides service to the status allows him to act out while discontent, led to the events of the poor, but corruption enrages him Mohammad is punished in his home 1979 revolution. because money from bribes only go life for doing similar actions. to the one who accepts them. After While idealized men in these Men in Post- Mostapha’s plea that Mohammad films do not always treat women Revolutionary has a wife and children to worry with respect, with Qeysar ignoring Iranian Cinema about at home, the man retorts that his mother’s warnings against his In post-revolutionary Iranian film, “these kind of people don’t spend murderous quest and Mohammad one witnesses both a distinct break money on their family.” As we have cheating on and beating his wife, from previous cinematic codes as seen with Qeysar, there is a distinct ideal forms of masculinity in the well as a great deal of continuity conflict between the morality pre-revolutionary era of Iranian film in the tropes filmmakers employ. expressed by older men and that of are generally associated with sexual Through discussion of the themes younger men. Class differences also fidelity and equitable treatment of present in post-revolutionary play into this exchange regarding women and girls. Older men attempt Iranian cinema, one can begin to proper manly behavior, with the to reign in the reckless virility of understand the effect the revolution lower-class older man calling upon a younger men, as female chastity is had on the representation of perceived common religious identity associated with family honor. The masculinity on screen. when disputing with the higher- men who do not treat women with class younger men in the tax office. respect, especially Mansour but also Marriage of the Blessed (1989) The third type of man in this era Mohammad, are punished for their This film follows the story of a of Iranian cinema is the sexually action—Mansour is murdered while soldier, Haji Agha Pakdel, returned virile foil, providing a contrasting Mohammad loses his job, loses face, home from the brutal Iran-Iraq model of male-female sexual and is forced to take his wife to the war and his struggle to re-adapt dynamics than the anti-hero. While hospital after she attempts suicide. to civilian life. He battles post- Qeysar and Mohammad have In general, then, masculine models traumatic stress disorder and some redeeming qualities, their of behavior parallel Naficy’s (2011: attempts to reintegrate into a promiscuous counterparts do not. 289) two-fold model of femininity: society that does not conform to his Mansour Ab-Mangol, Qeysar’s the men who respect women in the idealistic morals. After returning enemy and one of his sister’s rapists, private sphere and do not succumb home from the hospital to his is sneaky and lurks in the shadows— to the temptations of corrupt women wealthy fiancée (Mehri) and his job he runs from his enemy rather than in the public sphere are successful, as a photojournalist, he begins to confronting him directly. He refuses while the men who do not respect notice that the revolutionary ideals to admit wrongdoing when he is female chastity or who engage with he fought so hard to defend in the confronted at the beginning of the corrupt women are not successful. film by Qeysar’s younger brother, Politically, men are idealized for whom he proceeds to kill. Mansour their willingness to stand up for rapes Qeysar’s sister, setting the their personal morality against a long string of events into motion that perceivably unjust society. Qeysar lead to his death. Mansour is the emerges as the hero despite opposite of the ideal Iranian man— warnings from his mother and the audience is meant to despise him uncle not to embark on his quest. for his violation of female chastity The elderly client at Mohammad’s and Qeysar righteously kills him in office stands up for his rights in the the final scene of the film. Not quite face of government extortion and so obviously flawed, Mohammad’s successfully achieves his goal of friend Mostapha encourages him to suspending the younger man from go out drinking with some of their his job. This fits in with Mirbakhtyar coworkers, thereby encouraging (2006: 99) and Sadr’s (2006: 1) model Mohammad’s infidelity. He spends of men as “rebellious characters” Courtesy: Firouzan

46 | journal of undergraduate research war with Iraq are not being practiced love for Isaac. After an unsuccessful It seems that even the most idealistic by many Iranians on the homefront. attempt to shoot Mahshid with a young revolutionary cannot escape During his wedding, he attacks the shotgun, Hamid runs into the ocean government harassment. decadence of the elite society and in a fit of madness and the film drifts Similarly, Hamid is portrayed as runs away from his privileged life to off in a dream sequence where he a crazed academic, obsessed with live homeless on the street. The film is rescued by Ali and Mahshid and his work and unconcerned with his closes as a photojournalist attempts they throw a party on the beach. family. Mahshid accuses him of being to take a photo of him living in a Iranian men in post-revolutionary “obsessed with himself,” unconcerned slum, with Haji rebuffing the camera. cinema can be categorized into with her and their daughter. Hamid several broad categories. These protests this notion, contending that Hamoun (1990) include: the crazed, idealistic he is “weak in the face of power,” This film follows the story of Hamid young man; the wealthy older foil; going on to name his “mother, Hamoun, a married PhD student and the just-out-of-reach spiritual father, country, and Mahshid” as the who struggles to balance his work mentor. The main characters in powerful forces that influence the life with his home life. His wife, both of the films included in this course of his life. When he listens to Mahshid, is an aspiring painter story, Haji Agha and Hamid, fall Mahshid describe to her psychologist who comes from a wealthy family. into the category of the idealistic her marital struggles with him, Mahshid wants to divorce Hamid young man. Haji Agha Pakdel, Hamid reminds himself that “her and both hire lawyers to argue their whose name roughly translates as bills break my back” —who is she to respective cases in court. Through “clean-hearted man who has made complain when he has to deal with a complicated series of flashbacks the Hajj pilgrimage,” suffers from the economic problems of the family? and dream sequences, the viewer of psychological trauma and struggles Furthermore, Hamid’s character this film begins to understand the to reconcile his revolutionary ideals flaws are consistently described as beginnings of Hamid and Mahshid’s with everyday Iranian life. When being common to all Iranian men. he returns from the hospital after Mahshid’s psychologist comforts her being injured in the war, his doctor that “it’s common to all Iranian men advises him not to watch films to terrorize.” Mahshid’s mother, in about tragedies in other parts of a confrontation with Hamid about the world so as not to trigger any why he refuses to grant her daughter painful memories. Haji goes against a divorce, says “you’re like all men this advice and watches news —egotistical and abusive.” Hamid is reports about the war in Lebanon not alone in his self-obsession and and famines in Africa, saying, “the disregard for others. oppressors have returned” and “it Both Haji Agha and Hamid come is like before the revolution.” His into conflict with older men who fiancée Mehri worries about him, are generally wealthier and wiser telling him, “You’re torturing than their younger counterparts. yourself. So what if the rich are Mehri’s wealthy father stands in returning? You do not represent the sharp contrast to Haji’s idealistic nation!” Despite this, it is clear that naiveté. Though he admires aspects this is exactly how Haji sees himself of Haji’s character, he does not —as the embodiment of the ideal consider him a suitable match for Courtesy: IMDb revolutionary martyr. He refuses to his daughter. He thinks he is crazy develop film that depicts uncovered and unable to provide economically complex relationship. Hamid sets women at his job, for example, and for his daughter due to his mentally out on a quest to reunite with his is obsessed with photographing unstable state, saying “I love Haji spiritual mentor and old friend the poor and dispossessed in his like a son, but he cannot work.” He Ali, but cannot find him. Hamid is journalistic career. Ironically, as he would rather Mehri marry one of the obsessed with religion and the story and Mehri go out one night on a many rich suitors he has lined up of Abraham’s “divine madness” in photo-shoot, they are arrested by the for her, but he accepts his daughter’s his love for God and willingness to Basij (morality police) and must go to choice when she emphasizes that sacrifice his own son—he conflates the police station to prove they have only Haji can make her happy. Haji his love for Mahshid with Abraham’s a government permit to photograph. does not have a fond impression

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 47 of this future father-in-law, telling to marry a nitwit.” Mehri herself absent in both of the films from Mehri that “your father will defeat accuses her fiancé of “enjoying acting this period. Male-female dynamics the revolution from the inside.” the martyr.” Haji alienates those are largely restricted to the home Because he is a wealthy businessman, around him with his erratic and and the marital relationship; Haji Haji doubts his concern for social strange behavior, especially during Agha and Hamid are not tempted justice and therefore does not his wedding speech. Rather than to cheat on their wives and fiancées respect him. As we have seen in thank his guests for coming, he with women in bars and teahouses. the previous two films, there is a uses this opportunity to decry the Rather, their relationship struggles sharp contrast between the ideals opulence of the Iranian upper class. emerge from both men’s internal and conceptions of masculinity He begins to chant —“Eat the food discontent and dissatisfaction. embodied by younger men versus robbed from the poor. Robbed food is Hamid’s self-obsession drives older men in this film. Hamid’s delicious! Robbed food is delicious!” Mahshid away, while Haji Agha’s lawyer also provides an older, wiser (haraam-khori khoshmaze ast!). After obsession with living out the ideals foil to his character. When advising this stunt, he is forcibly taken from of the revolution drive him from him to go through with his divorce, the microphone and runs away to mainstream society completely. On the lawyer says to Hamid, “You live in poverty. the spectrum of potent virility to sold yourself to get rich. You chose On the contrary, Hamid seeks academic effeminacy that Hopkins a beauty, she no longer wants you. spiritual guidance from two (2006) discusses, both protagonists Better off with a monkey.” The mentors—the prophet Abraham from the post-revolutionary era tend lawyer has no time for sentimentality and an old friend named Ali. As heavily toward the latter. and is only concerned with practical he writes his PhD dissertation on Politically, both films fall in line matters in regards to Hamid’s marital the subject of “Abraham’s love and with the revolution’s emphases upon situation. He advises his younger faith,” he also attempts to emulate anti-Westernization, populism, and client to “divorce her [Mahshid],” for the life of the ancient prophet. He elevation of the status of religion in she “has the upper hand.” Because says at one point, “one must be everyday life. Both Haji Agha and Mahshid comes from a wealthy like Abraham —willing to destroy Hamid are deeply religious, almost family and Hamid can only rely one’s life to regain her [Mahshid].” to the point of insanity. They both upon his academic credentials, his Hamid’s search for spiritual search for guidance in the ideals lawyer tells him to get out of this guidance in the life of the prophet of Shia Islam—especially self- emasculating situation and move on Abraham also leads him to seek sacrifice and martyrdom. Haji Agha to a more comfortable family life as a out his old mentor Ali. Ali is an is disgusted by the amount of class divorced man. elusive character in this film —he distinction that still exists in the The third type of man common is only seen in passing or in dream post-revolutionary era, using his to both films is the elusive spiritual sequences and does not speak to wedding as a pulpit from which to mentor to the main character. For Hamid directly. Ali is a middle-aged decry the decadence of his future Haji Agha, he is his own spiritual to older man who seems to possess father-in-law’s lifestyle. Hamid is mentor in that he cannot seem to some sort of mystical knowledge also troubled by class differences, live up to the high revolutionary that Hamid finds enticing.As Ali with many of the arguments he ideals he sets for himself. People searches for his children throughout has with his wife centering on both respect and pity Haji for his the film, he evades Hamid’s attempts money and finances. In the post- inability to distinguish between to find him. At the end of this film, it revolutionary era, unsurprisingly, idealism and the reality of everyday is Ali who rescues Hamid from the the highly religious lower class is life. Mehri’s brother admires him ocean in his dream and joins him for idealized while the secular upper when he says, “Brother Haji’s camera a party on the beach along with other classes are decried and protested is the anxious eye of the revolution.” important people in the younger against by the main characters in When discussing his daughter’s man’s life. Though Hamid seeks the both films. impending marriage, Mehri’s father advice of Ali and comes very close states his admiration for his future to meeting with his long-lost mentor Discussion son-in-law’s military service and on several occasions, it is only in his In both the pre- and post- idealism. Haji is criticized, however, mind that he actually finds the older revolutionary Iranian films I for his extreme devotion to his man and talks with him. have analyzed, a constant trend ideals. One of Mehri’s friends visits Following the revolution and remains the conflict between a medicine woman to buy a charm its new set of morals, obvious young and old men regarding for her friend, saying she is “going expressions of sexuality are largely proper masculine behavior. In all

