Global Journal of Human Social Science

Online ISSN: 2249-460X Print ISSN: 0975-587X DOI: 10.17406/GJHSS

AssessmentofPopulationGrowth NarrativesofEnvironmentalIssues

IndigenousKhasiTribeofMeghalaya ArtefactsofViolenceoftheBronze

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Global Journal of Human-Social Science: B Geography, Geo-Sciences, Environmental Science & Disaster Management

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Editorial Board

Global Journal of Human-Social Science

Dr. Arturo Diaz Suarez Dr. Adrian Armstrong

Ed.D., Ph.D. in Physical Education Professor at BSc Geography, LSE, 1970 Ph.D. Geography University of Murcia, Spain (Geomorphology) Kings College London 1980 Ordained Priest, Church of England 1988 Taunton, Somerset, United Kingdom

Dr. Prasad V Bidarkota Dr. Gisela Steins

Ph.D., Department of Economics Florida International Ph.D. Psychology, University of Bielefeld, Germany University United States Professor, General and Social Psychology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany

Dr. Alis Puteh Dr. Stephen E. Haggerty

Ph.D. (Edu.Policy) UUM Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia M.Ed Ph.D. Geology & Geophysics, University of London (Curr. & Inst.) University of Houston, United States Associate Professor University of Massachusetts, United States

Dr. André Luiz Pinto Dr. Helmut Digel

Doctorate in Geology, PhD in Geosciences and Ph.D. University of Tbingen, Germany Honorary President Environment, Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio of German Athletic Federation (DLV), Germany de Mesuita Filho, UNESP, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Dr. Tanyawat Khampa Dr. Hamada Hassanein Ph.d in Candidate (Social Development), MA. in Social Ph.D, MA in Linguistics, BA & Education in English, Development, BS. in Sociology and Anthropology, Department of English, Faculty of Education, Mansoura Naresuan University, Thailand University, Mansoura, Egypt Dr. Gomez-Piqueras, Pedro Dr. Asuncin Lpez-Varela Ph.D in Sport Sciences, University Castilla La Mancha, BA, MA (Hons), Ph.D. (Hons) Facultad de Filolog?a. Spain Universidad Complutense Madrid 29040 Madrid Spain

Dr. Faisal G. Khamis Dr. Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri

Ph.D in Statistics, Faculty of Economics & Ph.D., M.S., B.A in Library and Information Management,

Administrative Sciences / AL-Zaytoonah University of Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Jordan, Jordan

Dr. Giaime Berti Dr. Vesna Stankovic Pejnovic

Ph.D. School of Economics and Management University Ph. D. Philosophy Zagreb, Croatia Rusveltova, Skopje of Florence, Italy Macedonia

Dr. Valerie Zawilski Dr. Raymond K. H. Chan

Associate Professor, Ph.D., University of Toronto MA - Ph.D., Sociology, University of Essex, UK Associate Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Canada Professor City University of Hong Kong, China

Dr. Edward C. Hoang Dr. Tao Yang

Ph.D., Department of Economics, University of Ohio State University M.S. Kansas State University B.E. Colorado United States Zhejiang University, China

Dr. Intakhab Alam Khan Mr. Rahul Bhanubhai Chauhan

Ph.D. in Doctorate of Philosophy in Education, King B.com., M.com., MBA, PhD (Pursuing), Assistant Professor, Abdul Aziz University, Saudi Arabia Parul Institute of Business Administration, Parul University, Baroda, India

Dr. Kaneko Mamoru Dr. Rita Mano

Ph.D., Tokyo Institute of Technology Structural Ph.D. Rand Corporation and University of California, Los Engineering Faculty of Political Science and Economics, Angeles, USA Dep. of Human Services, University of Haifa Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan Israel

Dr. Joaquin Linne Dr. Cosimo Magazzino

Ph. D in Social Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Aggregate Professor, Roma Tre University Rome, 00145, Argentina Italy

Dr. Hugo Nami Dr. S.R. Adlin Asha Johnson

Ph.D.in Anthropological Sciences, Universidad of Ph.D, M. Phil., M. A., B. A in English Literature, Bharathiar Buenos Aires, Argentina, University of Buenos Aires, University, Coimbatore, India Argentina

Dr. Luisa dall’Acqua Dr. Thierry Feuillet

Ph.D. in Sociology (Decisional Risk sector), Master MU2, Ph.D in Geomorphology, Master’s Degree in College Teacher, in Philosophy (Italy), Edu-Research Geomorphology, University of Nantes, France Group, Zrich/Lugano

Contents of the Issue

i. Copyright Notice ii. Editorial Board Members iii. Chief Author and Dean iv. Contents of the Issue

1. Narratives of Environmental Issues at the Pradoso’s District of Vitória Da Conquista City in Bahia State/Brazil. 1-10 2. Artefacts of Violence of the Bronze and Copper Ages in the South of Western Siberia. 11-25 3. Assessment of Population Growth on Vegetation Cover in Numan, Demsa and Lamurde Lgas Areas of Adamawa State. 27-37 4. Analysis of Water Quality for Domestic use in Lafia Town, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. 39-47 5. Indigenous Khasi Tribe of Meghalaya and Environmental Sustainability: A Study. 49-53

v. Fellows vi. Auxiliary Memberships vii. Preferred Author Guidelines viii. Index

Global Journal of HUMAN-SOCIAL SCIENCE: B Geography, Geo-Sciences, Environmental Science & Disaster Management Volume 21 Issue 1 Version 1.0 Year 2021 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global Journals Online ISSN: 2249-460x & Print ISSN: 0975-587X

Narratives of Environmental Issues at the Pradoso’s District of Vitória Da Conquista City in Bahia State/Brazil By Vânia Mendes Da Silva Novais & Luiz Artur Dos Santos Cestari University of Southwestern Bahia Abstract- This research will propose the appreciation of local knowledge that came from intellectuals of tradition living at the Pradoso’s district located in Vitória da Conquista-BA city, and it aims to understand an epistemology that expresses their specific aspects. It will point out the knowledge using an ecology that will take into an account at the same time the nonscientific understanding from these people and a theoretical standing against the epistemological practices from the dominant paradigm of modernity. The data were collected using narratives with older people in Pradoso's district as an empirical study of narrative inquiry about ways of life and environmental issues belonging to the culture of this peasant community. Hence, we believe the narratives offered a vital dialogue between emerged knowledge and scientific culture whose objective is describing the environmental issues at this community, valorizing traditional understanding and finding accordance with academic and scientific culture. Keywords: ecology of knowledge. intellectuals of tradition. narratives. GJHSS-B Classification: FOR Code: 050299

NarrativesofEnvironmentalIssuesatthePradososDistrictofVitriaDaConquistaCityinBahiaStateBrazil

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2021. Vânia Mendes Da Silva Novais & Luiz Artur Dos Santos Cestari. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ 3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Narratives of Environmental Issues at the Pradoso’s District of Vitória Da Conquista City in Bahia State/Brazil

Vânia Mendes Da Silva Novais α & Luiz Artur Dos Santos Cestari σ

Abstract - This research will propose the appreciation of local new world introducing by the enlightenment and the knowledge that came from intellectuals of tradition living at the development of capitalism. Pradoso’s district located in Vitória da Conquista-BA city, and One of the first disruptions of modern science it aims to understand an epistemology that expresses their was the divorce between philosophy and science,

specific aspects. It will point out the knowledge using an 2021 speculation and experiment. As a result, the ecology that will take into an account at the same time the predominant thinking of science starts to support the nonscientific understanding from these people and a ear stance of an outward scientist that can get out all Y theoretical standing against the epistemological practices from the dominant paradigm of modernity. The data were collected influences of his subjectification such as values, beliefs, 1

using narratives with older people in Pradoso's district as an and symbolic myths. The second was the change of empirical study of narrative inquiry about ways of life and speculative writing by a scientific discourse resulting environmental issues belonging to the culture of this peasant in variables and its mensuration. This conception of community. Hence, we believe the narratives offered a vital science was useful to the development of capitalism dialogue between emerged knowledge and scientific culture and legitimated a process of scientific naturalization that whose objective is describing the environmental issues at this community, valorizing traditional understanding and finding imposed the mode of knowing from Europe to all accordance with academic and scientific culture. cultures around the world, undervaluing traditional Keywords: ecology of knowledge. intellectuals of knowledge of other people and specific cultures. tradition. narratives. The historical process of modernity put in different sides, the science with an empirical, rational This paper resulting from grant MCTIC/CNPq (National Research Council/Brazil) Nº 28/2018 –Universal/Faixa B and logical discourse, and traditional knowledge including the philosophy that still received influences of )

the symbolic, mythic and magic narratives. This B

Introduction (

disruption was the base on which the way of knowing Volume XXI Issue I Version his research aims to report the intellectuals of became more specialized and disciplinaries, and more tradition’ narratives, and they refer to traditional useful and adequate to the modern capitalist society. Tresidents with long experience of life in a This modern way of thinking had many critical community. Almeida (2017) elaborated the concept of stances during the last century. Almeida (2017) pointed intellectuals of tradition opposing to the restricted use of out authors like Ilya Prigogine, Edgar Morin, and Bruno - intellectual connected to a task of scientific and Latour as critics of this modern knowledge. Still, she will academic practices. She wrote her stance at the construct her proposal based on Edgar Morin’s theory tracking of Edgar Morin’s thinking seeking to critic of complexity. In this way, she put in emphasis on non- modern science perspective and re-establish a dialogue paradigmatic forms of academic workings accepting in between science and tradition. its uncertainty, essays, and speculation. The emergence of modern science brought a Almeida (2017) augments favoring the non- specifical logic of think in unconnected disciplines and hierarchy relationship between science and tradition, at the same time in opposition to all forms of knowledge standing up for a different form of reading the world and that was not legitimate in a discursive method that using strategies that are closer to a sensitive logic. aimed to separate, test and mensurate. The concept of Different from academic sciences, intellectuals of Global Journal of Human Social Science science, in accord with all spirit of modernity, guided a tradition deliver their discourses using oral narrative, cultivating a listening and vision of physical phenomenon, animal behavior, plants, climate Author α: University of Southwestern Bahia (UESB) Graduate Program on Environmental Science (PPGCA/UESB). Jovino Oliveira University dynamics, and so forth. Almeida talking about this Campus, BR 415, KM 04, Itapetinga-BA/Brazil 45700-000. reading of the world, said that narratives be able to e-mail: [email protected] express what Gregory Batson named “pattern of Author σ: University of Southwestern Bahia (UESB) Department of interconnection”, that is, a specific perception of this Philosophy and Human Sciences Bem Querer Street, Km-04 –3293, 3391 University Campus –Vitória da Conquista-Bahia, Brazil 45083-900. intellectual to read and make sense among things e-mails: [email protected], [email protected] involving nature and human.