48 | journal of undergraduate research four films, older men constantly Despite this shift in demographics, young Iranians look to find a proper criticize their younger counterparts the class conflict remains constant in role model? The simplistic good- for not behaving in traditionally both eras of Iranian cinema. versus-evil dynamic one observes masculine ways. Qeysar’s uncle The instructive nature of Iranian in pre-revolutionary Iranian cinema criticizes his nephew for his hot- cinema is another theme that is completely shattered in the post- blooded pursuit of revenge while, has remained constant in post- revolutionary era. in Marriage of the Blessed, Mehri’s revolutionary films. Despite vastly Despite the various continuities father finds Haji Agha unsuitable different socio-political conditions, one can observe in both eras of to marry his daughter due in part Iranian filmmakers continue to Iranian film, one major difference to his unwavering devotion to provide behavioral models in their is the breakdown of simplistic revolutionary ideals. Older men films after which the Iranian public conceptions of masculinity in the respect the boundaries society can model themselves. Just as one post-revolutionary era. Qeysar is has placed upon their behavior could identify with the urge for potently masculine and, despite while younger men appear to be revenge after a great injustice, as a few minor character flaws, motivated primarily from an inner in Qeysar, or the strained family generally heroic in his cinematic sense of what’s right, regardless of dynamics present in Gozaresh, one portrayal. With Mohammad’s what society has to say. In Gozaresh, can also identify with Haji Agha’s character, one can begin to observe Mohammad feels entitled to accept frustrated revolutionary fervor and the complication of the simplistic bribes for his own personal benefit Hamid’s quest for self-fulfillment and hero-villain dynamic. However, while Hamoun attempts to shoot his greater meaning in life. While these he is still generally successful in wife in emulation of the prophetic models may suggest “naïve solutions” his family life; despite her suicide command to “destroy one’s life in (Sadr 2006: 1), they also represent the attempt, his wife survives and the order to regain it”—both in clear dominant social concerns of the time two continue to raise their daughter violation of social and legal norms. and reflect a range of broader social together. Haji Agha and Hamoun Similarly, social class creates trends that dominated the Iranian are more nuanced characters—both conflict among the men in the films national consciousness following the attempt to maintain their families included in this study. In Gozaresh, 1979 revolution. while struggling with mental the elderly customer of the tax office Haji Agha, in his war-hardened, illness. While the pre-revolutionary is outraged that all of the younger mentally unstable state, acts not model of Iranian manhood appears men in the office are defending the just as a model for the reaction to be either potently masculine practice of bribery. In Marriage of the to the harsh realities of the post- or strikingly impotent, the post- Blessed, Haji Agha is outraged at the revolutionary era and the brutality revolutionary one allows for more social inequity that still pervades of the Iran-Iraq war, he forces the complexity. post-revolutionary Iranian society audience to question the morality This complication of the and blames the rich for “defeating of the revolution and the war hero-villain dichotomy reflects a the revolution from within.” In both themselves. If a pious, talented changing understanding of male- Marriage of the Blessed and Hamoun, young man such as Haji Agha can female sexual dynamics in the the main characters’ fathers-in-law be tainted so severely by war and post-revolutionary era. In the pre- disapprove of them because they revolutionary fervor, how much more revolutionary era, women were either come from a lower social class than so the masses of less-gifted and less- chaste and motherly or promiscuous the women they wish to marry. The ideological young Iranian men of and objectified (Naficy 2011: 289). In men who occupy the upper classes the time? In many ways, Hamid is a the post-revolutionary era, one can of Iranian society are depicted as model of the ideal Iranian man of the begin to see a shift in gender norms uninterested in the fate of the lower post-revolutionary era—he studies that would become more prevalent classes and seek to maintain the diligently and engages in a quest in the late 1980s (Naficy 2012: status of their families by opposing for spiritual meaning. However, he 111-135). As women move to the their daughters’ marriages to men of too is deeply flawed. If such a man foreground of Iranian cinema, they lower classes. While younger men —who, on the surface, is perfectly become increasing more complex generally occupy the upper classes in admirable —can maintain such characters. Because of the symbiotic the pre-revolutionary films and older deep character flaws as Hamid’s relationship that exists between the men the lower classes, the opposite self-obsession and disregard for his sexes in any patriarchy, this also is true for post-revolutionary films. family, where should the masses of means that men’s portrayals also

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 49 become more complex and nuanced. femininity in several important ways. ideals of masculinity and manhood While the pre-revolutionary era Whereas women’s portrayals in he encounters in his daily life in Iran. consisted mainly of macho men Iranian film from the 1960s through In this way, these films can serve as and damsels in distress as well as the 1980s remain defined by their microcosms of Iranian conceptions adulterous husbands and desperate subordination to men, cinematic of masculinity, but they are no more housewives, the post-revolutionary portrayals of men in Iranian than this. model of gender relations consists cinema of the same time period Despite this caveat, there are of empowered women and their are not defined by their relation a few words to be said about impotent, fanatical husbands. to women so much as they are to general trends observable in the Considering the Islamic nature of broader social changes. Men become forms of masculinity depicted in the 1979 revolution, it is no surprise more complex characters after the pre-revolutionary Iranian films as that conceptions of religious piety revolution, as they must deal with compared to post-revolutionary ones, and their association with social an entirely new set of socio-political as discussed above. Gender norms classes underwent a significant circumstances. No longer brooding and conceptions of masculinity in shift in the post-revolutionary anti-heroes acting in defiance of Iranian cinema are very large topics era. Whereas religiosity is mainly government oppression, men in and further research is needed to associated with the powerless lower the post-revolutionary era reflect a determine an accurate and nuanced classes in the pre-revolutionary new national turn inward. These archaeology of the “ideal Iranian era, as exemplified by the incident men seek self-fulfillment and the man” across the history of Iranian between Mohammad and his realization of their ideological goals, film. It is the hope of this researcher elderly customer, religious piety just as the revolutionary government that this study can serve as a basis is mainly associated with heroic struggles to build a new state after for such a long-term project. Future men and is admired by members the collapse of the old regime. For avenues of research must include of the upper class in the post- men, who have always been more a more comprehensive survey of revolutionary era. Although Haji politically empowered than women Iranian cinema, not just in the time Agha himself comes from a lower in Iran, the revolution resulted in a period addressed but also in the class background, his future father- complete shift in their worldview and number of films analyzed. It would in-law (somewhat begrudgingly) this shift is reflected in the cinema of be very interesting to see whether admires him for his revolutionary the period. the trends discussed in this paper zeal. Hamid has also managed to hold true for films produced in the marry a woman of a higher social Conclusion 1990s and beyond, especially as the class, yet still he is obsessed with While this research sheds light upon corpus of Iranian cinema constantly religion and martyrdom. This trend the portrayal of masculinity in the expands in size and quality of of idealization of religious fervor films I have analyzed above, this production. makes sense in light of the fact that study should not be used to draw the new government promotes and broad conclusions about masculinity maintains Islamism as the basis as portrayed in the whole of Iranian of its identity. Any film produced cinema or Iranian society writ large. in this era cannot be too critical of I conceive of these films as brief religion for fear of censorship. snapshots into the consciousness In general, then, representations of each individual filmmaker of masculinity in the post- who produced them, inevitably revolutionary era differ from those of recreating—on some level—the

50 | journal of undergraduate research ————————— Makhmalbaf, Mohsen, dir. Marriage of the Blessed (Arousi-ye khouban). References Perf. Ebrahim Ebadi, Mahmud Bigham, and Roya Nonahali. 1989.

Amar, Paul. “Middle East Masculinity Studies: Discourses of Men Mehrjui, Dariush, dir. Hamoun. Perf. Ezzatolah Entezami, Bita Farahi, in Crisis,” Industries of Gender in Revolution.” Journal of Middle East and Sedigheh Kianfar. 1990. Women’s Studies 7.3 (2011): 36-70. Mirbakhtyar, Shahla. Iranian cinema and the Islamic revolution. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. Routledge, 2002. McFarland, 2006: 98-99, 107-108.

Cohan, Steve, and Ina Rae Hark, eds. Screening the male: Exploring Moradiyan Rizi, Najmeh. “Iranian Women, Iranian Cinema: masculinities in the Hollywood cinema. Routledge, 2012: 1,3. Negotiating with Ideology and Tradition.” Journal of Religion and Film 19.1, Art. 35. Derayeh, Minoo. “Depiction of women in Iranian cinema, 1970s to present.” Women’s Studies International Forum 33.3 (2010): 151-158. Naficy, Hamid. A Social History of Iranian Cinema, Volume 2: The Industrializing Years, 1941–1978. Vol. 2. Duke University Press, 2011: Dunne, Bruce. “Power and sexuality in the Middle East.” Middle East 289. Report (1998): 8-37. ------. A Social History of Iranian Cinema, Volume 4: The Globalizing Era, 1984–2010. Vol. 4. Duke University Press, 2012: 111-135. Filmoteca Hawkmenblues [n.d.]. Gozaresh. Retrieved July 25, 2015, from http://hawkmenblues.blogspot.com/2013/08/gozaresh-abbas- Peberdy, Donna. Masculinity and Film Performance: Male Angst in kiarostami-1977.html Contemporary American Society. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011: 14.

Film Society [n.d.]. Qeysar. Retrieved July 25, 2015, from http://www. Sadr, Hamid Reza. Iranian cinema: a political history. Vol. 7. IB Tauris, filmsocietyhf.org/public_html/Qeysar.htm 2006: 1, 187-188.

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Kiarostami, Abbas, dir. Gozaresh (The Report). Perf. Shohreh Aghdashloo, Kurosh Afsharpanah, and Mehdi Montazar. 1977.

Kimiai, Masoud, dir. Qeysar. Perf. Behrooz Vossoughi and Pouri Banai. 1969.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 51 Q&A How did you become involved in doing research? In the spring of 2015, I approached Dr. Steve Ilardi to ask for advice on how to get more experience in academic research, writing, and data analysis. At the time, Dr. Ilardi’s Therapeutic Lifestyle Change (TLC) program had generated data on participant adherence that had not yet been analyzed. This project is my analysis and interpretation of those data.

How is the research process different from what you expected? This project afforded me a different perspective on the entire research process because I started “in the middle of things.” Dr. Ilardi and his graduate Carina Fowler students, Christina Williams and Yevgeny Botanov, developed TLC and collected the data that I used for this project before I came to KU. My work hometown began with the analysis and assimilation of multiple spreadsheets and Lawrence, Kansas documents on the participant adherence data. From this experience, I learned that data are very much alive. Even though I was not there for the original data Major collection, I was able to come up with an independent hypothesis and examine Psychology the data to see whether or not it was supported. research mentor What is your favorite part of doing research? Stephen Ilardi, Associate Professor My favorite part of doing research is writing up the final product. It’s so much of Psychology fun to see everything come together in words.

Better Adherence, Better Outcome: Differences in Depressed Participants’ Adherence to Elements of the Therapeutic Lifestyle Change Protocol Carina Fowler, Christina Williams, Yevgeny Botanov, & Stephen S. Ilardi

Depression is a devastating illness. these patients achieved remission than separately (Ilardi et al., 2012). It is the leading cause of disability after 3 months (Krystal et al., 2013). A major problem for the success worldwide, and it afflicts 6.7% Researchers have begun of any treatment is participant of Americans every year ((World investigating new avenues for adherence (Centers for Disease Health Organization [WHO], treating depression, in large part Control [CDC], 2013). The CDC 2012; National Institutes of Mental because of the inadequacy of estimates that roughly 50% of Health [NIMH], 2014). Worse, standard antidepressant treatment. medications are not continued there is considerable evidence that Omega-3 supplementation, bright as prescribed (2013), and others traditional therapy—particularly light exposure, and exercise all have studies suggest that adherence to drug therapy—is not particularly a positive impact on depressive non-medication regimes—such effective (Whitaker, 2010; Krystal, symptoms (Grosso et al., 2014; Even, as exercise plans—is even worse Sanacora, & Duman, 2013). The data Schroder, Friedman, & Rouillon, (Robison & Rogers, 1994; Findorff, from the STAR*D trials conducted 2008; Josefsson, Lindwall, & Archer, Wyman, & Gross, 2009). It seems by NIMH demonstrated that, among 2014). The Therapeutic Lifestyle that not following the doctor’s 4,000 depressed patients given Change (TLC) program combines orders really makes a difference standard antidepressant drugs, only these approaches, finding that they too. Research shows that adherence slightly more than one quarter of are even more effective together really matters for determining

52 | journal of undergraduate research patient outcomes across a wide to omega-3 supplementation, adherence score for each client on variety of illnesses, with this exercise, and bright light exposure each individual element. Finally, an relationship being strongest for are considered in this presentation. overall adherence score for each chronic illness not treated with This decision was made due to client was calculated by taking the medication (DiMatteo, Giordani, missing data and difficulty in mean of the individual element Lepper, & Croghan, 2002). calculating adherence indices for the adherence scores. Because depression is a chronic other elements of the protocol. For condition that the TLC program the treatment elements examined in Results treats without medication, and this work, the specific protocols were: Omega-3 supplementation had the because depression itself is known • Omega-3: one supplement highest mean percent adherence to be a risk factor for non-adherence containing 1000 mg EPA (M = 63.9%) followed by exercise (DiMatteo, Lepper, & Croghan, (eicosapentaenoic acid) and 500 (M = 54.5%), and then bright 2000), this research seeks to answer mg of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) light exposure (M = 48.2%). We two major questions about the every day. conducted a within-subjects analysis impact of participant adherence on • Exercise: 30 minutes per day, three of variance (ANOVA) to test if mean depressive symptoms: times a week. adherence significantly differed 1. Are participants more likely • Bright Light: 10,000 lux for 30 among the three treatment elements. to adhere to one element of the minutes per day, every day. The overall model was significant, treatment than another? F(2, 188) = 51.65, p <.001. Pairwise 2. Does overall adherence to the Measures comparisons revealed that the mean TLC protocol influence the degree of All participants completed our adherence scores for each element therapeutic effect? measures of depression and significantly differed from one adherence at the beginning of each another, with all p-values <0.001. Method meeting. Depression was measured Figure 1 depicts the differences in Participants using the Beck Depression Index mean percent adherence scores for The sample considered here consists (BDI), and adherence was measured each treatment element. of 95 TLC participants aged 18- using weekly record forms. On the The different types of adherence 65 who met DSM-V criteria for weekly record form, each treatment were highly correlated with one clinical depression and did not element was listed beneath each another (all r values > 0.8). This have a comorbid DSM-V disorder. day of the week, and participants finding suggested that all three Trained clinicians administered a indicated with a yes or no whether adherence variables were measuring full Structured Clinical Interview for or not they adhered to the given the same construct—overall DSM Disorders (SCID) in order to treatment element for each day listed. adherence. For this reason, we first confirm depression status. conducted a linear regression of Adherence Indices final BDI score on overall adherence The Protocol In this study, adherence specifically with pretreatment BDI as a covariate. The TLC protocol consisted of refers to the percent of the time The overall model was significant, fourteen 1.5 hour-long group participants followed the TLC with F (4, 90) = 6.245 and p-value: sessions over the course of 14 weeks. protocol for each treatment element. 0.000176. This regression found that Two co-therapists led the sessions, The adherence index for omega-3 which were split roughly in two. supplementation was calculated For the first half of the session, one as the number of days out of 7 that co-therapist led a discussion of participants took the supplement. adherence to the protocol, while For exercise, the adherence index for the second half, the other was the percent of minutes out of 90 therapist trained participants in that participants reported for that the protocol. Each week, a different week. For bright light exposure, the core component of TLC was adherence index was calculated as presented. The protocol consisted the percentage of days out of 7 that of six core components: omega-3 participants reported obtaining supplementation, exercise, bright at least 30 minutes of bright light light exposure, anti-ruminative exposure. The mean of these weekly strategies, sleep habit improvement, scores was taken over fourteen and social support. Only adherence weeks to calculate a mean percent Figure 1. Mean Percent Adherence Scores for Each Treatment Element

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 53 overall adherence had a statistically on adherence. To our knowledge, Standardized significant impact on reducing Beta P-Value no previous work has been done to final BDI score,β = -0.31, p = 0.002. Coefficient examine the rate of adherence to Our multiple R2 for this regression omega-3 supplementation, making it Pretreatment 0.30 0.002* equaled 0.2172, signaling that overall BDI difficult to find a true reference point adherence and pretreatment BDI for our finding. However, taking an score explained 21% of the variance omega-3 supplement is the element in final BDI. Pretreatment BDI Exercise -0.31 0.002* of the protocol most like taking a Adherence was added as a covariate in order medication or an antidepressant. A to control for the fact that people study by Lingam and Scott found who began the TLC program with that median non-adherence for lower BDI scores were more likely to Standardized antidepressant medications was complete treatment with lower BDI Beta P-Value 53% (Lingam & Scott, 2002), while Coefficient scores as well, even though the scores studies of medication adherence for would have improved. See Table 1. Pretreatment 0.31 0.002* chronic conditions in non-depressed BDI individuals ranges from 43% to Standardized 78% depending on the ailment Beta P-Value being treated (Osterberg & Blaschke, Coefficient Exercise -0.26 0.001* Adherence 2005). Our mean percent adherence Pretreatment 0.30 0.002* for omega-3 supplementation of BDI 63.9% falls within this range. For exercise, our mean percent of 54.5% Standardized is similar to that found by studies of Overall -0.31 0.002* Beta P-Value Adherence Coefficient exercise adherence among specific populations, such as women and the Table 1: Linear regression of final Pretreatment 0.31 0.002* elderly (Miranda et al., 2014; Findorff, BDI score on overall adherence with BDI pretreatment BDI as a covariate Wyman, & Gross, 2009). However, to our knowledge, no studies Separate regressions of final BDI Omega-3 -0.30 0.002* rigorously examine adherence to an score on participant mean weekly Adherence exercise regime among depressed exercise, bright light, and omega-3 patients. A study by Michalak et Table 2a, b, and c: Separate regressions adherence with pretreatment BDI of final BDI score on participant mean al. finds that average adherence as a covariate were also conducted. weekly exercise, bright light, and to bright light exposure among These results are displayed in Table omega-3 adherence with pretreatment patients diagnosed with seasonal 2. Since adherence to one treatment BDI as a covariate affective disorder was 59.3%, which element was highly correlated with is substantially higher than our adherence to the other treatment Discussion mean of 48.2% (2007). However, this elements, a model containing all Previous studies have shown study contained only 19 participants three types of adherence had high that adherence directly relates to and was conducted over four weeks, multicollinearity. In order to avoid outcome, particularly for illnesses limiting its generalizability. this problem, we regressed BDI on that are chronic and not treated One factor influencing the pattern each individual treatment element. with medication (DiMatteo et of adherence observed is the amount These regressions show that al., 2002). The linear regression in of time required to follow each adherence to each treatment element Table I suggests that this finding element of the protocol. Conceivably, was predictive of outcome, but not extends to depression treated with omega-3 supplementation had the uniquely predictive. the TLC protocol. Better adherence best adherence because it required generally meant a better outcome for the least amount of time per week. participants. Taking an omega-3 supplement Our finding that omega-3 takes less than 30 seconds each day. supplementation had the best In contrast, following the exercise adherence, followed by exercise, and protocol required 90 minutes of then bright light exposure is fairly participants’ time per week, while consistent with the broader literature following the bright light protocol

54 | journal of undergraduate research required participants’ time every difficult to begin a regular exercise should include additional measures day—a total of 210 minutes per week. regime or to spend 30 minutes each of adherence to improve these Thus, the element that required the day obtaining bright light exposure issues. For example, in order to verify most time had the poorest adherence, without someone noticing. It is exercise adherence, participants while the one that required the least possible that we observed lower could be given a heart rate monitor time had the best. adherence for the exercise and that records the amount of time Another factor possibly bright light elements because some spent exercising. A clever method influencing the pattern observed is participants were attempting to hide of verifying bright light adherence American culture. In the U.S., we their depression status from others. comes from the Michalak et al. study tend to prefer to treat sickness with A major limitation of this mentioned above. In this work, the medication rather than with lifestyle research is that it relied exclusively light boxes given to clients were changes. So, it would follow that on a weekly self-report measure of outfitted with hidden recording the element of the protocol that just adherence. It is possible that from devices that monitored the amount requires taking a “pill” would have one week to the next participants did of time the boxes were turned on. the best adherence. Americans also not accurately remember on which However, since TLC permits clients generally seek to avoid publicizing days they followed the protocol to obtain their bright light exposure any psychiatric or psychological versus on which days they did not. It from outside, we would still rely on a conditions. While one can easily is also possible that participants may self-report measure of outdoor bright take a pill without alerting a close have intentionally misrepresented light exposure. friend or a loved one, it is much more their adherence. Future research

————————— Krystal, J. H., Sanacora, G., & Duman, R.S. (2013). Rapid Acting References Antidepressants: The Path to Ketamine and Beyond. Biological Psychiatry, 73, 1133- 11141. Centers for Disease Control. (2013). Proceedings from Noon Conference 2013: Medication Adherence. Atlanta. Lingam, R. & Scott, J. (2002). Treatment non-adherence in affective disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 105. 3, 164—172. DiMatteo, M.R., Giordani, P.J., Lepper, H.S., & Croghan, T.W. (2002). Patient adherence and medical treatment outcomes: A meta-analysis. Miranda, A., Picorelli, A., Pereira, D.S., Felicio, D.C., Dos Anjos, D.M., Medical Care, 40.9, 794—811. Gomes Pereira, D.A., Dias, R.C., Assis, M.G., & Maximo Pereira, L.S. (2014). Adherence of older women with strength training and exercise. DiMatteo, M.R., Lepper, H.S., & Croghan, T.W. (2000). Depression is Clinical Interventions in Aging, 9, 323--331. a risk factor for noncompliance with medical treatment: Meta-analysis of the effects of anxiety and depression on patient adherence. Archives Michalak, E. E., Murray, G., Wilkinson, C., Dowrick, C., & Lam, R.W. of Internal Medicine, 160.14, 2101-7. (2007). A pilot study of adherence with light treatment for seasonal affective disorder. Psychiatry Research, 149, 315—320. Even, C., Schroder, C.M., Friedman, S., & Rouillon, F. (2008). Efficacy of light therapy in non-seasonal depression: A systematic review. National Institute of Mental Health (2014). What is Depression? http:// Journal of Affective Disorders, 108, 11-23. www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/depression/index.shtml

Findorff, M.J., Wyman, J.F., & Gross, C.R. (2009). Predictors of Osterberg, L. & Blaschke, T. (2005). Adherence to medication. The long-term exercise adherence in a community-based sample of older New England Journal of Medicine, 353.5, 487—497. women. Journal of Women’s Health, 18.11, 1769—1776. Robison, J.L. & Rogers, M.A. (1994). Adherence to exercise Grosso, G., Pajak, A., Marventano, S., Castellano, S., Galvano, F. programmes. Recommendations. Sports Medicine, 17.1, 39--52. Bucolo, C., Drago, F. & Caraci, F. (2014). Role of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of depressive disorders: A comprehensive meta-analysis Whitaker, Robert (2010). Anatomy of an Epidemic: Magic Bullets, of randomized clinical trials. PLOS One, 9.5, e96905. Psychiatric Drugs, and the Astonishing Rise of Mental Illness in America. New York: Broadway Books. Ilardi, S.S., Karwoski, L, Lehman, K.A., Botanov, Y., Williams, C., Steidtman, D., et al. (2012). “Therapeutic Lifestyle Change for World Health Organization (2012). Depression: A Global Public Health Depression: A 12-Session Group Protocol.” Unpublished manuscript. Concern. http://www.who.int/mental_health/management/depression/ who_paper_depression_wfmh_2012.pdf Josefsson, T., Lindwall, M., & Archer, T. (2014). Physical exercise intervention in depressive disorders: Meta-analysis and systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24, 259-272.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 55 Q&A How did you become involved in doing research? I became involved in research in my first year at the University of Kansas. I worked with Dr. Susan Earle, curator of European and American art at the Spencer Museum to place a sculpture in its time period and original location. It was a wonderful chance for me to explore hands-on, object-based learning. Now, I’m able to take graduate seminars in my field of art history, and research topics as varied as Chinese export porcelain and French painting.

How is the research process different from what you expected? The research process is different than I expected in that it is so malleable and Julia Reynolds ever-changing. The project proposal and the final draft of my paper are two very different things. hometown Knoxville, Tennessee What is your favorite part of doing research? The hands-on nature of research and the chance to look at one object in such Major depth are by far my favorite parts of research. I could never have that kind of History of Art, Philosophy experience in a classroom!

academic level Junior

research mentor Marsha Haufler, Professor of History of Art Amy McNair, Professor of History of Art

Chinese export porcelain and global spaces of imagination Julia Reynolds

Abstract This paper will examine a Chinese porcelain plate from the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The plate was produced in Jingdezhen, China ca. 1785-90 and acquired in Iran in 1888. It is painted in pink enamel with a landscape scene in the center and a double border around the edges. The landscape depicts pagoda houses interspersed with rocks, flowers, and trees. It is heavily stylized so as to seem “exotic” and “oriental” to the European eye. The double border consists of a diaper border outlined with a spearhead border. While the plate was manufactured at the site of the imperial kilns, it was intended for export to Europe as part of Chinese porcelain trade. This is made evident in the English transfer-print decoration with its clear, crisp lines and decal- like look. Its purchase in Iran reflects British influence in Persia, which was a colonial subdivision of the British Empire from 1783 to 1971. This paper will consider the Chinese porcelain plate from the perspective of material culture and globalization as well as a limited amount of post-colonialism. Lines of questioning will include: the original setting in English dining customs and culture, its situation within the World Ceramics galleries of the Museum, and the role of British imperialism and its influence on those who used and consumed the Chinese porcelain plate. This will allow for a more detailed and nuanced understanding of the artificial construction of China in the British Empire.

56 | journal of undergraduate research This paper will examine a Chinese with a tiered roof and curved steps. porcelain plate (fig. 1)1 in the It is located on a watercourse, which collection of the Victoria and Albert allows for a sense of perspective. Museum from the perspective of It is also notable that there are no material culture and globalization. Chinese figures within the scene as The plate is of European shape were present in the blue and white produced in China ca. 1785-90 and “Willow Pattern.” This allows for a acquired in Iran in 1888. While European audience to insert itself the Victoria and Albert Museum within the scene as a space for global purchased it in Iran, the British imagination and creation.4 occupied the southern portion This paper will begin with a of Iran from 1763 to 1971, which detailed description of material indicates that a citizen of the British culture and globalization. It will look Empire owned it. The plate is painted at the importance of engaging with with pink enamel in the manner of material culture and the impact of English transfer-print decoration. globalization in the British Empire Figure 2. Collection of the Victoria and The pink enamel is known as Albert Museum. ca. 1785-1790. Modes of production “famille rose.” It originated in Europe will then be discussed at both in the Rococo era ca. 1750, and was in Bristol ca. 1770-1781, which is Chinese and European porcelain used at the porcelain manufactories also in the collection of the Victoria manufactories. The Chinese of Bristol and Staffordshire in and Albert Museum (fig. 2).2 Famille porcelain plate will be looked at England. This is seen in a cream rose was introduced to China during in its original setting in English pitcher made of hard-paste porcelain the reign of Kangxi (1654-1722). dining custom and culture as well painted with pink enamel produced Ordinarily, it was applied to the as its situation within the World surface of glazed pottery, which had Ceramics galleries of the Victoria been fired, and was then re-fired at a and Albert Museum, which offers lower temperature.3 a chronological and world-wide The Chinese porcelain plate has introduction to the Far East and a double border of diaper pattern South East Asia, the Middle East, edged with gilt. Within the double and European ceramics prior to border is a flower motif composed 1800. The conclusion will determine of oriental lilies with large blossoms. that British imperialism influenced The central design is a variation of those who used and consumed the traditional Chinese landscape the Chinese porcelain plate. This theme. The landscape is heavily method of organization will allow stylized so as to appear “exotic” and for a more thoughtful and organized “oriental” to the European eye. It is presentation of information, as well composed of Chinese architecture as a more complete understanding interspersed with rocks, flowers, of Chinese porcelain, often called and willow trees and branches. “China,” as it was used to construct The Chinese architecture includes an artificial image of China within an open pavilion and a number of the British Empire.5 Figure 1. Collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum. ornamental imitations of pagodas,

1 “Dish,” Victoria and Albert Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O33681/dish-unknown/ 2 “Cream Jug,” Victoria and Albert Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O248369/cream-jug-bristol-porcelain- factory/ 3 “Dish,” Victoria and Albert Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O33681/dish-unknown/ 4 Gerritsen and Riello. “Spaces for Global Interactions,” 112 5 For this and the following paragraph, please see Anne Gerritsen and Giorgio Riello, “Spaces of Global Interactions: The Material Landscapes of Global History,” in Writing Material Culture History, ed. by Anne Gerritsen and Giorgio Riello (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 112 6 Gerritsen and Riello, “Introduction,” 4