Another argument that we bring to this research historical perceptions in a long coexistence with this as a convergence with Almeida (2017) came from community. Benjamin (1975) affirmed subjects are Santos (2010a, 2010b) and the demand to do justice to always involved with events in their narratives, and this traditional people. The predominant and Eurocentric text will offer an opportunity to express environmental conception of knowledge over modern history denies all issues produced by intellectuals of tradition in their forms of knowing that do not agree with the Western community. understanding of the world. Santos pointed out the way out of this “epistemicide”, Ecology of knowledge that I. Theory and Methodological considers the non-scientific comprehension of these Proposal peoples and goes against epistemological practices under the dominant paradigm of modernity. a) Intellectuals of tradition’ narratives An ecology of knowledge demands a gesture of Since its beginnings, the desire to know more conciliation in an intercultural approach and accepting it and more has led the human being to produce different does not mean denying important scientific knowledge strategies of thought. Lévi-Strauss (1976 apud ALMEIDA construct during the history of modern society. For et al., 2013) draws our attention to the relevance of this ancestralism that preceded modern science and 2021 instance, if you need to travel out of earth space, you must necessarily use all available technological constituted the substrate of civilization. He considers the ear ability to observe and reflect continues even nowadays Y resources. But if you will travel through the Amazon Forest, an experience of indigenous peoples makes it adapting to important discoveries. 2 easy. There is no formula to this new and postcolonial Lévi-Strauss (1976 apud Almeida et al., 2013) thinker, only an open way of thinking and considering pointed out knowledge of tradition is on the margins of many experiences. scientific and institutional knowledge. Such as The subject of the research is the Pradoso developed throughout human history, it corresponds to a “first science” closer to nature and which currently district community located in the western portion of the Vitória da Conquista city in Bahia State/Brazil, 12 km coexists with the development of technoscience in a from the municipal headquarters, with about 3,231 global world. “[…] It is not, therefore, a stammering inhabitants (BRASIL, 2010). When we visit there, we state of thought, but it is a model of understanding the could see signs of a devastating nature and a series of world that parasitizes and constitutes the human 1 environmental disorders caused by activities such as the condition” (ALMEIDA et al., 2013, p. 09) . production of bricks, cookies, flour, other derivatives of In this sense, traditional knowledge should not be understood or even reduced to an essay or a stage cassava, agriculture, and livestock. Other activities are ) also included, such as eucalyptus culture and mineral before a scientific explanation because these (tradition B

( exploration (MAIA; FONTES, 2011). and science) express experiences based on different Volume XXI Issue I Version Moreover, if you look at it in detail, you can see references and strategies (ALMEIDA, 2017). Despite all houses constructed in an older lakebed, absence of the efforts of sciences to suppress traditions, many riparian forests at the land adjacent, a worn-out soil and traditional communities have not yet been co-opted by the sand of this lakebed removed to make bricks, no scientific culture, such as, for instance, the peasants, birds or other animals that are common at the rural indigenous, quilombolas, riverside, seafood fisher, and - areas, portions of sand that come from the hole gypsy communities. The permanence of tradition and resulting of excavation for a company that explores their survival depends almost exclusively on its knowledge and techniques making these individuals Bentonite - an absorbent aluminum phyllosilicate clay consisting mostly of montmorillonite. opposite their difficulties develop creative solutions to their daily problems. Maia; Fontes (2011) have been studied the environmental dynamics of this place and making a Scientific and traditional knowledge does not reporting of environmental issues. Nevertheless, we correspond to higher and lower levels of knowing; these consider older inhabitants’ narrative to ascribe through only manifest different scales of readings. They express the time different sceneries of this place and how nature the: “[...] universality of human thought in the face of was affected by a specific human action for a long time, things, articulating the same operations build throughout Global Journal of Human Social Science reviving the feeling of these people about the the history: identifying, distinguishing, relating, hierarchizing, opposing, building significant sets” devastation. The paper aims to deliver narratives of older (ALMEIDA, 2017, p. 75, own translation). These ways of people of this community, including opinions, beliefs, knowing used to have their strategies closer to the logic values, representations, human and social actions from the perspective of these actors in intersubjectivity 1 “[…] Não se trata, portanto, de um estado balbuciante do (MINAYO, 2012). The use of semi-structured and pensamento, mas trata-se de um modelo de compreensão do mundo narrative interviews addressed issues of these que parasita e constitui a condição humana” (ALMEIDA et al., 2013, p. 09). intellectuals concerning the environment and their

©2021 Global Journals Narratives of Environmental Issues at the Pradoso’s District of Vitória Da Conquista City in Bahia State/Brazil of the sensitive (LÉVI-STRAUSS, 1976 apud ALMEIDA, phenomena. Called intellectuals, they can handle 2017). information, transforming it into pertinent knowledge, The emergent modern science failed to register and live-in traditional cultures. it, and for this reason, it lost traditional knowledge Intellectual on this situation is not synonymous incurred an inestimable debt with this cosmology of with the owner of scientific culture. He is every individual thought. Orality does not only precede but sustains capable of systematizing information and transforming rationality and provide an extremely fruitful dialogue his observations into knowledge and seeks to keep among the different matrices of knowledge (VERGANI, curiosity about his world, who observes the different 2002 apud ALMEIDA, 2017). It demands: “The fertility of faces of the same phenomenon and refines daily his this dialogue requires, however, that one does not gaze on new, contradictory, and complementary reduce knowledge to the other, that one does not information. An intellectual is one who is not satisfied validate by criteria stipulated by the other, since they are with a single interpretation. (SILVA; ALMEIDA, 2007). different strategies for thinking about the world” It is vital to say intellectuals of the tradition are (ALMEIDA, 2017, p. 114). not opposed to academics. They are the same but The advent of modern science to affirm as favorite some cognitive strategies over others, using superior knowledge was also marked by the replacing of specific mental models carried out by their experiences 2021 the “old sage” by the “modern intellectual”. The magical of life and how they proceed to spread their knowledge ear priests were responsible for announcing sacred (ALMEIDA, 2017). Academic intellectuals often describe Y

discourses and acting as producers and guardians of their results as common sense. However, they produce 3 myths. Intellectuals, nevertheless, submitted all myths sciences that although operating through universal skills and sacred discourses to the proof of rational and expresses different contexts, narratives, and method. objective criticism, becoming prophets of scientific and b) An ecology of knowledge universal ideas (MORIN, 1986 apud ALMEIDA, 2017). According to Santos (2010), the epistemological The distinction between wise and ignorant was paradigm of modern science that emerged in the another hierarchical division resulted in modernity. On scientific revolution had scientific knowledge as the only the one hand, modern intellectuals despise all valid form of experience based on the separation knowledge that was not considered operational or between human/nature, subject/object, nature/culture, technical. On the other, the so-called illiterates who had body/psychic, as well as reducing the complexity of the an extraordinary understanding of animals, vegetables, world that excluded all forms of knowledge that did not fishing techniques, medicinal herbs, production of rely on these and other dualisms. This vision produced a instruments, among others, had their ancient peculiar understanding of the modern world that ) civilizations massacred by the so-called superior beings B

followed the empirical-rational procedure based on ( and cultures (MORIN, 1998 apud ALMEIDA, 2017). Volume XXI Issue I Version experience, observation, and reason. The development of sciences produced a kind In this sense, the epistemological assumption of of effacement of the rural and traditional populations modernity excluded all disagree with cognitive- continuing to systematize a diverse range of knowledge instrumental rationality, thus creating the monopoly of to solve daily problems and building a “[...] rich corpus science in the name of colonialism, making improper of symbolic and mythical understanding of the world” - other experiences and wasting wealthy perspectives (ALMEIDA, 2017, p. 47, own translation)2. These present in cultural and multifaceted diversity. (SANTOS, cognitive patterns of living and knowing to express more 2010). and more complex how some people stand out for their During the twentieth century, the advance of different way of observing phenomena and creating modern science was the expression of its limits, putting specific method, deciphering and explaining; in question the sovereignty of the current systematizing, reorganizing, and polishing the epistemological model (GOMES, 2012). In this context, representations about the world. Santos (2010b) presents Southern Epistemologies as a These individuals receive different names rebuke of modern science. He points out the exclusion depending on their culture and history: “[...] shamans, and suppression of cultures and widespread knowledge witchdoctor, healers, a council of elders, priests, Global Journal of Human Social Science that embracing African descendants’ people, peasants scientists” (ALMEIDA, 2017, p. 48, own translation)3. and indigenous, understanding the colonialism beyond Regardless of the peculiarities where they live, some of the use of domination by force and comprised an them developing with more insight and perseverance extremely uneven hegemony of perception (SANTOS, the ability to reflect, understand, and speak about the 2010b). Southern Epistemologies aim to overcome the 2 “[...] rico corpus da compreensão simbólica e mítica dos fenômenos modern Western thought as abyssal thinking through do mundo” (ALMEIDA, 2017, p. 47). 3 “[...] xamãs, pajés, curandeiras, conselho de anciãos, sacerdotes, imaginary lines that divide and polarize the world into cientistas” (ALMEIDA, 2017, p. 48). North and South, fragmenting between those who are

"on this side of the line" and those who are "On the other district of the Vitória da Conquista city in Bahia side of the line". The division makes one side of reality State/Brazil. The interviews recorded obtained the disappears, becomes it non-existent or even as a result narratives about their ways of life and environmental of non-existent (SANTOS, 2010). issues belonging to the culture of this peasant Southern Epistemologies comprise a set of community. The dialogues were fully transcribed and, cognitive practices and knowledge validation criteria subsequently, organized in the process of analysis. based on the experience of these social groups that At first, we must draw attention that they did not have suffered and still suffer the injustices of the modern assume any ethnic or collective identification despite scientific paradigm. Santos proposed to discuss the many papers in human and social sciences have spread social, political, cultural, and epistemological problems the concept of “traditional populations” referring to of society, considering our sufficient or adequate these social groups (DIEGUES; ARRUDA 2001 Apud knowledge to fight consciously for global social justice ALEGARE; HIGUCHI; BRUNO, 2014). Second, Almeida that is only possible to consider a worldwide cognitive (2017) presents the argument that these people can be justice. “intellectuals of tradition”. In this sense, the challenge of Post-abyssal thinking is a new way of thinking this working with narratives is to transform information 2021 about society. Global cognitive justice is egalitarian, into knowledge reporting their representations of the and the construction of intellectual discourse must be

ear world, as they understand, interpret, and can only be

Y equitable in the world, valuing the diversity of expressed if not by themselves.