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 57 Material Culture decorative arts include ceramic Another consideration is that not all Material culture history helps us to art, glassware, furniture, interiors, objects are in museum collections. understand objects as they relate metalwork, textile arts, and Many are held by antique dealers, to the everyday lives of ordinary woodwork. Most often, these art auction houses, private collectors, people who lived in the past.6 forms were made for use in the home and other sources. This makes However, “common people” did not and were ascribed special meaning material culture a logistically necessarily leave behind the written by those who owned and used them. complex area of study that requires records of kings, queens, prime While the worth of material the art historian to consult archives ministers, and generals. Their lives culture studies in strengthening and textual sources such as are more easily traced through the our understanding of the written exhibition catalogues, museum material goods that they bought, and visual past has been made indexes, and online databases and sold, and used, which was a practice evident, there are several areas resources. While material culture common to both the rich and poor. of limitation as well.9 Material studies has the ability to enrich The “consumer revolution” of the limitation offers the perspective that the study of art history, it must be eighteenth century, when more the vast majority of objects do not approached with due consideration. goods were available to larger social survive. Although it is important Although there are limitations to groups than ever before, was the for art historians to consider material culture studies, this paper catalyst for much historical research existing objects in relation to those will attempt to address them. While in the 1980s and 1990s. This was that are absent, this is not always material limitation is a consideration, followed by studies of consumptions possible. Within the decorative arts, there are more than 1,000 pieces of patterns in Renaissance Italy, early metalwork was often melted down Chinese porcelain in the Victoria and modern continental Europe, and the for the sake of the precious metals Albert Museum produced between nineteenth and twentieth century. and jewels. Another complication 1750-1800 alone. While the pink More recently, consumption has is that objects have often lost the enamel painted porcelain is not as been studied in the cultures of context that made them meaningful. well-known as the blue and white the Ottaman Empire, the Persian This de-contextualization must ware is now, it was a popular option Empire, Ming and Qing China, and be acknowledged in art historical at the time. De-contextualization Colonial Latin America as part of an research. There are also conceptual requires the use of non-academic engagement with global history. limitations wherein objects survive sources such as cookbooks and This is a relatively recent field over a period of time. The Chinese etiquette guides the provide insight of inquiry that has arisen over the Ming vase is both a source for into the English dining customs past thirty years or so.7 Originally, historians in the present and an and cultures of the period. Practical it was the domain of sociology, object that existed 400 years ago limitations must be acknowledged anthropology, and archaeology, and when it was made. Since then, it may as the most challenging to address. was used to investigate pre-historic have lost one of its parts, or been There is one photograph of the and ancient as well as non-Western chipped or broken. Chinese porcelain plate available cultures.8 However, it has become There are also practical on the Victoria and Albert Museum a part of other disciplines since limitations in material culture website. The description is also history’s ‘material turn.’ Accordingly, studies. Many objects have restricted incomplete, and there is no mention material goods and artifacts serve access. Those that are on display in of the gilding on the edges of as sources of information about past museums and galleries are typically the plate. However, the image is cultures and the social, cultural, and unavailable for close inspection detailed enough to allow for close economic relationships of people’s by researchers. The vast majority observation. lives. Within art history, this is of objects that are in storage are represented by the transition from accessible only in cases in which the Globalization and the fine arts and two-dimensional curators believe it will not endanger Trans-Nationalism artifacts of painting, drawing, and the object.10 There are also a number It is worth considering material sculpture to the decorative arts and of objects that cannot be handled, culture outside of the traditional three-dimensional artifacts. The such as ancient and medieval textiles. national boundaries.11 The

7 Anne D’Alleva, “Art’s Context,” in Methods and Theories of Art History, ed. by Anne D’Alleva (London: Laurence King Publishing, Ltd, 2012), 53 8 Gerritsen and Riello, “Introduction,” 1 9 For this and the following paragraph, please see Gerritsen and Riello, “Introduction,” 8-9 10 Gerritsen and Riello, “Introduction,” 9 11 Gerritsen and Riello, “Spaces of Global Interactions,” 111

58 | journal of undergraduate research theoretical and practical analysis and “reconfigured geographies” so and influential enough for George of objects is one way to study wider that societies who were thousands of Macartney, 1st Earle Macartney, geographies and connections miles apart formed a connection.12 (1737-1806) to comment “of this between areas of the world. But the “imagined worlds” vast empire on which the sun never Globalization began in the early that commodities inhabited were sets, and whose bounds nature has modern period ca. 1400 to 1800 mediated ones. They were the not yet ascertained.” Britain became when new commodities circulated result of negotiation in which those interested in China for its Chinese across continents and global imagined spaces emerged from a tea, porcelain, and silk. However, it markets. This is explained by many dialogue between producers and did not have enough silver to trade economists and economic historians consumers.13 This is seen in the for these resources. via the intensification of the world European shape of the porcelain The British resolved this issue mercantile networks as the result of plate, for which the East India through the trade of Indian opium. new and more direct maritime routes trading companies supplied models While Britain did not rule in and the fact that cheaper Asian and patterns for the Chinese potters. Mainland China as it did in India wares found easy markets in Europe While the average English man and British West Africa, it still and, over time, also in the New or woman spent most of their life maintained a level of influence over World. However, this interpretation within a few miles, they became its economic and political affairs. has been challenged in recent years conscious of an expanded world This is made evident by the East by showing how early modern through artifacts and commodities India Company’s production of consumers were neither satisfied such as the Chinese figures on opium, which was a highly lucrative by unadulterated commodities or the surface of a Willow Pattern commodity that had been banned by simple customization. These porcelain plate. Although porcelain in China by the Imperial edict of commodities bore in their designs, had been manufactured in Europe 1729. The increase of opium in the forms, and materials if not the since Meissen ca. 1710, it continued late eighteenth century contributed knowledge, then at least the to have a Chinoiserie theme that to the social instability that resulted appreciation of wider geographies. allowed for the imagination of other in the First Opium War (1839-1842) Chinese blue and white ware, worlds. People were able to interpret and the Second Opium War (1856- manufactured in China and and extrapolate from their own 1860). This relates to the Chinese exported to other parts of Asia, viewing experience in a way that porcelain plate in that citizens of the Africa, Europe, and North America, contributed to a sense of the “global British Empire felt to be in a position as well Indian cotton textiles imaginary.” of power and privilege over those decorated with colorful motifs This sense of the global of China. Consequently, they were were equally successful in the imaginary was closely intertwined able to define the way that they global market. They were traded with the way that China was treated “performed” or “presented” China. by the millions in the seventeenth within the British Empire. The The plate was then considered to and eighteenth centuries by the British Empire was comprised of represent China, even though it was English, Dutch, and French East dominions, colonies, protectorates, European in shape and English in India companies. These porcelains mandates, and other territories decoration. and cottons were integrated into ruled or administered by the the daily lives of these millions United Kingdom. It began with Porcelain of people. Chinese porcelain was overseas colonies and trading posts Manufactories not only an alternative to local established by Britain in the late This Chinese porcelain plate earthenware and other ceramics, but sixteenth to early eighteenth century. was produced at Jingdezhen, in also an “imagined world” for the When this Chinese porcelain Jiangxi province, southern China. owner and consumer. According to plate was produced ca. 1785-1790, It is located in the transitional Anne Gerritsen, these commodities England had relinquished its area between the Huangshan- “created a series of associations and thirteen colonies in North America Haiyushang mountain range and the ideas about its provenance.” This and turned to Asia, Africa, and the Plain of Poyang Lake. Jingdezhen is contributed to these commodities Pacific for economic sustenance. named for the emperor Jingde (1004- as new spaces for global interaction However, it remained powerful 1007) because the site of the imperial

12 Gerritsen and Riello, “Global Spaces of Interaction,” 121 13 Gerritsen and Riello, “Global Spaces of Interaction,” 121

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 59 kilns was established during his of art production.16 This is because Europe was not satisfied with reign.14 Jingdezhen has produced of the perception that Jingdezhen sourcing their porcelain from China. most of China’s porcelain for more relied on Peking, Nanking, Canton, Chinese and Japanese porcelains than 1,000 years. It is rich in natural and Europe for designs and were highly esteemed in the resources of porcelain stone, Kaolin, decoration in the absence of local eighteenth century, but Europe coal, tungsten, gold dust, cuprum, inspiration. This is made evident in wanted to be able to produce fluorite, sulfur, limestone, and the commissioning of dragon bowls, their own porcelain. The German marble. Kaolin has been removed huge slabs, and pinth for columns alchemist Johann Friedrich Bottger from active reserves for going on for the Imperial Court at Peking, as discovered the materials required 300 years. The combination of raw well as the European shapes and to produce white, translucent, materials, fuel, and cheap transport patterns produced for the East India high-fired porcelain in 1709.18 His allowed it to produce porcelain Companies seen in the Chinese patron, Augustus the Strong, then for Asia, Europe, and America for porcelain plate. established a porcelain manufactory several centuries. The significant While Jingdezhen made porcelain at Meissen, Germany in 1710. The state support it received was also for Asia, Europe, and America, it was manufactory developed a new helpful. Most Chinese emperors not well known outside of China.17 and extensive range of enamel regarded Chinese porcelain as a This is because of its location in colors and the painters excelled profitable trade, with the notable Mainland China and the Chinese at Chinoiserie and the traditional exception of the first Ming emperor, policies of relative isolationism. Chinese landscape theme. These Hongwu (1368-1398). Jingdezhen is located about 300 fanciful depictions of an imagined Hongwu tried to outlaw trade, miles inland from Shanghai, which China were the most popular form but this ban was not effective and is located on the Yangtze River of decoration in this era. The success profitable trade continued into the Delta in Eastern China and served of Meissen led to the establishment Ming and Qing dynasties. There as a favorable port with economic of other porcelain manufactories were once more than three hundred potential for Europe, and required in Europe. Chelsea was the most porcelain factories contained in a boat trip up the Yangtze River important porcelain manufactory Jingdezhen.15 The porcelain produced into Po Yang Lake and then to the in Britain and was established in was pure white in color and without Chang River. Although it is more 1743. It was closely followed by Bow stain. The merchants who sold it accessible today, it was likely not in 1747, Royal Crown Derby in 1750, referred to it as “Jao-chou Jade,” and known by the citizens of the British and Royal Worcester in 1751. it was considered more beautiful Empire who would have purchased While the porcelain than the red porcelain of Chen-ting- and gifted, and used and consumed manufactories in Britain produced fu and the emerald green porcelain this Chinese porcelain plate. Given materials of fine quality, they did of Lung-ch’uan-hsien. While that porcelain is not perishable, not allow for the global spaces porcelain was considered a refined the remote location and minimal of creation provided by authentic art, the porcelain manufactories interaction of Jingdezhen with other Chinese pottery. The East India were considered centers of countries was not a major issue for Company may have dictated manufacturing rather than centers European porcelain trade. However, the European shape of the plate,

14 For this and the following paragraph, please see “The Chinese Imperial Kilns at Jingdezhen,” The British Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/c/the_chinese_imperial_kilns_at.aspx 15 For this and the following paragraph, please see Chiang Chi, “A Memoir on Porcelain Manufacturing,” Ching-Te-Chen: Views of a Porcelain City, ed. by Robert Tichane (New York: New York State Institute for Glaze Research, 1983), 43 16 Tichane, “Conclusion,” 422 12 Gerritsen and Riello, “Global Spaces of Interaction,” 121 13 Gerritsen and Riello, “Global Spaces of Interaction,” 121 14 For this and the following paragraph, please see “The Chinese Imperial Kilns at Jingdezhen,” The British Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/c/the_chinese_imperial_kilns_at.aspx 15 For this and the following paragraph, please see Chiang Chi, “A Memoir on Porcelain Manufacturing,” Ching-Te-Chen: Views of a Porcelain City ed. by Robert Tichane (New York: New York State Institute for Glaze Research, 1983), 43 16 Tichane, “Conclusion,” 422 17 Robert Tichane, “Preface,” in Ching-Te-Chen: Views of a Porcelain City, ed. by Robert Tichane (New York: New York State Institute for Glaze Research, 1983), ix 18 “German and Austrian Porcelain in the Eighteenth Century,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed May 15, 2015 http://www. metmuseum.org/toah/hd/porg/hd_porg.htm.