4 experiences. Santos’s argument in favor of an "ecology Working with narrative demands to put into of knowledge" that implies exploring the internal plurality question the difference between narrating and of science as an alternative scientific practice, providing description. In an attempt of it, we will refer to Lukacs' interaction and interdependence between scientific (1965) text entitled “narrate or describe?” using its knowledge and other types of experience (SANTOS; criteria to distinguish these terms in writing. Lukacs MENEZES, 2010). affirms that narrating is a type of intersubjective The ecology of knowledge demonstrates that involvement that considers the life and the problems of there are other valuable modes of intervention in the the community, what is in our vision more adequate to real. As an example, Santos (2010b) pointed out the intellectuals of tradition. On the other hand, the relevant role of peasant and indigenous knowledge in description is a more objective relationship, an observer preserving biodiversity, given attention to the vast, position, because it does not directly cause an wealthy experience of these communities to made it interrelationship between the facts and the subjects. possible and preserve “[...] ways of life, symbolic

) Hence, the narratives come to narrating

B universes and vital information for survival in hostile

( because embracing life, and at the same time,

Volume XXI Issue I Version environments based exclusively on oral tradition” 4 environmental issues of these people. The text clippings (SANTOS, 2010b, p. 58, own translation) . are narratives that allow us to talk about their world The ecology makes possible the dialogue without being assimilated into ours. Indeed, our among knowledge that can be useful for the progress of production is still incomplete without these narratives social struggles by those who intervene in them. considering the long-term experiential knowledge as a

- However, it comprises a still embryonic idea that can narrative of what was the environment in comparison to only develop based on the different forms of what it is in nowadays. experiences. To think and promote diversity and The history of the Pradoso community began plurality, it is not auspicious that modern science is with Portuguese emigrants. During the years of 1959 neglected, or much less refused. There is a vast and 1960, the brothers José Nicolau and Domingos constellation of knowledge that coexists with the Rodrigues do Prado settled 12 km from Imperial Vila da practices of non-scientific knowledge, that have survived Vitória that is in nowadays Vitória da Conquista city the epistemicide, or that have emerged in the struggles (NOGUEIRA, 1988). Since 1935, the district was known against inequalities and discrimination arising, above all, "Furado das Éguas", and it started to be called Pradoso from the hegemonic epistemological model. due to the junction of the surname Prado -from that Global Journal of Human Social Science c) Narrative inquiry as a research method family - with the number twelve referring to the distance This work is an empirical study of narrative from the municipal headquarters (Prado + doze (12) = inquiry to understand the perception of the environment. Pradoso, in Portuguese) (JESUS, 2012). The data was collected employing semi-structured Pradoso is a settlement inhabited in a disorderly

interviews with four traditional residents living over 70 manner where houses, lots, and blocks are randomly years ago and have spent their entire life at the Pradoso distributed. The roads, with few exceptions, have no

paving. Regarding public services in nowadays, it has 4 “[...] de modos de vida, universos simbólicos e informações vitais para a sobrevivência em ambientes hostis com base exclusivamente an elementary school and a health post, building and na tradição oral” (SANTOS, 2010b, p. 58). maintained by the city hall, as well as a high school

©2021 Global Journals Narratives of Environmental Issues at the Pradoso’s District of Vitória Da Conquista City in Bahia State/Brazil belonging to the educational structure of the Bahia Pardo River that makes up a federal hydrographic basin State. (JESUS, 2011). However, the long periods without rains The location has a negative humidity index and and the inadequate use of water in many economic the absence of a water surplus. The total annual rainfall activities cause inconveniences and result in worn varies between 500 and 800 mm. Despite the difficulties scenery. related to access to water, Pradoso has considerable The image narrative of Mr. Jonas brings a water potential due to two streams, the Quatis and the representation that disagrees with the current Gameleira streams. However, without planning and environment showing a relationship with the water that public policies, the inhabitants of the Pradoso have no longer exists. This background image is only been with a series of water situations. (ALVES; ALVES, possible if we accept it as part of Pradoso's history. We 2007). can affirm that the lack of public policies, the increase in The empirical research works with the narratives population density, and the disordered urban expansion of four old inhabitants of Pradoso and the interviews have implied in the degradation of the water sources in were carried out between August 2017 and February Vitória da Conquista. However, the images improved 2018. The oral and narrative interviews to map and make the scenery more concrete, expressing their environmental issues pertinent to the local reality, sense of reality. Mr. Jonas called attention to the fact 2021 emphasizing the socio-environmental aspects. We did that there is a course of the river there like you can ear the interviews with four retired rural workers: Mr. Jonas, observe at the clipping’s, and if you take into Y

80 years old; Mr. João, knowing as “Janga”, 73 years consideration the hydrographic network. In the past, the 5 old; Mr. José “Seu Zequinha”, 84 years old and a same river course gushed water, now it is only a dried breeder of dairy cattle; Mr. Auzil called “Seu Zil” 70 and unproductive earth. years old and a small producer of curd. These aspects and low rainfall have caused a water crisis that affects the inhabitants of the II. Results and Discussion municipality, including the Pradoso district, especially During the interviews, we asked about the concerning economic and subsistence activities like environment emphasizing the issue of water resources, agriculture, extractive, or fishing. About it, Mr. Zil the use of medicinal herbs, predominant crops, nostalgically remembers: environmental degradation, flora and fauna, the “[...] it didn't rain more [...] when it truly rained you would go relationship with nature, and observations of changing there at night [...] with the can, a lamp and the fishes landscape throughout of time. (traíras) jumped over at night [...] people said: oh, tonight I’m going to get a big fish (um trairão) at the 'moiadô' (shade

The interviews begun to refer to the perception )

in the middle of the pasture where the cattle take refuge and B of the environment, and the responses reported the ( rest from the sun). Each one caught a huge fish [...] in all water issue and the damage caused by the drought. water at this low.”6. Volume XXI Issue I Version One of them said: After listening Mr. Zil, we ask if he knows one of [...] I understand the terrible thing here for us [...] is the the causes of the drought, and he replied: “[...] listen water because the drought is terrific here. [...] These well! According to the man who studies the stars, this lagoons dried up; some existed here in the '60s and '70s. It

gushed water, today it dried, it did not add more water ... It place here will turn to desert. Each year it rainless. In the - 7 has been 20 years since it dried [...] it did not rain here past, the Pradoso had already filled with water.” . anymore [...] it rains a little, it is dry here [...] There was Although we have not found studies on a nothing else. We plant and the earth gives nothing (JONAS, possible desertification process in the Pradoso region, 2017)5. Paixão et al. (2009 apud Santos and Aquino 2017) It considers the interviewees' concern valid identified irregular and discontinuous patches since the district is in a region of predominantly semi- conducive the Bahia State to desertification. Therefore, if arid climate characterized by low rainfall - on average studies or public policies are not prepared, some places 717 mm/year - with a concentrated rainy period between like Pradoso will suffer of desertification because it November and January (JESUS, 2011). The riverbed of already brings aspects for this process.

the district makes part of a relevant hydrographic The interviewees remembered a socio- Global Journal of Human Social Science network. It composed the principal source of the Quati economic problem that causes environmental damage. stream flowing into the Jibóia stream, an affluent of the One of the sources, the Bocanha lagoon is grounded,

6 [...] num choveu mais [...] quando chovia mermo cê saia de noite 5 [...] entendo é a coisa terrível aqui pra gente [...] é a água, pois é [...] com as lata, com uma lâmpada e as traíra de noite elas malha [...] uma seca terrível aqui [...] Essas lagoa secou, umas lagoa que tinha. gente falava: ó hoje de noite eu vô matá uma traíra no moiadô dava [...] foi no ano de 60, 70. Ela ficava abanando água, hoje secou, não cada uma traíra enorme [...] em toda essa baixa era água.(ZIL) juntou mais água... Já faz uns 20 anos que secou [...] não choveu 7 “[...] a seca, escuta bem! Segundo os homem que estuda os astro, mais aqui [...] chove pouquinho... Aqui é seco [...] Não deu mais aqui o norte vai virar deserto. Cada ano vai chover mais pouco. A nada. A gente planta, não dá nada (JONAS). gente no Pradoso [...] e toda essa baixa era cheia de água”.

and houses are built on it. According to Mr Janga: f r uits that when we were a child, we collected them. Do “[...] this path over there, these places that you can see, you know? We harvest with a shovel.”11. these low-hanging houses are because it has not rained Deforestation is one of the environmental more like it used to rain in the past, but if it rains more problems today because it affects socioeconomic than two hundred buildings could stay inside Water. aspects. From an ecological point of view, deforestation They only ground the lagoons and making them provides other damages with the alteration in the homes.”8 . habitats causing disturbances for animals that used for These houses, like the other residences in food and or reproduction. Then, they end up driven Pradoso, do not have a sewage network, and residents away. About the deforestation process and its use pits to dump their waste leading to contamination of consequences for the local fauna, Mr Janga said: the soil and groundwater. During rainy periods, the “[...] there was pressure in the forest, there was too canal can overflow and contaminate the water besides much pressure to kill, there was an armadillo, there was causing flooding of the homes and collapse of the everything [...] they opened everything and finished the buildings. bush, they still started planting eucalyptus…”12. Concerning the Mata de Cipó that is local Regarding the impoverishment of the soil that,

2021 vegetation and a transition area between the Biomes of according to Maia and Fontes (2011), occurred due to the Caatinga and the Atlantic Forest, there is a mixture the lack of knowledge and adequate agricultural ear

Y of species characteristic of the two biomes, and management techniques, the interviewees are

6 endemic species little known (JESUS, 2011). Over a responsible only for water scarcity for the damage long time, native flora has been and still indiscriminately caused to the land: removed for different economic activities, such as The land is good. Today the land [...] depends on the rain charcoal production, flour roasting, brick burning, [...] It is just like in that forest there. In this forest there, the furniture making, among others, without proper handling people boast that the land is good, but it is because it rains and the absence of reforestation practices. a lot and there is a corner that it does not rain [...] It’s like About it, Mr. Jonas regrets the occurrence of here, from here, from there it was raining a lot. The people deforestation. Also, he makes a relationship between used to mow and produce, the time is now very arid, but the devastation of the native forest and the water crisis when it gets to the point of catching a rain spike, it gives us everything (JANGA, 2017)13. at the Pradoso: “[...] the people ended the liana bush here because it was bush, more bush ... The people Regarding the use of medicinal herbs, Mr. ended it all. Only the 'capoeirão' left and the forest is Jonas told his mother used to use them frequently, gone. He says the bush pulls the rain, and the people showing that some practices are passed from ) 9 generation to generation in the district. “[...] Then, only B ends it at all, it is all over in this terrible drought.” .

( lemongrass and this Lapa grass and orange or a little

Volume XXI Issue I Version Regarding the species that existed before deforestation, Mr Jonas recalls: “[...] there was the lemon peel [...] here all my life uses it, my mother liked bastion, there were [...] the same wood from vines, to plant these small plants to make tea, she cultivated 14 braúna. There is still a braúna right there [...], there is an and watered.” (JONAS, 2017) . On this subject, Mr. Zil iron stick that was up there [...] in the old-time [...] my reports: “[...] there was a wood that served as a medicine called 'for everything', another [...] called - father used to say that people removed the good wood [...], vinhático, even cedar had everything here.”10. 'pigtail' when you had a bad belly, you took the bark and Still, on the Pradoso's flora, Mr Zil recalls the fruit species that also became scarce with deforestation: “[...] there were [...] teresinha fruits, cambuí, oi de boi 11 “[...] tinha [...] as fruta [...] teresinha, cambuí, oi de boi [...] cadela [...] cadela [...] grapiá, gameleira fruit [...] jatobá [...] the [...] grapiá, fruta de gameleira [...] jatobá [...] as fruta que quando nóis era criança no tempo agente catava. Sabe? Nois catava pá pudêalimetá”. 12 “[...] de premera nos mato tinha muito, tinha de premera é fácil demais procêmatá, tinha tatu, tinha viado tinha as coisa tudo [...] foi 8 “[...] essa vereda aí, esses lugar que cê ver o povo aterrano essas abrino, acabano os mato, o povo pegôprantá Eucalipto também”. 13

Global Journal of Human Social Science baxada fazeno casa é porque num chuveu mais que nem chuvia A terra é boa. Que hoje a terra [...] depende de ter chuva [...] É que antigamente, mas se chuver igual antigamente fica mais de duzentas nem nessas mata aí. Essas mata o povo gaba que as terra é boa, casa den d’agua. É aterrando, aterrando as lagoa e fazeno casa”. mas é porque chove bastante e tem canto que não chove [...] É que 9 “[...] os mato de cipó aqui o povo acabou, porque era mato, mais nem aqui, de premera aqui, de premera chovia mais bastante era mato... O povo acabou tudo, só ficou os capoeirãovéi, cabou a mata. constante a chuva. O povo prantava e produzia, mar agora os tempo Fala que o mato puxa a chuva e quando acaba o povo acabou tudo tá muito seco, mas de chegasse ao ponto de pegar um pico de chuva por isso essa seca terrível”. aqui dá tudo quanto é coisa (JANGA, 2017). 10 “[...] tinha o bastião, tinha [...] madeira mesma de mata de cipó, 14 “[...] Aí só erva-cidreira e esse capim da lapa e laranja e um pezinho braúna. Ali mesmo ainda tem uma braúna [...], tem um pau ferro que de limão [...] aqui toda a vida usa, minha mãe gostava muito de ficou lá no alto lá [...] no tempo velho [...] meu pai falava que tiravam plantar essas plantazinhas para fazer chá, ela plantava e molhava” as madeira [...] boa, vinhático, até cedro tinha tudo aqui”. (JONAS, 2017).

©2021 Global Journals Narratives of Environmental Issues at the Pradoso’s District of Vitória Da Conquista City in Bahia State/Brazil put it in the water and took it [ ...] you put it into the 2007). About this process, Mr. Zequinha relates the lack water, call it diffusion.”15. of clay to the impoverishment of the soil: Concerning economic activities, family farming What did this clay become? The clay is gone. Did it not? with grains, vegetables and medicinal plants is of great There are many years of working. Everything is over. [...] importance. Cassava culture stood out in the local because it was all taken away, and taking it out, it just ends. economy. However, in recent decades the local Does it not? There is the land, but it is like a flagstone, which economic dynamics have changed due to drought, as is not for pasture. Is not? For production and to create or 18 explained by Mr. Janga: plant a bush, a grass, everything became hard to do. The cassava is expensive, and the people were Pradoso's country person has been looking for crazy to plant, the rain is always scarcer [...] there are other alternatives to life due to difficulties in developing times when it does not rain [...], and the people go to agricultural and pottery activities. In this context, biscuit fading. Moreover, some people still have some cassava, factories, small businesses, and sawmills stood out. but [...] the manioc for working here comes from outside About the origin of the wood used in carpentry and [...] Looks, the fields here were full of manioc in the past, sawmills, Mr. Jonas informs us about the possible illegal today they are weak. It is a little plantation. Here removal of the wood. He said: “I do not know how they everything has changed, today it is no more than a find this wood, which today is difficult, but it is there [...] 2021 factory, of biscuits, flour, beiju and another part a piece he planted the eucalyptus, but they buy it there because ear of the garden.16. the vine vegetation here the people ended because it Y

During the drought, rural workers use to work was bush, more bush [...] the people finished 7 with brick making. However, this activity has lost ground everything”.19 in the local economy due to the lack of clay, its prior raw How about monthly income, many of material. Thus, workers have been looking for jobs in inhabitants there are in retirement. It was of great other activities like the mining industries, third-party importance for the backcountry, especially after the farms, in family homes or local businesses, and free drought that hit Pradoso, making many economic markets. Regarding the small reserves of clay, Mr. activities previously developed unfeasible. “[...] If it Jonas talked about the responsibility of anthropic action weren't for retirement [...] I would be in a worse in the process of the lack of clay: situation” (JONAS, 2017) 20. [...] In the old days, the people did many brick masonries to Maia, Fontes (2011), and Jesus (2011; 2012) make houses. [...] The people sank the pond bed by had already talked about the change of socio-economic removing the clay. A million bricks came from here. [...] dynamics at the district and the main activities carried Today, everything ended and appeared that big block. [...] out by young people and other economically active )

The people did not make bricks anymore. Some still do a populations. The mining companies' jobs highlighted B

little like this [...], but it is hard [...] The clay is over [...] The (

the positive and negative aspects of this type of activity. Volume XXI Issue I Version 17 good clay is over. According to Mr. Zequinha, his children and other young In general, the lack of clay from central areas of people in the district have been working with: “[...] a the Pradoso forces consequently the worker man truck in these ore things [...] like here on the side where moving to another mining. It results in the consequent they speak Santa Helena [...] There is also a quarry [...]

reduction in pottery activity, increasing difficulties of the ah good because it takes a lot of work for the class to - local people in periods of drought (ALVES; ALVES, be good [...] thank god!” Mr. Zil agrees with Mr. Zequinha 21: "Here comes the mining firm [...] it started there; it was job damage by the people. You see a bit of a family man from 15 “[...] tinha uma madeira que servia de remédio chamado ‘pra tudo’, here that everything used there. There Thank God! There outra [...] chamada ‘catinga de porco’, quando cêtava com a barriga ruim, pegava as casca colocava dentro da água e tomava [...] cê bota dendágua, chama difusão”. 18 Que virô, como diz, barrero né? É porque o barro [...] cabô, gente 16 A mandioca muito cara, o povo foi parano de prantá, a chuva [...] muitos ano aí trabalhano [...] cabô tudo [...] pruque o produto vai sempre mais escassa [...] tem hora que não chove [...] e o povo vai tirano, tirano só vai acabano né? Aí fica a terra aí mas fica feito lajedo ismureceno, mais inda dá, tem gente que inda tem umas coisa assim, nem pra pasto direito não sai porque há uns caso que mandioquinha por aí [...] mais as mandioca pra trabaiá aqui vem mais tira, aquilo acaba né? Aquela produção e também pra criar um mato, Global Journal of Human Social Science é de fora [...] Óia, antigamente as roça aqui era de mandioca mas um capim, uma coisa fica mar difícil também. hoje tá fraco. Táprantano pouco. Aqui mudou o esquema daqui aqui 19: “não sei como é que eles acha essa madeira, que hoje do jeito que hoje é mais fábrica, de biscoito, de farinha, de beiju e outra parte faz tá difícil, mas pega aí escondido [...] plantou o eucalipto, mas eles horta. compra aí, porque os mato de cipó aqui o povo acabou, porque era 17 [...] de primeiro aqui o povo fez muito foi alvenaria de tijolinho pra mato, mais mato [...] o povo acabou tudo”. fazer casa [...] O povo fundou a lagoa toda tirando o barro. Aqui fez 20 “[...] Se não fosse a aposentadoria [...] tava aí numa pior terrível” bem um milhão de tijolo [...] Hoje acabou aquilo tudo e apareceu (JONAS, 2017). também esse bloco aí que é maior [...] o povo não fez mais tijolo não. 21 “[...] caminhão nessas coisa [...] minério que tem aí como aqui do Uns ainda faz um pouquinho assim [...] mas é difícil [...] O barro lado que eles fala Santa Helena [...] Aqui tem uma pedreira também acabou [...] O barro bom mesmo acabou tudo. [...] ah bom porque dá trabalho pá turma é bom [...] Graças a Deus!”

was no more land, in a few more bricks, this firm came up the companies, or the public authorities, regarding the and paid the staff here, that's it." 22 damage caused by the mining industry. Over the past ten years, the extraction of Despite the impact resulting from mineral bentonite has significantly changed the socio-economic extraction, the development of traditional activities, such and environmental. Still little known, bentonite as pottery, agricultural production and the manufacture comprises a mineral used in different industrial of flour and other derivatives of cassava is still relevant applications, namely: production of drilling fluid for for the inhabitants of the district. However, these mining drilling wells, iron ore pelletizing, sand binder for activities has changed the characteristics of working in foundry, sanitary granules, animal feed, deodorization Pradoso's district. Small producers report difficulties in and dehydration of oils, clarification of beverages, civil hiring temporary labor at harvest times mainly in the construction, ceramics, cleaning material and cosmetics June period, when there is a greater demand for (TOMIO et al., 1999 apud JESUS, 2012). Besides, other cookies. Nevertheless, when many people who worked activities like companies extract gravel and marble, as day laborers on third-party properties find the plant, and process of eucalyptus changed the socio- opportunity to work in mining, they opt for formal economic, environmental dynamics of the district. employment. 2021 [...] It is each rock saw. Here, thank God, many people are These changes are still subtle, but the beginning of a new socio-economic and environmental

ear working in these jobs. These stones they take out has 30

Y tonnes. They are overturning the ravines of the mountain. It's configuration is notable with mining:

8 not very good. [...] People use to say the eucalyptus is not [...] The people came up with this ore business, they are on good. They say it draws a lot of water, but I do not know why a mountain range, and they employ many people there. there is the farm that has these weirs that I had spoken. The There is also another piece that removes the gravel, which water undermined are stronger. The tank is full (JANGA, 23 waters the stone, many works in this mining work. And 2017) . biscuit factory, where there is about ten biscuit factory that The doubt raised by Mr. Janga about the employs many people. And another thing you have here is a damage of eucalyptus plantations cause to water sawmill. There are about eight sawmills, some are already resources corresponds to ambiguities that also exist in old, but the sawmill hardly employs anyone, the owners the academy, considering that the culture of eucalyptus even work (JONAS, 2017). has been the subject of controversial and heated Another relevant point addressed was the debates between the agreeing positions and the change in the local landscape due to the socio- contrary to the development of the culture of this exotic economic and environmental changes that have tree species. occurred in the region since the last decades: ) We believe that the exploitation of bentonite has B [...] I remember what it was like to kill the bushes, where we

( influence altering the local economy because hundreds used to call these places where there was no house next to Volume XXI Issue I Version of residents of Pradoso work directly or indirectly at the Vereda [...] there were no houses [...] when I was a boy [...] Companhia Brasileira de Bentonita - CBB. However, if, those down here had no home, it was just bush. When it on the one hand, the mining is profitable because offers rains, it was water for every side. [...] We used to let cattle jobs and help to boost the local economy, on the other up there [...] the cows turned here until there near that big hand, invaluable damage resulting from it. asphalt, and there was almost no home. After, it constructed - houses about here (JANGA, 2017).24 During the dialogues, the intellectuals of tradition did not point out negative aspects of mining. We ask too about the environmental problems On the contrary, they have gone through many in the district, and the causes and possible solutions for

problems due to the scarcity of cassava and clay. damage to nature. We realize the intellectuals of Hence, the residents of the district see mining as a tradition are not aware of most of the environmental possibility of raising income every month of the year and impacts existing in Pradoso, except for drought and keeping the formal work. In this way, we realized that the deforestation. However, even if they are aware of human residents of Pradoso did not receive information from responsibility for some environmental damage, they do not consider themselves co-participants in the process, attributing the fault to their predecessors.