60 | journal of undergraduate research and the English transfer-print themselves to the dishes nearest Swan Service from Meissen ca. 1739- decoration, but it was more of a them and pass their plates to their 1740. The service is decorated with source of connection with China neighbors for those that are out of oriental flowers and a gold rim. for the British person who used and their reach. After each course has Porcelain sculptures conformed to consumed it as Chinese.19 The British been served, servants have a limited this “natural” and “oriental” theme Empire influenced the perception role confined to distributing the oil as well. The British Ambassador Sir of China as “exotic” and “oriental” and vinegar and bread, as well as Charles Hanbury-Williams had a in that Britain was the absolute refilling the drinking glasses after great Meissen service gifted to him and China was the other.20 China washing them. It was considered by Augustus III of Saxony in 1745, was definedand differentiated poor form for servants to serve which included dessert dishes in with reference to Britain and not the diners, or to disturb the dishes the form of artichokes, laurel leaves, Britain with reference to China. once they were in place. While on and sunflowers, as well as 166 Because of this, the traditional the European continent, meals may figures, of which 54 had a pastoral Chinese landscape that the British consist of eight courses, including theme and 34 were connected to perceived to be “Chinese” became dessert, they were typically limited to the hunt. These natural themes an authentic representation of three courses in England, following are echoed within the landscape China to the Western world. This which the women retired to the theme of this Chinese porcelain Chinese porcelain plate provided drawing room for tea and the men plate. There is also an additional the impetus for an imagined space remained around the table for drinks. element of the “exotic” and the that contributed to the global image The first course was made up of “oriental.” Given that China is often of China. soups and stews, vegetables and seen as more natural and unspoiled boiled fish and meats arranged in than the West, it is understandable Culture and Customs of a centerpiece. Toward the end of that the Chinese landscape was English Dining the first course, “remove” dishes of chosen with this theme in mind. It It is worth considering how the meat or fish were placed at the end is also worth mentioning that most plate would have been used as part of the table and were intended to large households had a French of a material culture perspective. help with the wait between courses. confectioner to prepare sweetmeats The French court of Louis XIV The second course also consisted of and sugar sculptures for the dessert vegetables, meats, course. The design and decoration and fish, with the of the plate was still visible beneath addition of pies and these fine and “foreign” desserts. baked goods. The It is worth considering French second course was cooking in the light of “spaces for arranged in the global imagination” because it can same manner as be inferred that the Western world the first and there was feminized and romanticized would be remove as well. While the average English dishes afterward man or woman was more familiar as well. Elaborate with France than China, it was still desserts were considered foreign and “exotic.” Both popular in this China and France contributed to the time period and culture and customs of fine dining in England. This demonstrates the Figure 3 far-reaching influence of the British established the customs of dining often consisted of fresh and sugared Empire. France was in the midst of throughout Britain and mainland fruits, sweetmeats, jams, jellies, and the French Revolution (1789-1799) Europe with service à la Française. sugar sculptures intended to evoke when the Chinese porcelain plate Service à la Française dictates that gardens, architecture, and pastoral was produced ca. 1785-1790. During all of the dishes are placed on the scenes. These natural themes were the French Revolution, the British table in a prescribed location for each also evoked in the elaborate dinner supported the Revolutionaries both course (fig. 3).21 The diners then help and dessert services, such as the to weaken France and to uphold the

19 Gerritsen and Riello, “Spaces of Global Interactions,”121 20 Simone de Beauvoir. The Second Sex. Ed. and trans. H. M. Parshley. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf. (1949) 1993.) 21 Ivan Day, “Pleasures of the Table,” Historic Food. Accessed June 22, 2015. http://www.historicfood.com/Pleasures-of-the-table2.htm

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 61 British liberal ideas. By employing intended to provide insight into periods, it is seen as “exotic” and a French confectioner to prepare the history of design in the British “oriental,” but not Chinese. While sweetmeats and sugar sculptures, Isles, as well as to broadly portray “correctness” is often considered Britain subtly reinforced the power their cultural history. Additionally, the domain of the nineteenth and dynamics of the Britain-France the Museum has a strong Asian twentieth century, it is no more relationship in a way similar to China. collection due to Britain’s long prevalent in this display than that “association” with India and South it was when the plate was used Museums and Cultural East Asia. Their East Asian collection in English dining ca. 1785-1790. Artifacts is considered the best in Europe, and Although people are no longer The Chinese porcelain plate is has an emphasis on ceramics and reliant on Willow Pattern porcelain located in the collection of the metalwork. There are more than ten for their construction of China, they Victoria and Albert Museum. The Asian galleries that explore themes still seem to heavily depend on it, as Museum’s collection includes more such as “Influences from Beyond evidenced by this display. than two thousand years of art in Europe,” and “Ceramics Study every medium from many parts Galleries Asia and Europe.” Britain and the Art of the world.22 The Museum was The Ceramic Study Galleries of Empire established in 1852, following the house most of the Museum’s The history of this Chinese success of the Great Exhibition of ceramics collections and spans porcelain plate is marked by British the previous year. It was founded from Asian and Middle Eastern imperialism. This is evidenced by with the intention to make works of the English culture and customs art accessible to everyone, to educate that combined elements of France working and middle-class people, and China to produce a uniquely and to provide inspiration for British British way of dining. This way of designers and manufacturers. dining was characterized by the Generous funding meant that use of cultural domination and the Museum was able to make appropriation. By referring to the many important acquisitions. The Chinese porcelain plate merely as Museum moved to its present site in “china,” with an emphatically lower- South Kensington in 1857. In 1899, case “c,” Britain reduced China to a Queen Victoria laid the foundation subordinate and lower-caste position stone of a new building designed to within the Western world. China give the Museum a façade and grand effectively became the artificial Figure 4 entrance. In honor of this occasion, and inauthentic, heavily-stylized it was renamed the Victoria and landscape that was displayed on Albert Museum in memory of the ceramics to European pottery prior the plate. It represented everything support that Prince Albert had given to 1800. The Chinese porcelain plate that Britain was not: the passive, to the foundation. is housed within Room 145: World feminine “Orient.” This is made The Victoria and Albert Museum Ceramics (fig. 4).23 The displays clear by the absence of figures, is the largest museum of decorative are organized chronologically and which allowed the British viewer to arts in the world and is comprised explore the “interchange of taste, gaze without fear of confrontation. of more than 2,263,314 objects. style, and technology, between the Because of this, the plate created a However, only about 60,604 objects East and West,” as exemplified by space of imagination in which the are on display. In the twentieth the spread of blue and white ware British viewer had absolute authority. century, the Museum has continued from China to the Middle East and The legacy of British imperialism to expand its historical collection on to Europe. The gallery contains is also made evident by the display as well as to acquire contemporary many of the Museum’s masterpieces practices at the Victoria and Albert objects. While the Museum’s and spans more than 4,000 years Museum. It is shown passively collection is international, it has a of ceramic history, from 2500 BCE within sleek modern cabinets number of important British works to present. By presenting this with metal bases and glass shelves in the area of silver, ceramics, textiles, Chinese porcelain plate as part of as compared to the way it was and furniture. These objects are this composite of cultures and time originally used and displayed. It is

22 For this and the following paragraph, see “A Brief History of the Museum,” Victoria and Albert Museum, accessed May 4, 2015. http://www. vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/a-brief-history-of-the-museum/ 23 “The Ceramics galleries: old and new,” Victoria and Albert Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/the- ceramics-galleries-old-and-new/ 62 | journal of undergraduate research included with Asian, Middle Eastern, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, of global interaction from ca. 1785- and European pottery before 1800, Prince Harry, the Duke and Duchess 1790 to the present day. Rather likely because it was produced in of Gloucester, the Duke and Duchess than a true “model” of China, the China and purchased in Iran. While of Kent, and Prince and Princess Chinese landscape theme reflects it was made for and used by a British Michael of Kent.24 The Museum has a space for imagination through person, it is “othered” by virtue of its a long tradition of royal support British imperialism, which has relationship to the Orient. Ultimately, that began with Queen Victoria and shaped the perception of China as the Chinese porcelain plate belongs Prince Albert in the mid-nineteenth “exotic” or “Oriental” in relation to in the British Galleries in company century. They hold many of the royal the Western World. This space for of the other objects and artifacts that images of Queen Elizabeth II and imagination did not result in a true belong to its time period and culture. recently had an exhibition entitled image of China in the eighteenth It should be displayed actively in “Queen Elizabeth II by Cecil Beaton: century, or today, as evidenced by a way that reflects its original use. A Diamond Jubilee Celebration.” the display practices at the Victoria It has no more of a relationship to While the Museum may present and Albert Museum. Interestingly, the ceramic art forms of the Middle itself as a neutral and non-partisan the world of ideas that it has evoked East and North Africa than would a institution, it relies heavily on the has remained relatively constant. porcelain plate from the Chelsea or money of the wealthy members Britain is the absolute and China Bow porcelain manufactories of society. Because of this, it must remains the “other,” existing only Additionally, British imperialism necessarily conform to their whims in relation to the West. While has been an important component and fantasies in its display practices. research for this paper began with of the Victoria and Albert Museum. This is why the Victoria and the assumption that perceptions of The Museum is located near the Albert actively perpetuates British China have changed over time, this royal residence of Kensington Palace. imperialism today. is demonstrated not to be the case. This has been a residence of the In conclusion, this Chinese royal family since the 17th century porcelain plate has produced its and is the official London home of own “world of ideas” in the spaces

24 “Kensington Palace,” The Official Website of the British Monarchy, accessed May 15, 2015 http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalResidences/ KensingtonPalace/Today.aspx

————————— Bibliography

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Ed. and trans. H. M. Parshley. Day, Ivan “Pleasures of the Table,” Historic Food. Accessed June 22, 2015. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. (1949) 1993. http://www.historicfood.com/Pleasures-of-the-table2.htm

“A Brief History of the Museum,” Victoria and Albert Museum, “Dish,” Victoria and Albert Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http:// accessed May 4, 2015. http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/a/a- collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O33681/dish-unknown/ brief-history-of-the-museum/ “German and Austrian Porcelain in the Eighteenth Century,” The “The Ceramic galleries: old and new,” Victoria and Albert Museum, Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed May 15, 2015 http://www. accessed May 15, 2015 http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/the- metmuseum.org/toah/hd/porg/hd_porg.htm. ceramics-galleries-old-and-new/ Gerritsen, Anne and Riello, Giorgio, Writing Material Culture History, London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015. “Cream Jug,” Victoria and Albert Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O248369/cream-jug-bristol- “Kensington Palace,” The Official Website of the British porcelain-factory/ Monarchy, accessed May 15, 2015 http://www.royal.gov.uk/ TheRoyalResidences/KensingtonPalace/Today.aspx “The Chinese Imperial Kilns at Jingdezhen,” The British Museum, accessed May 15, 2015 http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/ Jarry, Madeleine. Chinoiserie: Chinese Influence on European Decorative highlights/article_index/c/the_chinese_imperial_kilns_at.aspx Art, 17th and 18th Centuries. New York, NY: Vendome Press, 1981.

Chiang Chi, “A Memoir on Porcelain Manufacturing,” Ching-Te-Chen: Yang, Chi-ming. Performing China: Virtue, Commerce, and Orientalism Views of a Porcelain City, ed. by Robert Tichane New York: New York in Eighteenth-century England, 1660-1760. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins State Institute for Glaze Research, 1983 University Press, 2011.

D’Alleva, Anne “Art’s Context,” in Methods and Theories of Art History, ed. by Anne D’Alleva (London: Laurence King Publishing, Ltd, 2012)

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 63 Q&A How did you become involved in doing research? I took Milton Wendland’s “Studies in: Queer Film and TV” class the summer of 2012. During this class I learned that I could write on my favourite show through an academic and feminist lens. I was shown that academic work on film and television was a necessity in an ever-expanding media-based society. Milton taught me that we must be critical when watching shows because of the massive influence the media has on society and culture. I also learned that if I don’t use my position of privilege as a student at a top research university to at least try to make a difference, I can’t assume anything will change. Nichole Flynn How is the research process different from what you expected? It’s a lot harder to find academic sources on my topic. Much of what I’m hometown researching is in its infancy in terms of being studied at the academic level. Hutchinson, Kansas There is also a huge disconnect between what is considered scholastic work and what is “merely fandom” in terms of analyzing Doctor Who. Given my focus on Major representation of women and minorities, it can be difficult to find published Women, Gender, and Sexuality Studies sources that were not written by cisgender, heterosexual, white men, which has shown me the gap in research that I aim to help fill. academic level Senior What is your favorite part of doing research? I love being able to write on my favourite show. I also greatly enjoy blurring research mentor the lines between traditionally scholastic work and the analyses done on Rachel Vaughn, various websites by fans. I enjoy bringing a feminist perspective into media Visiting Assistant Professor of Women, research, particularly for a show with such a rich history of both progressive Gender, and Sexuality Studies and oppressive narratives. I find it beneficial to have a plethora of voices and perspectives on any given subject, and my goal is to help make this a reality within my chosen research topic.

“Strong Female Characters” An Analytical Look at Representation in Moffat-Era Doctor Who Nichole Flynn Abstract The current era of Doctor Who, beginning in 2010, under showrunner Steven Moffat has presented a downward trend in the representation of nuanced female characters, as well as racial and sexual minorities. This essay will be analyzing the representation and presentation of the three main female companions under Moffat’s run as showrunner, as well as those few characters of minority sexualities and racial identities. This discourse will be made through an intersectional feminist perspect ive with a focus on feminist TV studies, critical race theory, and queer theory. The key concepts to be included are that of agency, heteronormativity, and the male gaze. Moffat’s female characters are limited in the roles in which they are allowed to fill. While Russell T. Davies’ (showrunner from 2005-2009) companions had a range of personal and public conflicts and issues, Moffat’s companions are shown to only fulfil the “traditional ideal feminine roles [which] has four dimensions: fulfilling cultural standards of beauty and fashion, performing domestic/family skills, caring for and satisfying the needs of others, and acquiring male attention .” Each of the three major female characters created by Moffat are shown to only have agency when fulfilling one of these four dimensions.