Global Journal of Human Social Science 22 Aí vem as firma de mineração [...] aí começou aí foi dano emprego At the end of the dialogues and analysis of the po povo. Cê ver um tanto de pai de família daqui que tudo narratives, we noticed our interlocutors could be empregado lá. Aí Graças a Deus! Tinha roça acabou, num faz mais tijolo, surgiu essa firma e paga o pessoal aqui aí táviveno disso. 23 [...] É cada serra de brita. Aqui graças a Deus trabaia muita gente 24 [...] eu lembro como é que era os mato, as baxada aqui, aqui de

empregada nesses trabai, essas pedra que eles tira [...] ela com 30 premera a gente chamava esses local aonde é que não tinha casa do tonelada [...] eles tá dirrubano os barranco da serra pá tirá [...] O lado [...] de Vereda [...] num tinha quais casa [...] quando eu era pessoal fala que o Eucalipto num é muito bom. Diz que puxa muita menino [...] essas baixada aqui não tinha casa, era só mato. Quando água, mas eu num sei não porque ali tem a fazenda que tem esses chuvia era água pra tudo quanto é canto. [...] A gente soltava gado lá auçude que eu falo os eucalipto é até perto e a minação nunca parô. em cima [...] as vaca girava aqui até lá perto daquele asfalto grande e

A minação forte, o tanque só vevechei (JANGA, 2017). não tinha quase casa. Aí foi enchendo de casa (JANGA, 2017).

©2021 Global Journals Narratives of Environmental Issues at the Pradoso’s District of Vitória Da Conquista City in Bahia State/Brazil designated intellectuals of tradition. They are individuals knowledge, whether related to environmental, social, who, despite little or no schooling, had obtained historical, cultural, or economic aspects. We emphasize throughout their trajectory a rich learning based on that ignorance, regardless of its level, does not dismay observations and reports. They are transmitted through the interviewees of the quality of intellectuals of the oral communication and systematized as valid and tradition, considering that one of the basic principles of relevant knowledge. the ecology of knowledge is the recognition of The knowledge produced by the interviewees ignorance as a starting point but also as a point of was only possible thanks to their proximity to nature and arrival. Knowledge of tradition and scientific culture has the constant struggle for survival. These people are gaps and limits. For this reason, it is essential to ready to face everyday difficulties. They remember overcome epistemological barriers and dialogue events around them and are careful observers of the between different types of knowledge with a view to phenomena of nature, interpreting the world with environmental sustainability. consistency and lucidity. Throughout its trajectory, Pradoso went through III. Conclusion cycles of economic exploitation that also included The reading of scientific publications, the cycles of environmental degradation. These cycles observation of the landscape of the Pradoso, and the 2021 started with deforestation for agriculture - passing dialogue with its inhabitants allowed us to realize that ear through the culture of cassava - which led to the Y the use of the natural resources of the Pradoso’s district degradation of the soil and the manufacture of bricks - was and still do without considering its sustainability. 9 with the removal of clay from the riverbed itself. This fact has generated a series of socio-environmental Currently, the impact of the subsoil resulting of the problems that disrupt the nature and compromise the extraction of mineral resources. sustainability of the social groups who live there. We emphasize the narratives of the older adults Another important aspect is related to changes helped us to reach this conclusion due to the knowledge in the economic dynamics of Pradoso with the that emerged in narratives, contributing to the few replacement of previously predominant activities, such scientific research on the occupation and environmental as brickmaking, subsistence agriculture, and production degradation in the district. Thus, we reaffirm contrary to of cassava derivatives, with eucalyptus culture and the what scientific culture talks this knowledge is a valid mining industry. This economic change also transforms form and not only common sense. the social profile of the inhabitants and in the local One relevant question, the knowledge of landscape. tradition is not displaced from reality and separated by We note that the intellectuals of the tradition ) objects. Intellectuals of tradition approach connecting B

interviewed have remarkable knowledge about the fauna ( reality. For instance, they do not only deal with plants, Volume XXI Issue I Version and flora of the Pradoso and its alteration due to but also with water, animals, climate, deities, among deforestation. Another environmental aspect addressed many other aspects. Their lives relate to all these in the interlocutions concerns the severe drought that hit elements due to the very reality in which they live so that the district and caused injuries to nature and the local nature appears to them as a set of interconnected economy. factors. - In scientific and specialized culture, contrary to The interlocutors also know the historical, what occurs in the knowledge of tradition, the elements cultural, social, and geographical aspects of the district. are studied in a dissociated way. When dealing with However, concerning human responsibility in Pradoso, each academic intellectual addresses a type environmental degradation, it is common for residents to of problem existing in the district that draws his attention state that the absence of rain and the scarcity of other natural resources is due to the divine will. because it is more relevant to his area of expertise. One addresses the water issue, another the deforestation, Although the absence of scientific knowledge, it and another the change in the socio-economic profile of is common for country people to resort to local the residents. knowledge to solve their daily problems. We noticed constraints by our interlocutors when they affirmed that

Developed on the margins, these traditional Global Journal of Human Social Science understanding demonstrate the existence of thought they had little or no study, and for this reason, they based on homologies that interconnect properties and could not contribute with us. attributes arising from different domains and orders. It is These initial interviewees' refusal denotes that possible to promote an ecology of knowledge, and the these collaborators, like so many other intellectuals of valuation of different knowledge. The ecology of the tradition, suffered and still suffer from the knowledge operates in a collective understanding that epistemicide imposed by modern science. In the name aims to provide social emancipation. of science, it wastes the richness of the perspectives Despite the wisdom that emerged in the present in cultural diversity and in the multifaceted interviewees' narratives, we could notice the lack of visions of the world they play. Thus, we reiterate the

importance of developing an ecology of knowledge in 12. MAIA, Meirilane Rodrigues; FONTES, Aracy Losano. favors of the valorization of knowledge systematized by Dinâmica ambiental do Distrito do Pradoso – Vitória traditional peoples so that they have the credibility to da Conquista – Ba. Scientia Plena, São Paulo, v. 7, participate in epistemological debates with other n. 7, p.1-9, jun. 2011. understanding including scientific knowledge. 13. Métodos de pesquisa / [organizado por] Tatiana Engel Gerhardt e Denise Tolfo Silveira; coordenado References Références Referencias pela Universidade Aberta do Brasil – UAB/UFRGS e 1. ALMEIDA, Maria da Conceição de et al. Saberes da pelo Curso de Graduação Tecnológica – tradição e diversidade cultura: cartografias de uma Planejamento e Gestão para o Desenvolvimento ética para um ensino educativo. Xi Congresso Rural da SEAD/UFRGS. – Porto Alegre: Editora da Nacional de Educação, Curitiba, p.1-16, set. 2013. UFRGS, 2009. 2. ALMEIDA, Maria da Conceição Xavier de. 14. MINAYO, Maria Cecília de Souza. Análise Complexidade, saberes científicos, saberes da qualitativa: teoria, passos e fidedignidade. Ciência tradição. 2. ed. rev. e ampl. – São Paulo: Editora & Saúde Coletiva, Rio de Janeiro, v. 3, n. 17, p.621- Livraria da Física, 2017. 626, 2012. Mensal. 2021 3. ALVES, Márcia Brito Nery; ALVES, Carley 15. Muylaert CJ, Júnior VS, Gallo PR, Neto MLR. Entrevistas narrativas: um importante recurso em ear Rodrigues. Identidade Cultural e Solidariedade: Y pesquisa qualitativa. Rev Esc Enferm USP 2014;

uma relação para a Sobrevivência no Pradoso, 10 Vitória da Conquista-BA. Scientia Plena, São Paulo, 48(Esp2):193-199 www.ee.usp.br/reeusp/

v. 3, n. 5, p.90-95, ago. 2007. 16. NOGUEIRA, Ulisses do Prado. Vereda. Vitória da 4. Benjamin W. O narrador. In: Benjamin W, Conquista: [s.n], 1988. 129 p. Horkheimer M, Adorno T, Habermas J. Os 17. RAMALHO, Ivone Priscilla de Castro; ALMEIDA, pensadores. São Paulo: Editor Victor Civita; 1975. Maria da Conceição de. Saberes da Tradição: P.63-82 (Textos escolhidos) Proposições para um ensino educativo. 5. BRASIL. INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte – E ESTATÍSTICA. (Org.). Censo. 2010. Disponível UFRN, 2010. em: . Acesso em: 01 ago. 2016. tempo: para uma nova cultura política. São Paulo: 6. CALEGARE, Marcelo Gustavo Aguilar; HIGUCHI, Cortez, 2010a. Maria Inês Gasparetto and BRUNO, Ana Carla dos 19. SANTOS, Boaventura de Sousa; MENEZES, Maria Paula [orgs.]. Epistemologias do Sul – São Paulo:

) Santos. Povos e comunidades tradicionais: das

B Cortez, 2010b.

( áreas protegidas à visibilidade política de grupos

Volume XXI Issue I Version sociais portadores de identidade étnica e coletiva¹. 20. SANTOS, Francílio de Amorim dos; AQUINO, Ambient. soc. [online]. 2014, vol.17, n.3 [cited Cláudia Maria Sabóia de. PANORAMA DA 2019-03-24], pp.115-134. DESERTIFICAÇÃO NO NORDESTE DO BRASIL: 7. FONTELLES, Mauro José et al. METODOLOGIA DA características e suscetibilidades. Interespaço: PESQUISA CIENTÍFICA: DIRETRIZES PARA A Revista de Geografia e Interdisciplinaridade, [s.l.], v.