64 | journal of undergraduate research Premiering on November 23rd, 1963, interact. While there were definitely those written by his predecessor. Doctor Who was the brain child problematic aspects to the Doctor/ One of the ways this has been of Canadian film and television companion relationships in Classic studied is via the use of infographs producer Sydney Newman and Who, those characters are not the that chart the pass/fail rate of each English film and TV producer Verity focus of this essay. Neither are the episode in regards to the Bechdel Lambert. Originally, Doctor Who incredibly nuanced, although still test.6 However, while important, was a science-fiction show meant to problematic in their own sense, passing the Bechdel test does not use time travel as a tool to educate a characters written by previous necessitate that a piece of media young audience about history. The showrunner Russell T. Davies2; is “feminist” or “progressive” first Doctor was a grouchy old man instead, I will be discussing the narratively. Thus, this essay will played by William Hartnell who highly sexist, often racist, and be examining and analyzing the travelled with his grand-daughter frequently homophobic writing representation and presentation of Susan Foreman and two secondary for Doctor Who under current the three main female companions: school teachers, Barbara Wright showrunner, Steven Moffat. It is Amelia (Amy) Williams nee Pond, and Ian Chesterton. The Doctor is a important to note that “showrunner” Melody Pond/River Song, and Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey refers to Moffat’s position as head Clara (Oswin) Oswald as created who travels around the cosmos in writer and producer of the show. by and written during Moffat’s run his TARDIS (Time and Relative Thus, even when an episode is as showrunner, as well as those few Dimensions in Space), a spaceship not penned by him, he still holds characters of minority sexualities disguised as a 1950s Police Public executive power in regards to what and racial identities. Call Box. He is over 1000 years old makes it into the final product and While Doctor Who has been and has the ability to regenerate therefore should be held accountable written about extensively in various upon death; an attribute which for problematic elements of scripts fields, there has been a lack of has allowed the show to continue written by the other (white men) feminist scholarly discourse on the over the last 51 years with over 12 writers on his staff.3 Moffat has series7. Most of the feminist critiques actors (all white men) portraying the also written or co-written half of of the show have occurred outside titular role of the Doctor. Over 80 the episodes aired during his era4 of the academic realm, most notably characters, male, female, and robotic, and has only employed eleven other on Tumblr, a blogging platform have travelled with the Doctor as writers over the last four years5. Ergo, which allows for the sharing of ideas his companions. Typically, the main the overarching look and feel of the and criticisms among a diverse fan companion has been young, white1, show is to be attributed to Moffat. base. Much of my own analysis of attractive, and female, often from The current era of Doctor the show has occurred on Tumblr in contemporary Britain. It is through Who, beginning in 2010, has part due to the active and insightful, these companions that the audience presented a downward trend in the if non-academic, running feminist is introduced to the world of the representation of nuanced female critiques of Moffat and the show at Doctor. During the long history of characters, as well as racial and large that are prevalent on certain Doctor Who, there have been various sexuality minorities. By this I mean blogs8. My desire when writing show runners, and the show has that the characters created and on Doctor Who is to blur the lines gone through numerous changes written predominately by Moffat between “academic” and “fan” in in how the Doctor and companions are less dynamic or “realistic” than an attempt to break down elitist

1. Martha Jones (2007-2008) was the first and remains the only black female reoccurring companion. 2 Who, along with executive producer Julie Gardner, successfully revived the show in 2005 after a sixteen year hiatus from television (broken only temporarily in 1996 with the televised movie Doctor Who: The Movie). 3 It is also important to note that there has not been a woman writer on the Doctor Who staff since Helen Raynor, whose last written two-part episodes, “The Sontaran Stratagem”/”The Poison Sky”, aired in the spring of 2008. There have only been two women directors during Moffat’s tenure: Catherine Morshead, who directed two episodes in series 5 (“Amy’s Choice” and “The Lodger”); and Rachel Talalay, who directed the two-part finale of series 8 (“Dark Water”/”Death in Heaven”). 4 28/57 as of December 2014; he is also scheduled to write or co-write three of the first six episodes of series 9. 5 More information about the production aspects of the show can be found on the “List of Doctor Who serials” Wikipedia page. 6 Named for Alison Bechdel, the Bechdel test is a litmus test for the presence of female characters in a piece of media. In order to “pass,” a film or TV show must include (1) at least two named female characters, (2) who talk to each other, (3) about something other than a man or men. For more information on the test in general: http://bechdeltest.com/; for more information on the Bechdel test as it applies to Doctor Who: http:// www.doctorwhotv.co.uk/how-often-does-doctor-who-pass-the-bechdel-test-71608.htm 7 As of the writing of this essay, there has only been one book published which analyses Doctor Who through use of critical race theory: Doctor Who and Race. 8 For further reading, see these feminist Doctor Who blogs: http://dwfeministwatch.tumblr.com/, http://feministwhoniverse.tumblr.com/, and http://whovianfeminism.tumblr.com/.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 65 boundaries of who can be a “critic.” of others, and acquiring male this reading of Amy ignores the I also aim to help create a more attentionii.” Each of the three major prevalent use of the male gaze nuanced understanding of the show female characters created by Moffat during scenes in which Amy is within a feminist perspective. In are shown to only have agency onscreen, particularly during the order to achieve such lofty goals, this when fulfilling one of these four “reveal” of grown-up (19-year-old) analysis will be made through an dimensions. Amy as a kissogram. While Amy intersectional feminist perspective, These “traditional ideal feminine may have some degree of agency as understood through the works of roles” in which the companions in her actions and wardrobe,10 how Kemberle Crenshaw, with a focus are repeatedly forced into is a result she is shot during these scenes on feminist TV studies, critical race of a heteronormative worldview. greatly impacts the effectiveness theory, and queer theory; it shall “Heteronormativity means . . . of said agency within the narrative. explore the concepts of agency, that heterosexuality is the norm, Britton also glosses over the fact heteronormativity, and the male in culture, in society, in politics. that “Amy brazenly trying to kiss gaze, as presented within the Heteronormativity points out the [the Doctor] and unbutton his narrative of the show. expectation of heterosexuality as shirtvii” while the Doctor is shown The first of these concepts, it is written into our world. . . . It to be visually uncomfortable is an agency, is one of the fundamental means that everyone and everything is act of sexual assault11. While this cornerstones of feminism, judged from the perspective of straightiii.” scene does establish that Amy has particularly in relation to what I Thus, heteronormativity refers to some degree of agency, her agency is call “fandom feminism,” which the accepted narrative that people only in relation to her sexuality and refers to individuals who, like myself, fall into distinct and complementary frequently presented via the male critically analyze popular culture genders (man/woman) with natural gaze. This scene is the first of several while embodying feminist ideology roles in life. “On the majority of examples of sexual assault during in their worldviews. “Agency is the television shows heteronormativity Moffat’s era, and like those to come, ability for a person, or agent, to act operates in the exact same was it this one is played for laughs. I go into for herself or himself. A person who does in society: invisiblyiv.” While further detail of this unfortunate is not allowed to act for her/himself heteronormativity is present trope in Moffat’s writing later on. is lacking in agency, or is said to throughout the show, it is perhaps “The male gaze,” while a have been denied agency. In geek most insidious in the representation noticeable aspect of cinematic circles, women (real and fictional) of the only reoccurring queer couple, history, was unnamed until Laura often lack agency compared to their Madame Vastra and Jenny Flint , a Mulvey’s 1975 article Visual Pleasure male counterpartsi.” This can be dynamic discussed later in this essay. and Narrative Cinema: seen throughout Moffat’s era as Whovian9 Piers D. Britton, author In a world ordered by sexual imbalance, many of the female companions’ of TARDISbound: Navigating the pleasure in looking has been split choices are made due to the Universes of Doctor Who, argues between active/male and passive/ overwhelming influence of the that Amy Pond’s narrative is a female. The determining male gaze Doctor. Moffat’s female characters “subversion of [heteronormative] projects its phantasy on to the female are limited in the roles in which they patternsv” established previously form which is styled accordingly. In their are allowed to fill. While Russell T. on the show because she “is far traditional exhibitionist role women are Davies’ companions had a range of less conventionally ‘romantic’ . simultaneously looked at and displayed, personal and public conflicts and . . [and is] both confident and with their appearance coded for strong issues, Moffat’s companions are frankly unsentimental about sex, visual and erotic impact so that they can shown to only fulfil the “traditional and more specifically about her be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness. ideal feminine roles [which have] sexual attraction to the Doctor. Woman displayed as sexual object is four dimensions: fulfilling cultural . . . Amy’s sexuality is in many the leit-motif of erotic spectacle . . . she standards of beauty and fashion, ways a defining element in her holds the look, plays to and signifies performing domestic/family skills, persona simply because it is overt male desire.viii caring for and satisfying the needs and unapologeticvi.” However,

9 Whovian: one who watches/is a fan of Doctor Who. 10 Actress Karen Gillan has stated on the record that Amy’s micro-miniskirts were her idea. 11 Doctor Who 5.5, “Flesh and Stone”

66 | journal of undergraduate research The male gaze is also a way of lonely seven-year-old child whose five, “The Mystical Pregnancy,” filming in which the female subject name the Doctor says is “a bit Sarkeesian explains that when an is segmented into various body parts fairytalex”. Thus when adult Amy author uses this trope, they are (called fragmenting) before being (who shortened her name due to removing the autonomy of the presented as a complete person. This the Doctor’s influence) is overtly female character and instead is type of character presentation is a sexualized both by the filming of the using their body to move the plot form of objectification which limits scene and the narrative, it is implied along. This is exactly the case with the empathy the audience feels that her sexual agency is caused by Amy who undergoes two mystical towards the character in question. In a lack of parental guidance and her pregnancies during her tenure on Moffat’s era, the male gaze litters the abandonment by the male character. the TARDIS. show, from the upward panning of However, Amy is given very little The second time12 Amy is Amy Pond in her introduction as an screen time to process or express revealed to be pregnant, she believes adult in “The Eleventh Hour” to the her emotions regarding her clear it to be a mistake after showing no between the legs upward panning of abandonment issues. Amy’s mental physical changes after a few months. Jenny Flint in “The Crimson Horror.” health issues are ignored throughout However, Amy has actually been her time as a companion, and her replaced with a doppelgänger made Amy Pond—The Girl history of “four psychiatrists” is never out of intelligent flesh while the Who Waited brought up again in the series. Amy real Amy is indeed pregnant and Amelia Pond first meets the Doctor endures a great amount of trauma has been kidnapped and locked in a as a young child. She quickly during her time as the Doctor’s room strapped to a bed awaiting her becomes enamored with him companion. According to Moffat, time to give birth13. One Tumblr user due to his eccentric ways and his “part of the mission statement when states that “part of Amy’s mystical promise to take her with him on writing a script for Doctor Who is pregnancy allowed Karen Gillan his travels. However, what has how bad of a time can you give Amy to be sexy and running around been five minutes for him has been Pond?xi.” This is made quite clear in a mini skirt while all the while “twelve years and four psychiatristsix” during Amy’s two and a half seasons being fat, hormonal and [pregnant] according to a grown-up Amy as the Doctor’s companion. behind closed doors. She needed Pond. Adult Amy’s first appearance Amy is continuously used as a to give birth but we needed to still is via a slow lingering shot from plot devise. She is given little to be able to pervexii.” This swapping her legs up while dressed in a no agency within her life, and her of Amys and her hidden pregnancy police woman kissogram costume. history becomes so dependent on is an overarching theme of the first This fragmentation of Amy in her the Doctor’s that her life begins to half of series six, which has the introduction results in numerous unravel without him. During one Doctor scanning Amy without her references to Amy’s legs throughout of the Doctor’s many absences from knowledge in every episode as he Moffat’s era, including long after Amy’s life, she and her husband tries to figure out how she can be Amy has left the show. Rory have separated and just filed both pregnant and not pregnant. It is implied in her introductory for divorce. This dismantling of While the narrative portrays the episode that much of her childhood her seemingly perfect marriage Doctor’s repeated scanning of Amy has been shaped by the seeming is apparently caused by Amy’s and unwillingness to disclose abandonment of her parents as sudden infertility, which is implied pertinent information to her as being well as her sporadic and strange to have occurred due to the hostile for Amy’s own good, these actions encounters with the Doctor, and experimental nature of her are invasive and done without Amy’s previous to her becoming a full- “Mystical Pregnancy” in series six. consent or knowledge. Not once does time companion. Thus the instant Well-known feminist blogger Anita this season focus on Amy’s feelings sexualization of Amy is made even Sarkeesian discusses this common regarding pregnancy or starting a more unsettling due to the previous phenomenon in her YouTube family. Instead, the Doctor is allowed introduction of her character as a series Tropes vs. Women. In episode to keep his theories secret from Amy,