- ELABORAÇÃO DE UM PROTOCOLO DE 2, n. 7, p.144-161, 31 jul. 2017. Universidade PESQUISA. Revista Paraense de Medicina, Belém, Federal do Maranhao. v. 3, n. 23, set. 2009. Trimestral. 21. SILVA, Francisco Lucas da. A natureza me disse/ 8. GOMES, Fulvio de Moraes. As epistemologias do Francisco Lucas da Silva; Organização Maria da sul de Boaventura de Sousa Santos: por um Conceição de Almeida e Paula Vanina Cencig. resgate do sul global. Revista Páginas de Natal: Flecha do Tempo, 2007. 65 p. il. - (Coleção Filosofia, São Paulo, v. 4, n. 2, p.39-54, Não é um Metamorfose - v. 4)

mês valido! 2012. Semestral. 22. SOBREIRA, Gerusa Cruz; OLIVEIRA, Marcelo 9. JESUS, Roberta Batista de. Extração e Souza; ARGOLO, Adenilson de Andrade. Reflexões beneficiamento de bentonita no distrito de Pradoso- sobre a ecologia dos saberes na prática

Global Journal of Human Social Science BA: Uma análise socioambiental. Universidade educacional: A arte como possibilidade Federal do Sudoeste da Bahia – UFBA, 2011. de emancipação. Sociais Arte/educação, Belo 10. JESUS, Roberta Batista de. Análise Socioambiental Horizonte, v. 1, n. 1, p.1-14, jan. 2013. Semestral. do processo produtivo do minério bentonita no Distrito de Pradoso-BA. Universidade Federal do Sudoeste da Bahia – UFBA, 2012. 11. Lukács G. Narrar ou descrever? In: Ensaios sobre literatura.Konder L, organizadores. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Civilização Brasileira S A; 1965.

©2021 Global Journals Global Journal of HUMAN-SOCIAL SCIENCE: B Geography, Geo-Sciences, Environmental Science & Disaster Management Volume 21 Issue 1 Version 1.0 Year 2021 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global Journals Online ISSN: 2249-460x & Print ISSN: 0975-587X

Artefacts of Violence of the Bronze and Copper Ages in the South of Western Siberia By A. P. Borodovskiy

Abstract- In the archeological sources, the facts of violent actions are expressed at several levels.

They can include peculiarities of burial traditions, traumatic effects on paleoanthropological materials, objects symbolizing weapons and images of military conflicts. By now, there has been quite a variety of such facts revealed on the southern territory of the Western Siberia (Fig.1) for the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages (1000 BC), which require detailed consideration. They encompass violence and peculiarities of burial customs; traumatic effects on paleoanthropological materials (cutting of heads, scalping, injuries); images of cut heads; objects symbolizing weapons; pictures of military conflicts.

Keywords: the traumatic effects on paleoanthropological materials, objects symbolizing weapons, images of military conflicts, late bronze, early iron ages, the southern territory of the western siberia.

GJHSS-B Classification: FOR Code: 210199

ArtefactsofViolenceoftheBronzeandCopperAgesintheSouthofWesternSiberia

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2021. A. P. Borodovskiy. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Artefacts of Violence of the Bronze and Copper Ages in the South of Western Siberia

A. P. Borodovskiy

Abstract - In the archeological sources, the facts of violent as well as instances of injuries characterized by clear- actions are expressed at several levels. They can include cut marks on bone tissues. peculiarities of burial traditions, traumatic effects on paleoanthropological materials, objects symbolizing weapons c) Scalping and images of military conflicts. By now, there has been quite Scalping as a way of obtaining high-value a variety of such facts revealed on the southern territory of the military trophies used to be widely popular, though on a Western Siberia (Fig.1) for the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages case-by-case basis. The existence of the scalping (1000 BC), which require detailed consideration. They custom for the territory of Western Siberia can be 2021 encompass violence and peculiarities of burial customs;

tracked for the whole set of sources: historical, folk, ear traumatic effects on paleoanthropological materials (cutting of ethnographical and archeological. They encompass Y heads, scalping, injuries); images of cut heads; objects symbolizing weapons; pictures of military conflicts. controversial mentions of scalping during the Kazym 11

Keywords: the traumatic effects on paleoanthropological Rebellion of 1933 [Golovnev, 1995, p. 176], folk Mansi materials, objects symbolizing weapons, images of [Gondatti, 1886, p. 64] and Eastern Khanty [Pelikh, 1972, p. 372], motives, several stories from the Ostyak military conflicts, late bronze, early iron ages, the heroic epos [Patkanov, 1891, pp. 45,54,66,67], indirect southern territory of the western siberia. evidence of Minor Ioganka [Anninsky, 1940, p. 93]

I. Main Part referred to the 14th century, effects of scalping on the skulls from the Second Pazyryk Burial Mound (5th-4th a) Violence and peculiarities of burial traditions centuries BC) in Altai [Rudenko, 1948, pp. 53,54; n the Early Iron Age, depositions of representatives of Barkova, Gokhman, 2001, p. 80], Bystrovka-2 (6th-3rd “socially deprived” categories of the population are centuries BC) in the Upper Ob valley [Borodovsky, revealed in the elite [Devlet, 1976] and ordinary burial I 1997a, p. 164-169], in the Saigatino 6 Burial Mound mounds [Borodovskii, 1995] of the Tagar archeological (10th-11th centuries) from the Middle Ob valley culture in the Middle Yenisei basin. In the central part of ) [Karacharov, 1999, p. 164]. B the Great Salbyk Burial Mound (Fig. 2,1,2), a pair ( The ancient descriptions of the scalping custom Volume XXI Issue I Version deposition was located, which was covered with birch by Scythes [Herodotus, Book 4, 64, 1972, p. 202] bark. One of the buried people was placed with his/her referred to the middle of 1000 BC are usually face down. Another similar deposition was revealed in commented by their analogues from any synchronous the southwestern periphery of the Beregovoy-1 burial Pazyryk burial mounds with frost in Altai [Stratanovsky, mound (Fig. 2,3). The buried person was placed in the 1972, p. 520; Dovatur, Kallistov, Shishova, 1982, p. - twisted position, with his/her face down, on an ancient 302]. However, in order to preserve accuracy of such buried surface covered with the burial mound. There parallels, one should consider an array of various details was no associated inventory in both cases. The buried of this custom implementation by Scythes and Pazaryks. people’s heads faced east (Beregovoy-1), providing For example, Herodotus explicitly pointed out that “the certain deviations from this direction (Great Salbyk Burial Scythian warrior brought all the heads of those killed by Mound). him during the fight to his tzar”. Afterwards, the head According to S.V.Kiselev, such burial places was skinned in the following way: “a small cut was made were forced depositions of captives or “patriarchal” on the head, next to the ears, and then one took the slaves who were immolated in the course of traditional head by the hair and shook the head out of skin”. funeral customs implementation. Therefore, it dealt with scalping of the head that had Global Journal of Human Social Science b) Traumatic effects on paleoanthropological materials been already cut from the body, providing that the hair The traumatic effects on paleoanthropological coat should be removed to the highest possible extent, materials related to violent actions can include scalping, while the head of a scalped man from the Second cutting of heads and various manipulations with them, Pazyryk Burial Mound was obviously cut off by robbers [Rudenko, 1948, pp. 53, 54; Barkova, Gokhman, 2001, Author: Doctor of Historical Sciences, Leading Researcher at the p. 80] but not by those who scalped it. On the other Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS (17 Academician Lavrentiev Ave., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russian Federation). hand, there are clear-cut differences in respect of the e-mail: [email protected] scalping technique described by Scythes and provided

in the materials of the Pazyryk burial mounds. According their depth – from 1 to 3 mm. They create a number of to S.I.Rudenko’s observations, “the front skin was cut lines located on the frontal, temporal, and parietal bones over the forehead from one ear to the other, through a of the skull (Fig. 3,5-7). By the way, the younger a buried standing out bit of hair, and stripped back” [Rudenko, person is, the longer those cuts are. It can be 1948, p. 54]. It was related both to peculiarities of the correspondingly tracked on the skulls from Burial Mound hair-do and to the fact that the head was scalped 2, Deposition 2 (18-20 years old) (Fig. 3,5) and Burial without being cut off from the body. Therefore, it is Mound 1, Deposition 3 – Skeleton 2 (25-30 years old) hardly possible that the parallel descriptions of this (Fig. 3,6), Skeleton 1 (45-55 years old) (Fig. 3,7). Such a custom provided by Scythes and natives of Gorny Altai peculiarity can be determined by age characteristics of distribution and density of the hair coat. It may be the can be regarded as similar. In the burial mound of Bystrovka-2 of the reason why the oldest scalped person (Burial Mound 1, Scythian time, three more authentic cases of scalping of Deposition 3, Skeleton 1) has the shortest and buried people are recorded [Borodovsky, Tabarev, shallowest cuts on the skull (Fig. 3,7). One should also 2005]. In Burial Mound 1, Deposition 3, the pair point out other peculiarities of the mere cuts on the skull deposition of grown-up men was characterized by clear- bones. Judging by their depth (0.3-1 mm) and presence

2021 cut marks of scalping (Fig. 3,6,7). Another secondary of burrs in the top edge of the cuts, one can form a deposition with the marks of scalping was discovered in certain idea of the mere scalping technique. The deep ear penetration of the bladder into the bone tissue is Y Burial Mound 2 (Deposition 2) of this cemetery (Fig. 3,5). The skull and long bones of a young man (18-20 years determined by its fresh state [Borodovsky, 1997b, 12 old) were densely piled up (Fig. 3,3,4). The man was p. 26]. Simultaneously, the top location of notches on likely to be buried in a bag or any other container when the cut testifies to the fact that the bladder was moving his bones had already lost their soft connecting tissues. bottom upwards or from the right to the left while hair There are certain similar analogues in some early was pulled on during the scalping process. The burrs on the cuts are located on one (top) side, which was Tashtyk burial grounds [Vadetskaya, 1975, p. 178-180]. The samples of calibrated radiocarbon dating determined also by the turn of the victim’s head in the (SOAN-3294, 3936, 3935) of the adjacent depositions course of scalping. It also caused a double half-spiral (No. 8,11,13) of Burial Mound 2, Bystrovka-2 can be line covering all the surface of the skull bones from included into the chronological interval of 780-400 BC, Bystrovka-2. Therefore, such peculiarities just 760-390 BC, 810-540 BC [Borodovskii, Slusarenko, underscore the fact that one scalped a cut head that Kuzmin…,2003, p. 84, tabl. 2]. These data allow was easy to get with. The similar method is mentioned in considering Deposition No.2 from Burial Mound 2 of the the Ostyak heroic epos of the Middle Ages. One should ) Bystrovka necropolis characterized by the marks of point out one story out of several legends related to the B

( scalping a complex dated from the Scythian time. winners’ intent to remove the head skin “ukh-sor” from Volume XXI Issue I Version their enemies’ skulls. The author tells us how the head of Besides the scalping cuts, the skull of the the Samoyedic Prince, Sos-Turum, which was cut by the second skeleton from Burial Mound 1, Deposition 3, Ostyak strongman, runs away from him trying to possessed the marks of military injuries. They were preserve its scalp, i.e. “rainbow coloured head skin” represented by the marks resulted from two slashing [Patkanov, 1891, p. 67]. Therefore, the most recent

- blows dealt at the surface and base of the skull of the mythological motives are provided with a certain factual right side of the head. The stroke marks on the parietal confirmation from the archeological sources. part were viewed as a long cut of 3.5 x 2.6 cm, with the Another source of information related to many bladder grazing 3-4 mm deep into the compact issues of the Siberian ancient history is represented by substance of the skull bones (Fig. 3,7). rock paintings. Recently, there have been an entire array Another blow was dealt at the mastoid bone of of specialized works related to reflection of certain sides the right temporal bone. It found directly the nuchal line of the material, spiritual, and military culture of the

where the boundary between the neck muscle insertion ancient population of Southern Siberia. One of them is a and hair growth start line lies. That blow was obviously publication by O.S.Sovetova devoted to possibilities of delivered from behind for the purpose of cutting the use of rock paintings as sources of military arts of the

Global Journal of Human Social Science head of the body before scalping, which is confirmed by tribes of the Tagar epoch (2005). It deals with separate similar cases described by ancient Scythes. Other two compositions of Kunya and Abakano-Perevoz skulls do not possess any marks of head cutting, which (Fig. 3,1,2), which are interpreted as an image of how to could be preserved directly on the bones. However, grab the enemy’s hair during a fight [Sovetova, 2005, taking into account the recurrence of Deposition 2 from p. 80, Fig.3]. In our opinion, such compositions can be Burial Mound 2, this possibility should be ruled out. also related to the scalping practice. On the whole, the consequences of scalping on The historical background, with which the cases the buried skulls from Bystrovka-2 are represented by a of scalping known from the archeological sources are set of cuts. Their length varies from 1 to 1.5 cm, and associated, is also no less interesting.

While for the Pazyryk burial mounds the period and located in the Kuznetsk depression, one example of such a tradition is indirectly related to the discovered skulls of three men, whose eyeholes faced consequences of the Greek and Persian wars or the different directions [Ilyushin, Kovalevsky, Suleimenov, period of instability in China [Marsadolov, 1996, pp. 1996, pp. 12, 86]. 72,73], the burial mound group of Bystrovka-2 is likely to Separate depositions of human heads are be associated with the expansion of Alexander the Great known in the sanctuaries of Western Siberia of the Early to Central Asia. Iron Age, on the territory of ancient settlements of the Undoubtedly, such historic events provided a Middle Irtysh valley – Bolshoi Log [Alyabina, Konikov, global impact on Western Siberia and the whole of 1995] – and the Middle Ob valley – the ancient Eurasia. It is indirectly confirmed by the appearance of settlement of Sarovskoe [Chindina, 1978]. These images of war elephants not only among imported items depositions were as a rule supplemented by ceramic (the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great) but also in vessels. the decorative components of the warhorse dressing On the western edge of Burial Mound 9 of (Ob’ezdnoe-1) [Borodovsky, Telegin 2007, p. 52-62]. Bystrovka-2, at the daylight surface level, there is a The dynamic events of that time could probably separate deposition of the heads of two young women provide another impulse for side-spread occurrence of and one man (20-25 and 30-35 years old 2021 many specific military customs related to the heads of correspondingly) recorded. The skulls were located ear the defeated. In that historical situation, the south part of together with ceramic vessels associated with other Y

Western Siberia along with Black Sea Scythia is included foreign (Kulai and Sargat) cultures (Fig. 4,3,6,8). 13 into the set of territories where this tradition was quite This adjacency is hardly accidental as when popular. offering human sacrifices one frequently gave “preference” to foreign tribe representatives. For d) Cut off heads example, one of women’s skulls of Burial Mound 9 of In the second part of 1000 BC, Herodotus [IV, Bystrovka-2 characterized by explicit taiga features was 1972, p. 103] mentioned the Scythian custom of justice located next to a “forest” Kulai ceramic vessel of an with relatives implying that once the “trial” was over, the obviously northern origin. head of the guilty person was cut off. The traitors were According to the Siberian ethnic groups, the treated by Scythes in the same way. For example, Tsar victim’s head played one of the main roles in the rituals. Scyles who flinched from the Scythian customs shared Thus, Selkups regarded the head as a temporary vessel the same fate ([, IV, 1972, p. 80]. The archeological for a grave soul – kedo, which could not leave a late materials of that epoch also contain evidence of such a person’s body until its corpse was destroyed [Pelikh, th custom. In the Kurdjips burial mound of the 4 century )

1972, pp. 115,116]. Nganasans associated a brain or B

BC from the Kuban valley, there is an image of warriors eyes with the soul. The ethnographic materials contain ( Volume XXI Issue I Version holding cut off human heads by the hair on the golden the evidence when certain skull manipulations were cap [Galanina, 1980, p. 93]. The Scythes, Sarmatians, meant to facilitate the soul removal. According to some Huns [Bichurin, 1950, p. 93] regarded the enemy’s head evidence, this method was used in Tuva when burying as an honorary military trophy. According to V.I.Ivanov, very old people. Their head was broken through. All various manipulations with cut off heads in 1000 BC are

these ethnographic parallels could possess not only an - likely to trace their origin to certain Eastern and illustrative and comparative character for the deposition Mediterranean female cults related to orgies [Ivanov, of skulls of the Bystrovka necropolis (Burial Mound 2, 1927, p. 120]. In Central Asia, the cut off human head Bystrovka-2), but also a more profound meaning. The was one of the attributes of the ritual activity and political matter is that the broken bones of the skulls in the basis culture up to the High Middle Ages [Dmitriev, 1997, pp. of eyeholes and trepanation of the skull base were 212-219]. obviously meant for removal of eyes and brain of the In the southern part of Western Siberia, the dead (Bystrovka-3) or immolated people (Bystrovka-3). discovered depositions of skulls are referred to the The skull trepanation of people from the burial period from the Intermediate to Late Bronze Age (2000- mounds of Bustrovka-2,3 was most frequently

1000 BC) [Khlobystina, 1999]. The depositions of performed by means of destroying their bases after Global Journal of Human Social Science several dozens of skulls are recorded in one of the people’s death. The similar customs are identified Krotov-Elunin graves. The depositions of skulls are during the Early Iron Age on the skulls from the known also in the Samus burial mound in the north part Minusinsk Hollow, Western Mongolia, and Kazakhstan of the Upper Ob valley [Matyushchenko, 1961, p. 49]. [Mednikova, 1997, p. 130-139]. The authentic marks of The depositions of the Irmen burial mound of Kamen-1 such an operation are identified on several skulls from in Bolotinsk district of Novosibirsk region include a Bystrovka-2 (Burial Mound 9) and Bystrovka-3 (Burial deposition of a human skull with a vessel under the stele Mound 6). In two burial mounds, there are cases of [Novikov, 2001, p. 62]. In the center of Burial Mound homogeneous destruction of the base and symmetric No.6 of Sapogovo-1, which is referred to the Late Irmen damage of the lateral parts of the occipital bones (Fig.

4,10-14). Nevertheless, one should pay attention to actions related to this method can be directly associated certain differences of these trepanized skulls. First of all, with ancient violence. Secondly, sometimes signs of the holes in the skulls have different breaking natures. direct military violence [Kubarev, 1987, p. 145] are While the skull from Bystrovka-3 (Fig. 4,14) is erroneously interpreted as trepanation [Grach, 1980, characterized by the fact that a part of the bone is p. 254, Fig. 116]. removed with the help of preliminary drilling and dusting, On the whole, for the Bystrovka necropolis, on all skulls from Bystrovka-2 this operation is depositions with missing heads are often a case performed with a cutting tool (Fig. 4,10,11,12) without (Fig. 4,1,2,4). The deposition of a man from Burial any preliminary marking. Therefore, the trepanation Mound 4, Cemetery 1 of Bystrovka-1 (Fig. 4,4,5) is holes from Bystrovka-3 have a more accurate regarded as the most interesting as his head was geometrical shape. They are close to a square shape. replaced with a bone point, with its edge upwards. The On the skulls from Bystrovka-2, the similar holes are semantics of this fact can be interpreted in a variety of obviously larger, with uneven ragged edges. The ways [Ozheredov, 1999, p. 77-119]. However, the main general contour of the broken areas corresponds to idea is represented by replacement of the missing head ovals. The shape of the trepanation holes (an n-sided with an object possessing obviously male, military

2021 polygon) and technology of their creation, i.e. drilling characteristics. Therefore, according to Herodotus’s (Bystrovka-3) and breaking and cutting (Bystrovka-2), description, the Scythian Tsar, Ariant, wanted to learn ear

Y allow questioning the specific traditions and variants of the number of Scythes and told everyone to bring one

trepanation in the Upper Ob valley in the Early Iron Age, bronze arrowhead, from which a spacious ritual vessel 14 as well as an individual signature of the operator who (pot?) was cast [Herodotus, IV, 81, 1972, p. 208]. performed skull breaking [Gokhman, 1989, p. 15]. e) Pictures of cut off heads The variants of interpretation of the cases of In the ancient time, human heads were skull trepanation from the Bystrovka necropolis will be represented by various decorations. The set of quite numerous. First of all, one should mention the fact decorations of horse dressing from the burial mounds of that the shape and “functional” destination of Bolshaya Tsimbalka and Chmyreva Mogila contains trepanation holes in the skull bases from Bystrovka-2,3 different combinations of Medusa’s face and a whole are quite close to the so-called encephalophagy – array of images including the serpent-footed goddess, eating of the brain of a dead person by his/her relatives. Pan, and Heracles [Raevsky, 1989, pp. 174,175]. The According to the Monte Circeo materials, this custom degree of these images integration into the local was popular even with Neanderthals and was preserved environment could be determined by the fact that up to the ethnographic time by the isolated groups of Scythes described the cases of using the skin stripped ) the population of New Guinea Papuans. Both such B off from the human head for horse dressing decoration

( actions and efforts to “remove and free” a dead Volume XXI Issue I Version [Herodotus, IV, 64, 1972, p. 202]. person’s soul may be wide from being the only The materials of the Siberian Collection of Peter explanations of the reasons for the skull roof destruction. the Great contain a golden earing with a pendant in the Obviously, besides its sacral and ritual meaning, the form of a human head [Rudenko, 1962, p. 28, tabl. XXI, head trepanation of the population that left the 61, p. 49], which can also be associated with the Bystrovka necropolis could possess some medical - abovementioned tradition. However, the closest analogy meaning. It is exemplified by the skull from Women’s is represented by gilded wooden pendants in the form Deposition 5 (Level 1), Burial Mound 9, Bystrovka-2 of five bearded heads (Fig. 4,7) on one of the bridles of (Fig. 4, 16) with the furunculosis symptoms on the the First Pazyryk Burial Mound and two more similar parietal roof and marks of the intravitam occipitalis decorative pieces on the poitrel [Gryaznov, 1950, tabl. trepanation. The regeneration of the bone tissue edges XVIII]; it is interpreted by some researchers as heads of testifies to the fact that the woman lived for quite a long the killed Huns [Klyashtorny, Savinov, 1998, p. 176]. time after that complicated operation. According to some researchers, the picture of such In the elite 11th burial mound of the Berelsk military trophies is the result of violent Hun and Yuezhi necropolis in Gorny Altai, a man’s skull also possessed wars of 4th-3rd centuries BC. the marks of a similar head operation. The round cutting Global Journal of Human Social Science of the edges of the occipitalis roof, which had been f) Destruction of skulls obviously destroyed by a fall from the horse, was meant Besides scalping marks and cutting of heads, to remove the fragments of the skull bones to prevent the craniological materials of the Burial Groups of cerebral edema. However, unlike that operation Bystrovka-3, 2 testify to numerous cases of artificial performed with the materials of the burial mound of destructions of the facial part and brain capsule. Such Bystrovka-2, this one was not successful. defects can be classified as both consequences of The identification of authentic signs of military injuries and cases of intravitam or postmortem trepanation has a very important meaning for the skull damage. Employing the qualitative and quantitative studied topic of ancient violence. Firstly, in some cases approach to the skull damage analysis suggested by