12 The first time is in episode 5.7, “Amy’s Choice”: Amy finds herself very pregnant and must choose between two realities, each of which has an aspect of life she desires but that apparently cannot co-exist. Namely, she can either travel with the Doctor having adventures, or she can settle down in a quiet town with her husband and raise a family. At the end of the episode, however, it is revealed that neither scenario was real, and that the three characters were trapped in dual dream states caused by Amy’s insecurities and alien dream dust. 13 Doctor Who 6.1/6.2, 6.5/6.6, 6.7; “The Impossible Astronaut”/”Day of the Moon”, “The Rebel Flesh”/ “The Almost People”, “A Good Man Goes to War”, respectively.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 67 thus putting her physical and mental allowing him to comfort Amy. This statement by Rory trivializes health in jeopardy; as stated earlier, it Narratively these scenes add nothing the numerous traumatic experiences is due to this forced pregnancy that except to reinforce the patriarchal Amy has under gone during the Amy is rendered infertile. idea that women are owned by the last two seasons, including those This narrative arc is problematic men in their lives, in these instances involving her expressing her love for and sexist for several reasons. First, by their husbands. Once married, Rory. By having the male character the narrative strips Amy of any “Amy becomes the possession of her emotionally blackmail the female and all agency regarding her body husband and is made an object to character and then immediately and her reproductive choices. She trade between the men. Every time follow that up with the reconciliation is repeatedly lied to and denied the Doctor wants to hug her, he of said relationship, Moffat is telling important information and thus addresses Rory: the audience that if one’s partner is not allowed to participate in the The Doctor: ‘Permission?’ is not acting in a way deemed rescuing of her actual body. Instead Rory: ‘Granted.’ appropriate by them, they have the she is regulated to a “damsel in This scene is repeated so often right to attempt to control them distress,” and is not told about her that the Doctor no longer specifies via emotional abuse. Between this predicament until the Doctor has what the permission is forxiv.” While example of emotional abuse, and figured out what is going on. Even each of these encounters is played the previously described repeated then, all she is told, before effectively as a joke, the control is real. Rory instances of Rory controlling who being killed by the Doctor, is that is given the power to decide if and Amy is allowed to interact with, the body she has been living in when Amy is allowed comfort from their relationship is unequal and for the past several months is a her best friend. Sexism passed off as unhealthy, problematized even more doppelgänger and she is given the harmless humour is a very common so due to the narrative insistence ominous message to “push, but only form of misogyny in the media that this is a great love story. when she says soxiii”. After being and by portraying sexism through “The main purpose of Amy Pond obliterated by the Doctor, Amy jokes, Doctor Who (and by extension was always for her to be the mother awakens to find herself strapped to Moffat) is presenting these actions as of the magical child who would be a hospital bed in a dressing gown acceptable to the audience. both the Doctor’s Girlfriend and about to give birth while her captor, Another major problematic Ultimate Foe. This was Moffat’s long Madame Kovarian, watches through element of the use of the mystical game. Her relationship with the a window in the door. Shortly after pregnancy trope is that it links Doctor was predestined not because giving birth, her daughter is violently Amy’s worth to her ability to of her own, unique self but because taken from her during the Battle reproduce. As mentioned earlier, of what would be in her uterusxvi.” of Demon’s Run, in which several during one of the Doctor’s absences brave individuals fought and died from their lives, it is revealed that River Song—The Woman protecting her and her child. While Amy and Rory are getting a divorce Who Kills/Marries the Amy is given some screen time to due to Amy’s sudden infertility Doctor process this emotional trauma, the brought on by said mystical While Amy is subjected to a fair scene does not last very long and the pregnancy. This minor subplot of amount of misogyny during her only form of comfort she receives series seven presents Amy as feeling tenure aboard the TARDIS, her is when the Doctor (allegedly her like less of a woman due to her development remains stronger and best friend) asks her husband Rory inability to have children. By placing less narratively convoluted (and for permission before hugging her. so much value on a woman’s ability racist) than that of River Song. Although this scene is short and may to reproduce, the narrative is saying River Song has been heralded as seem trivial, this is a reoccurring that infertile women are less than the pinnacle of the “strong female component of Amy’s arc on the their childbearing counterparts. character.” On the outside, she show, and thus implies the male Although the introduction to is an ass-kicking, gun-wielding, ownership of Amy by her husband. series seven emphasizes Amy and archaeologist with insider While typically the Doctor addresses Rory’s increasingly separate lives knowledge of the Doctor. However, Amy as “Pond,” during moments due to their impending divorce, their below the surface River is a character of emotional duress or potential conflicts are seemingly resolved by with very little to no actual agency. platonic intimacy, the Doctor refers the end of the first episode. This Her entire life, from conception to to her as Amy Williams. These is despite Rory telling Amy that a death, is defined by or around the moments are than followed by Rory “basic fact of our relationship is that Doctor, including her chosen name granting permission to the Doctor, I love you more than you love mexv.” of River Song.

68 | journal of undergraduate research River is initially introduced the form best known as River Song, This results in her having to break during Davies’ era in the Moffat an older, attractive white woman her own wrist because the Doctor penned two-part episode “Silence who quickly falls in love with the read that it would happen in a book. in the Library/Forest of the Dead.” Doctor, seemingly overcoming While this could be considered During these episodes, River is lifetimes of programming, adopts a moment of agency for River, established as an important figure the name River Song because of the regardless of how grim the situation from the Doctor’s future. While this Doctor, and sacrifices her remaining is, she ultimately only breaks her is the first introduction of River, this regenerations in order to save the wrist because of the Doctor. Her only episode also signifies the end of Doctor. By the end of the episode real agency comes in her attempt to River’s life as she sacrifices herself she is shown applying to the Luna hide her broken wrist from him, but to save the Doctor. Shortly after University in the year 5123 to study even this action is motivated by the Moffat’s start as showrunner, River archaeology because she is “looking fear that he would become angry is brought back at a much earlier for a good manxviii,” referring again with her. When asked why she does point in her timeline. River’s true to the Doctor. this by Amy, she replies with “never identity is then hinted at for the Every major event in River’s life is let him see the damage. And never next season and a half until it is orchestrated by either the Silence or ever let him see you age. He doesn’t revealed that she is the “Child of the influenced by the Doctor, including like endingsxix.” River’s only true TARDIS.” Conceived within the time the large span of time she spends moment of agency is in the series vortex, River Song, born Melody in a high security prison after being six finale when she decides not to Pond, is Amy’s child who was stolen convicted of killing the Doctor, who kill the Doctor during a fixed point at Demon’s Run by a sect of the leaves her there in spite of him in time. However, this action is religious order “The Silence” run being very much alive. Nearly all of motivated by River’s apparent love for by Madame Kovarian. River is thus River’s scenes are shot via the male the Doctor, agreeing only to reverse kidnapped, heavily brainwashed, gaze, including lingering shots of her decision if he marries her15. abused, and fashioned into “the her cleavage, the upward panning of This wedding, while manipulative, woman who kills the Doctorxvii.” her body, and numerous sexist and is the second wedding to be shown In the episode following River’s sexual remarks made by the Doctor. in two seasons; thus marking the “big reveal” as Melody, we are These include the Doctor referring first time in Doctor Who history introduced to a much younger to Amy and River as “The Legs” where all of the companions are Melody who is shown to have and “Mrs. Robinson” respectively. in heteronormative relationships. grown up alongside Amy and Rory These are two nicknames deeply Though subtle, by having all of the as their mutual best friend, Mels14. rooted in sexism and are used to main characters married the show is This regeneration of Melody marks objectify Amy for wearing short saying that marriage is the end-all- the only instance of a named black skirts and sexualize River for being be-all of a relationship. By having the Time Lord in the history of Doctor an attractive older woman. While titular character, who is a thousand- Who. However, this depiction of the Doctor and River’s relationship plus year old alien who has been in Mels is during a short montage is portrayed as an epic love story numerous relationships of all kinds of anti-authoritative and criminal transcending time and space, it is in the past, marry in a wedding that behaviours, all occurring before the in reality largely one-sided and is the crucible for the episode’s plot, opening credits of the episode. As extremely abusive. the show is sending the message that the montage progresses, so does the There are many instances of in order for a relationship to be valid, seriousness of Mels’ crimes, starting abuse depicted in this relationship, the couple must be married. These first with detention and ending with each of which are passed off as portrayals of relationships and the jail. In each of these instances, Amy romantic. In the mid-season finale of focus on marriage as the end goal is is shown waiting for Mels’ release, series seven, River’s wrist becomes heteronormative and homophobic, thus juxtaposing the “lawful” white trapped in the grip of a Weeping as well as diminutive of the Doctor’s woman with the “criminal” black Angel. While she asks the Doctor previous relationships which did woman. Mels’ short screen time is for help, he insists that she change not end in marriage but were just as ended when she is shot and killed the future directly after telling her valid. When included under Davies, by Adolf Hitler after hijacking the that this event is unchangeable, weddings and marriages were TARDIS. Mels then regenerates into leaving her to escape on her own. shown as normal events, not the

14 Doctor Who 6.8, “Let’s Kill Hitler” 15 Doctor Who 6.13, “The Wedding of River Song”

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 69 defining moment in a character’s life. in “Deep Breath,17” with Vastra fighting. These short two scenes Instead, commitment was shown embodying the dominant “man” and are indicative of the rape culture through actions and loyalty, by the Jenny as the objectified, subservient in which we live and reinforces the characters treating each other with “woman.” This power imbalance sexualization and fetishization of love and respect. This is very unlike is made even more insidious women. To have a scene of sexual Moffat’s depictions of relationships; considering that while Vastra and assault, committed by the Doctor no Amy is emotionally abused and Jenny are married, “for appearance’s less, played for laughs in a family controlled by Rory, as discussed sake, we maintain a pretense, in television show as hugely successful, previously, and the Doctor lies to public, that [Jenny] is my maidxxii.” and historically progressive, as Doctor and manipulates River constantly. However, this line is followed by Who sends the message to millions By having every romantic onscreen Jenny saying “doesn’t exactly explain of children, teens, and adults that relationship end it marriage, Moffat why I’m pouring tea in private,” this is acceptable behavior. The is sending the message to viewers followed by Vastra hushing her. In sexualization of Jenny is made all the that these are the only relationships every scene during this episode in worse by the fact that she is a queer worth pursuing. This is especially which Vastra and Jenny interact, woman who has shown no interest in harmful to young girls who are there is an obvious power difference any man, yet alone the Doctor, and witnessing these seemingly strong between the two; this is including (as of the airing of this episode) has female companions being treated as the first and only kiss between yet to be seen kissing her own wifexxv. incomplete or less than because of them (to date) in which Vastra uses their marital status. Coupled with her stored oxygen to aid Jenny in Clara Oswin Oswald— Moffat’s belief that “There’s this breathing. Thus, their first kiss is The Impossible Girl issue you’re not allowed to discuss: actually an exchange of oxygen and Clara is a complicated companion that women are needy. Men can not a romantic kiss like those the in that she lived and died twice go longer, more happily, without heterosexual couples have been able before being introduced as a full women. That’s the truth. We don’t, as to share.18 In fact, Jenny is actually time companion on the show. She is little boys, play at being married—we sexually assaulted by the Doctor in initially problematic because she is try to avoid it for as long as possible. the previous episode to feature her. shown to only be granted access to Meanwhile women are out there In this scene, the Doctor the Doctor’s world because he has hunting for husbandsxx,” these scenes forcefully bends Jenny over and become obsessed with the mystery of “strong female characters” being kisses her in a shot reminiscent shrouding her, a mystery she knows defined by their spouses is sexist. of the iconic VJ Day “Sailor Kiss,” nothing about and is not informed which was also a non-consensual of until the end of her first season Queering kissxxiii. Jenny then slaps the Doctor, as companion. In this finale, Clara Heteronormativity— who laughs while saying “you have is finally allowed to know who she Madame Vastra and no idea how good that feelsxxiv.” is to the Doctor, which results in her Jenny Flint This scene is quickly followed by decision to sacrifice herself to save The only deviance from this what should have been a powerful him with the repeated assertion that heterosexual marriage motif moment for Jenny as she sheds she “was born to save the Doctorxxvi.” established in Moffat’s first two her restrictive Victorian garb to Again, Moffat has reduced the seasons is in the case of Madame reveal a leather fighting outfit in female companion to a secondary Vastra, “a lizard-woman from order to defend against a group of role, whose entire existence is shaped beyond the dawn of time16xxi” and assailants. Instead, she is overtly around the Doctor. Clara is denied her human wife Jenny Flint. These sexualized by both the Doctor, any character growth or development women are an interspecies lesbian whose sonic screwdriver rises in during her time aboard the TARDIS, couple living in Victorian London, his hand before he embarrassedly instead being shown as feisty and used primarily in the narrative for pushes it back down in what is most unimpressed by the Doctor while shock value and homophobic jokes. definitely an erection joke, and by lacking any real agency of her own. While they are a lesbian couple, they the camera which pans up from The first time the Doctor is are presented heteronormatively between her legs before she begins introduced to Clara,19 she is a

16 Vastra is a Silurian, a fictional race of reptile-like humanoids 17 Doctor Who 8.1, “Deep Breath” 18 While this episode was nominated for the GLAAD ‘Outstand Individual Episode (in a series without a regular LGBT character) award, I do not believe that said nomination detracts from the heteronormative lens through which the characters are written. 19 In person. He previously interacted with a Dalek version of her in 7.1, “Asylum of the Daleks”; this version also died saving the Doctor.

70 | journal of undergraduate research barmaid in Victorian London. clothes, and waves desperately at in a single episode, most are killed However, she is also revealed to be various Doctors who have been off, and of the two reoccurring the governess to two children of a edited in from Classic Doctor Who black characters, both are presented wealthy widower. This version of episodesxxix.” As opposed to showing in racially insensitive ways. Ella Clara dies by the end of the episode Clara do any actual saving, we Shohat and Robert Stam discuss while saving the Doctor. The next are instead witness to the Doctor in their essay Stereotype, Realism, incarnation of Clara is again shown jumping into his own time stream and the Struggle over Representation in a nurturing role, this time as the to save her, thus stripping her of any that since “the ‘mark of the plural’ nanny to a family in contemporary potential agency she may have had.22 projects colonized people as ‘all London. Despite these versions In series eight, Clara is effectively a the same,’ any negative behavior of Clara growing up in radically blank slate. No matter what happens by any member of the oppressed different societies, they have the to her or how much she may develop community is instantly generalized same personality and are resigned to over the course of any given episode, as typical, as pointing to a perpetual doing the same type of traditionally she inevitably resorts back to her backsliding toward some presumed feminine work. default template of “feisty” by the negative essencexxxvi.” This season When the Doctor first meets start of the next episode. The only once again presents a young contemporary Clara, he has already constant throughout series eight is the black girl, Courtney Woods, as a been shown to have met a younger newly regenerated Doctor negatively “disruptive influence” who challenges version of her,20 and clearly knows commenting on Clara’s physical authority. Courtney does appear much more about her than she does appearance, or “negging” her.23 multiple times during the season, about him. While Clara initially Throughout the season, the Doctor even traveling in the TARDIS for a denies travel with the Doctor, she calls Clara “an egomaniac, needy, short period. However, Courtney soon changes her mind but is still game-player sort of personxxx” and is perpetually in trouble with her denied full agency due to the Doctor a “control freakxxxi”; he describes her teachers and is thusly “saved” by the keeping valuable information from as being “sort of short and round-ish, benevolence of the white characters, her, namely that there are multiple but with a good personalityxxxii”, “built namely Clara and the Doctor, versions of her throughout history. like a manxxxiii”, and that “her face is mirroring the brief introduction of Even after this “big reveal” in the so wide[,] she needs three mirrorsxxxiv.” Mels is series seven. Every black series finale, the audience still knows “Since [the Doctor] regenerated, he’s youth introduced in this series, even very little about Clara. “It seems her called [Clara] fat, old, implied she just in passing, is portrayed as either entire role in the series is to provide a smells (it’s her perfume) and now a criminal or a “disruptive influence” mystery for the Doctor to obsess over. can’t tell if she’s wearing make-up or to those around them. The repetitive [When] the Doctor reflects on his not..xxxv” The Doctor is a character of representations of black youth as relationship with Clara [he] focuses authority; the “negging” of the female criminals or problems to society on Clara’s mystery. He mentions only companion is vehemently sexist and, is incredibly problematic. Because three qualities of hers: she’s funny, according to self-reports on Tumblr, each of the children are shown she’s brave, and she’s ‘perfect’21 xxvii.” has caused a rising discomfort with to be unruly, anti-authoritarian, Instead of being a full and complete the show from young female viewers and potentially dangerous, the person, Clara is repeatedly used as who now fear that the Doctor would “mark of the plural” indicates a plot device to further the Doctor’s insult them as well. that “representation thus becomes character arc. “Clara brings the allegoricalxxxvii.” Ergo, by writing Doctor out of his post-Amy and Rory Courtney Woods and all of the young black children in a depression and gives him something the “mark of the plural” similar manner, Moffat is reiterating to obsess over, before ultimately Series eight showed remarkable the tired racist tropes of the “savage” sacrificing herself to save him xxviii.” improvement in the number of or “primitive negro,” “pointing to a However, “we hardly see her do any significant characters of color, mostly perpetual backsliding toward some actual saving. She falls through fire, black characters. However, nearly presumed negative essencexxxviii.” appears in a variety of cute period all of these characters only appear Courtney’s representation is

20 During a minisode, the Doctor is seen stalking Clara’s timeline, once again meeting a future companion during their formative childhood years and thus imprinting himself onto their timeline. 21 Doctor Who “She Said, He Said: A Prequel” 22 Doctor Who 7.13 (How they exited the time stream remains unknown.) 23 Negging is when a person, usually a man, insults or humiliates a woman as much as he can get away with in order to lower her self-esteem and try to get her to seek his approval, while establishing himself as being of higher authority and value. It’s a manipulative, yet common tactic established by so-called “pick-up artists.”

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 71 especially problematic when viewed clear message that he does not Goldberg in The Color Purple; through an intersectional lens. She value women, nor their stories, and Goldberg was herself influenced to is a young black girl who is deemed by having the Doctor, a character become an actress when she saw “unimportant” by the Doctor, despite looked up to by millions, disregard Nichelle Nichols in the original Star him previously having said that “in women, Moffat is saying that we Trek xliii. More connected to Doctor nine hundred years of time and the audience shouldn’t care about or Who, both David Tennant and space and I’ve never met anybody value women either. Peter Capaldi were huge fans of the who wasn’t important beforexxxix.” Currently, all of the writers for show growing up, and Tennant was Doctor Who are affluent white men. influenced to become an actor in Moffat the Misogynist While it is true that not all women order to one day play the Doctorxliv. Doctor Who is a family show watched are feminists, and that women can Thus, by continuing to allow subpar by millions of people. When a uphold sexist ideology just as well and offensive representations show such as this presents female as their male counterparts and of women and minorities on the characters without autonomy or therefore there is no guarantee that show, Moffat is alienating large agency, presents the Doctor as a the addition of women writers would communities of people who may sexual predator, and dismisses improve representation in Doctor have otherwise been influenced to bisexuality as “just a phasexl,” it Who, it can be inferred that due to do great things based on the heroics has power and influence over those the poor representation currently, of the Doctor and companions. The watching. Moffat has repeatedly the show would greatly benefit show has proven itself to be better insulted women and minorities in from diversifying the writer’s room. in the past, and I have hope that it interviews24 and has allowed his Moffat has repeatedly shown us will become more inclusive again personal biases to infiltrate a once that he cannot write nuanced female in the future. By analyzing the beloved show. Episodes penned characters. He is constantly falling numerous intertextual problems in by him frequently fail the Bechdel back on the same tired old tropes Moffat’s representation of women test. His female characters are tepid and has not proven himself to be and minorities, and highlighting at best and overtly sexualized at receptive of criticism. Thus, I fully the ways in which his writing has worst, and when confronted with believe that the only solution to the hindered the enjoyment of such his blatant sexism over the way he “Moffat problem” is to replace him a beloved show, I truly hope to wrote Amy and River he insisted as showrunner with someone more aid in both academic and fandom the opposite: “River Song? Amy capable of writing complex female discussions of the show. By using Pond? Hardly weak women. It’s the characters. I do not know who that the academic concepts explored exact opposite. You could accuse person should be. However, I do know above, I aim to enrich the average me of having a fetish for powerful, that the show needs more women fan’s critical understanding of the sexy women who love cheating writers to help counter-balance the show. In the same way, by using peoplexli.” What Moffat seems to fail overabundance of men writers. my position within the fandom, I to understand is that him fetishizing Representation in media matters. hope to aid in the decentering of women is not the same as respecting It influences the way people view academic and critical feminist media them, nor is it the same as writing those different from them, as well analysis to include discourses found well-developed, three-dimensional as how they view themselves. Lupita on popular websites such as Tumblr. characters. Moffat has developed Nyong’o addressed this concept By blurring together these two a version of the Doctor that, as a perfectly when she said in an seemingly opposing viewpoints in queer woman, I would be terrified interview that “until I saw people my discussion of representation in to travel with. Moffat’s misogyny who looked like me, doing things I Moffat-era Doctor Who, my goal is has allowed for the lack of agency, wanted to do, I wasn’t sure it was a to show that academic and popular under-characterization, monism, possibilityxlii.” It was due to seeing discourses are not so different after and invasion of bodily autonomy someone who looked like her that all and can in fact greatly benefit of the female companions in ways Lupita realized she could be an actor. from each other when conducting significantly more problematic These kind of realizations based media analysis research. and sexist than during the show’s off of the representation in media original run in 1963. Through his are common occurrences. Nyong’o writing, Moffat is sending the very was influenced by seeing Whoopi

24 A semi-complete list of his interviews and quotes can be found at http://feministwhoniverse.tumblr.com/post/25598314408/steven-moffat-is- a-douchebag-the-masterlist

72 | journal of undergraduate research Notes xxiii Leopard i Geek Feminism Wikia xxiv Doctor Who 7.11 ii Helford, Pg. 13-14 xxv Boleyn iii Chambers, pg. 35. Emphasis in original. xxvi Doctor Who 7.13 iv Ibid. xxvii Alyssa v Britton, Pg. 135 xxviii Ibid. vi Ibid. Pg. 136 xxix Ibid. vii Ibid. Pg. 137 xxx Doctor Who 8.1 viii Mulvey, Pg. 9-10. Emphasis added. xxxi Ibid. ix Doctor Who 5.1 xxxii Doctor Who 8.2 x Ibid. xxxiii Ibid. xi Flesh and Stone Confidential xxxiv Doctor Who 8.4 xii feministwhoniverse.tumblr xxxv Welsh xiii Doctor Who 6.6 xxxvi Shohat and Stam, Pg. 805 xiv Nesbitt xxxvii Ibid. xv Doctor Who 7.1 xxxviii Ibid. xvi Coleman xxxix Doctor Who 2010 Christmas Special xvii Doctor Who 6.12 xl Doctor Who 7.1 xviii Doctor Who 6.8 xli Jeffries xix Doctor Who 7.5 xlii Staff xx Scotsman.com xliii Hart xxi Doctor Who 2012 Christmas special xliv IMDb xxii Doctor Who 7.1

————————— Bibliography IMDb. ‘David Tennant’. 2015. Web. 7 May 2015.

Alyssa. “Clara Oswald: The Ultimate Manic Pixie Dream Girl?.” Jeffries, Stuart. ‘’There Is A Clue Everybody’s Missed’: Sherlock Writer whovianfeminism.tumblr. Steven Moffat Interviewed’. The Guardian. 2012. Web. 7 May 2015. 2013. Web. 7 May 2015. Leopard. “The Kissing Sailor, or ‘The Selective Blindness of Rape Barrett, Sarah. “How Often Does Doctor Who Pass The Culture’.” Crates and Ribbons. 2012. Web. 7 May 2015. Bechdel Test?.” Doctorwhotv.co.uk. 2015. Web. 7 May 2015. Mulvey, L. 1975. “Visual Pleasure And Narrative Cinema.” Screen 16 Bechdeltest.com. “Bechdel Test Movie List.” 2015. Web. 7 May 2015. (3): 6-18.

Boleyn, C. “Eleven Sexually Assaults and Sexualises Jenny in The Nesbitt, M. The objectification of Amy Pond. SPARK Movement. 2012. Crimson Horror by Mark Gatiss (Series 7 Episode 11).” claudiaboleyn. Web. 7 May 2015. tumblr. 2013. Web. 7 May 2015. Orthia, Lindy. Doctor Who And Race. Bristol: Intellect Ltd., 2013. Print. Britton, Piers D. Tardisbound. London: I. B. Tauris, 2011. Print. Sarkeesian, A. “#5 The Mystical Pregnancy (Tropes vs. Women).” Chambers, Samuel Allen. The Queer Politics Of Television. London: I.B. Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 28 July 2011. Web. 7 May 2015. Tauris. 2009. Print. Scotsman.com. “Time Lad Scores With Sex And Daleks.” 2004. Web. 7 Coleman, View. “The Dangers Of Mystical Pregnancy As May 2015. Entertainment.” Persephone Magazine. 2011. Web. 7 May 2015. Staff, THR. “Lupita Nyong’o Talks The ‘Lupita Effect’.” The Hollywood Crenshaw, Kimberle. “Mapping The Margins: Intersectionality, Reporter. 2014. Web. 7 May 2015. Identity Politics, And Violence Against Women Of Color.” Stanford Law Review 43 (6): 1241. 1991. Print. Welsh, Kaite. “Review: ‘Doctor Who’ Season 8 Episode 4, ‘Listen,’ feministwhoniverse.tumblr,. “Moffat’s Magnificent Mystical Celebrates The Power Of Fear (And Bad Dates).” Indiewire. 2015. Web. Pregnancy.” 2011. Web. 7 May 2015. 7 May 2015.

Geek Feminism Wiki. “Agency.” 2015. Web. 7 May 2015. Hart, Hannah. “WHOOPI GOLDBERG TALKS ABOUT STAR TREK.” Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 5 May 2015. Web. 7 May 2015.

Summer 2014 – Spring 2015 | 73 Doctor Who episode guide: Moffat, Steven. “The Name of the Doctor.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 18 Raynor, Helen. “The Sontaran Stratagem.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 26 May 2013. Television. 7.13 April 2008. Television. 4.4 Moffat, Steven. “The Time of the Doctor.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 25 Raynor, Helen. “The Poison Sky.”Doctor Who. BBC One. 3 May 2008. December 2013. Television. Special. Television. 4.5 Moffat, Steven. “Deep Breath.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 23 August 2014. Moffat, Steven. “The Eleventh Hour.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 3 April Television. 8.1 2010. Television. 5.1 Moffat, Steven. “Dark Water.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 1 November 2014. Television. 8.11 Moffat, Steven. “Flesh and Stone.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 1 May 2010. Television. 5.5 Moffat, Steven. “Death in Heaven.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 8 November 2014. Television. 8.12 Nye, Simon. “Amy’s Choice.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 15 May 2012. Television. 5.7

Roberts, Gareth. “The Lodger.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 12 June 2010. Television. 5.11

Moffat, Steven. “A Christmas Carol.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 25 December 2010. Television. Special.

Moffat, Steven. “The Impossible Astronaut.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 23 April 2011. Television. 6.1

Moffat, Steven. “Day of the Moon.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 30 April 2011. Television. 6.2

Graham, Matthew. “The Revel Flesh.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 21 May 2011. Television. 6.5

Graham, Matthew. “The Almost People.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 28 May 2011. Television. 6.6

Moffat, Steven. “A Good Man Goes to War.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 4 June 2011. Television. 6.7

Moffat, Steven. “Let’s Kill Hitler.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 27 August 2011. Television. 6.8

Roberts, Gareth. “Closing Time.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 24 September 2011. Television. 6.12

Moffat, Steven. “The Wedding of River Song.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 1 October 2011. Television. 6.13

Moffat, Steven. “Asylum of the Daleks.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 1 September 2012. Television. 7.1

Moffat, Steven. “The Angels Take Manhattan.” Doctor Who. BBC One. 29 September 2012. Television. 7.5

Moffat, Steven. “The Bells of St. John: Prequel.” Doctor Who. BBC Red Button. 23 March 2013. Webcast. Minisode.

Moffat, Steven. “She Said, He Said: A Prequel.” Doctor Who. BBC Red Button. 11 May 2013. Webcast. Minisode.

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