N.N.Mamontova [1997, p. 108-121] and M.B.Mednikova is relatively low [Razhev, Kovrigin, Kurto, 1999, p. 139]. [1997, p. 130-139], one can point out several The Upper Ob region is characterized by a completely peculiarities. different situation. Taking into consideration a relatively The marks of military injuries and various low armament degree of the population (judging by the destructions are more often a case in the craniological accompanying burial inventory), the level of the military materials of Bystrovka-2 than Bystrovka-3. There are injury rate is very significant on the whole. Such a also some qualitative differences recorded. Bystrovka-2 peculiarity can serve as a basis for drawing a conclusion is characterized by cases of the skull part destruction, concerning gradual extirpation of the Ob region including absence of the facial skeleton, its fragments, population in the course of military conflicts in the Early absence of its base. The general distribution of various Iron Age. types of skull destruction among burial mounds and The evidence of participation of the ancient cemeteries also reflects different kinds of posttraumatic population of the southern part of Western Siberia in damage by the population that left these burial fierce military fights includes a set of depositions complexes. It is noteworthy that the highest number of referred to the Late Bronze Age, intermediate period, solution of continuity of the face and skull base is typical and Early Iron Age. Not only results of application of of the skulls from Bystrovka-2 while those buried in various weapons but also their details are clearly 2021 Bystrovka-3 are mostly deprived of such defects at all. preserved on the buried bones. ear

The character of bone damage on the skulls in both Y

g) Injuries inflicted by piercing weapons burial mounds is also different. Bystrovka-2 is 15 characterized by injuries inflicted by a cutting object – On the territory of the Upper Ob region, the skulls of two men from Burial Mound 28, Deposition 1, 88.9%, while the occurrence rate of such injuries in Bystrovka-3 is just 40%. The same share is taken by and Burial Mound 30, Deposition 1 of Novotroitskoe-1 knife wounds. It is interesting that, if classified by the are broken by hatchet hammer [Rykun, 1999, p. localization of military injuries within the group of similar 152,153]. The blows are dealt at the right and left kinds of damage, damage related to the right halves of parietal bones (Fig. 5,5,6). The bone tissue destruction the facial part and bones of the skull roof is prevailing. is characterized by clear-cut signs of a blow delivered Such a regularity is typical of the material of both burial from top downwards and removal of the spike before mounds. The prevalence of military injuries in the right the next blow. These lethal injuries could be inflicted in halves of the skull brain parts can be determined by left- the course of the fight between a horse soldier and handedness of those attacking the population that left dismount warrior. Two more men’s skulls with the holes made by hatchet hammers are known in Burial Mound the burial mounds of Bystrovka-2,3. It is interesting that, 10, the cemetery of Biisk-1 [Zavitukhina, 1961, p. 97]. ) if taking into account the northern neighbors of the B

Another example of the head destruction with a hatchet (

population that left the Bystrovka necropolis, such a Volume XXI Issue I Version feature is recorded by E.A.Sidorov by the Kulai culture hammer is a skull of a man from Tomb 2, Burial Mound bearers by means of trace evidence analysis (Kamenny 3 of the Tagar Burial Ground (4000-3000 BC) of Beregovoi-1 [Borodovsky, 1995, p. 487-522] in the Mys-1). The fierce character of fights also reflects the Middle Yenisei region (Fig. 5,7). There are three holes resulted from blows delivered by a piercing weapon occurrence of a new type of injuries. They resulted into - partial or full skull destruction. Such damage can be located in the parietal part. The hole diameter determined by adoption of a new kind of weapons. In corresponds to the section of bronze hatchet hammers this connection, the abovementioned prevalence of that were discovered in the burial mounds of Beregovoi- marks left by cutting objects on the skulls from 1 (Fig. 5,4). Bystrovka-2 can hardly be regarded as accidental. The Besides the petroglyphs of Eastern Kazakhstan matter is that from 1000 BC to the beginning of 1000 AD (Sagyr) (Fig. 5,3), the fights with the use of hatchet the Upper Ob district made up a part of the region hammers and head blows delivered by them are where long forms of cutting and stabbing weapons depicted in the rock paintings of the Tagar time in the (swords, broadswords) were actively spread Middle Yenisei region, close to the mountains of Kunya (Fig. 5,1) and Tepsei (Fig. 5,2) located in the vicinity of [Khudyakov, 1996, p. 217-218]. Global Journal of Human Social Science The general “picture” of the military injury rate of the Beregovoi-1 burial group. All these petroglyphs the population that left he Bystrovka necropolis is not reproduce different stages of fights of dismount warriors regarded as unique for the Early Iron Age. In the with the use of hatchet hammers. Western Siberian forest steppe, by the closest neighbors A whole array of men’s skulls with the holes of the Ob valley population – bearers of the Sargat resulted from hatchet hammer blows is known on the culture, this tendency was also represented quite clearly adjacent territory of the Upper Ob region – in Sayano- starting by the last third of 1000 BC. However, taking Altai. Such cases are typical of the Pazyryk depositions into account the known “military character” of this of Gorny Altai (the Second Pazyryk Burial Mound, culture, the military injury level of the Sargat population Ulandryk-2), Tuva (Sagly-Bazhi-2), and Western

th Mongolia (the Ulaangom Burial Ground) [Kubarev, 1987, to the period not earlier than the 7 century BC p. 65]. All the blows were dealt by hatchet hammer at [Chlenova, 1994, p. 18]. the parietal area. As mentioned above, such lethal In Deposition 11 (referred to the intermediate injuries could result from the fight both of two dismount time from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age) of warriors and a horse soldier and dismount warrior. In the the phreatic burial mound of Blizhnie Elbany-14, there is latter case, blows could be dealt not only at the head. In a bronze two-bladed socketed arrowhead stuck in the particular, there are six blows delivered by hatchet condyle of the left thighbone of the skeleton of a man of hammer recorded in the Lower Katun region, in the 40-60 years old [Gryaznov, 1956, p. 66, tabl. XXI, 25] northern Pazyryk deposition (Chultukov Log-1, Burial and deeply pierced in the epiphysis at the knee level Mound-38), on the left haunch bone of a man’s skeleton (Fig. 6,5-8). The arrowhead (Fig. 6,8) stuck in the bone th th (Fig. 5,8,9). The blows were delivered one after another. dates back to the 7 -6 centuries BC [Gryaznov, 1956, Judging by the location of injuries, the attacker hit the p. 71]. victim from the right. Two blows delivered by hatchet In the collective deposition of Burial Mound 2, hammer were perforating and could be dealt with a Bystrovka-2 (Deposition 14), there is an iron three- great force (Fig. 5,9). The presence of the evidence of bladed tanged arrowhead stuck close to the right blade bone of a man of 30-35 years old (Fig. 6,11-14). This 2021 military injuries in the lower part of the buried man’s body can be related to the fact that a dismount warrior object was likely to cause the death of the buried

ear person. The iron arrowhead (Fig. 6,11) with a triangular

Y attached a horse soldier. This very fight is depicted on

the famous golden Scythian comb from the Solokha head and blades cut at the right angle is referred to the 16 burial mound (Fig. 5,10) in the Northern Black Sea type of the Sarmat arrowheads, which were widely spread from the 3rd to the 2nd centuries BC [Khazanov, region. The deposition with injuries inflicted by hatchet hammer in the waist area from Chultukov Log-1 dated 2008, p. 93]. In Pair Deposition No.18, Burial Mound 2, back to 4000-3000 BC, the time that is synchronous with Bystrovka-2, there is a horny, socketed arrowhead split in two with a broken pin and tap discovered in the the “Scythian” picture. It is noteworthy that in all cases (Novotroitskoe- breakup of the skull of a man’s skeleton (Fig. 6,14). The 1, Biisk-1, Beregovoi-1, Chultukov Log-1, the Second object was damaged when hitting the head of the buried Pazyryk Burial Mound, Ulandryk-2, Sagly-Bazhi-2, the person. The horny arrowheads of this type date back to the middle of 1000 BC. Ulaangom Burial Ground), injuries inflicted by hatchet hammer are represented in burial groups, whose Beyond the boundaries of the Upper Ob accompanying inventory contains these very weapons. territory, the facts of hitting the head with an arrow are The only exemption includes the Bystrovka necropolis known in the north of the Barabin forest steppe (Fig. 6,8- ) (Bystrovka-1,2,3), whose materials encompass hatchet 10). In the deposition of Burial Mound 2 of the Bergul-1 B

( hammers, but no evidence of their application are cemetery (the Novochekino culture of the Early Iron Volume XXI Issue I Version identified. One still has to define the reasons for this Age), a bronze socketed arrowhead (Fig. 6,9) with a phenomenon. Such a situation may be determined by heavily swept spike was discovered inside a woman’s the fact that the population that left the Bystrovka skull [Polosmak, 1987, p. 67]. Such a distortion was necropolis was located in the most distant northern caused by the impact with the interior surface of the periphery of distribution and employment of this kind of parietal bones of the skull after the arrowhead had - broken the base of one of the skull eyeholes and stuck weapon. It is also interesting that all the above mentioned burial mounds characterized with injuries in the interior bone roof of the skull. That shot in the head was obviously lethal for the buried woman. The inflicted by hatchet hammers possess quite close dating th features. It can testify either to the general strengthening arrowhead dates back to the 4 century BC [Polosmak, 1987, p. 67,91]. of tension in the last quarter of 1000 BC in the south part of Western Siberia and adjacent territories, or to the On the whole, all injuries inflicted by small weapons within the period from the Late Bronze to Early whole series of local military conflicts resulted from the Iron Age are characterized by the highest possible Macedonian invasion to Asia. variety of positions. They were targeted at the head h) Injuries inflicted by small weapons (Bergul-1, Bystrovka-2), shoulders (Bystrovka-2), back Global Journal of Human Social Science The facts of various injuries delivered by small (Ordynskoe-1), and legs (Blizhnie Elbany-14) of potential weapons are widely represented in the burial complexes victims. All the shots are distinguished by quite a high of the Late Bronze Age – Early Iron Age (Fig. 6). In level of accuracy and strength, so the arrowheads either Deposition 8, Burial Mound 3 of Ordynsky-1 (the Irmen got into the dense bone tissue (Ordynskoe-1, Blizhnie culture of the Late Bronze Age), there is a bronze two- Elbany-14) or were distorted after contact with it bladed tanged arrowhead stuck in one of the dorsal (Bergul-1, Bystrovka-2). vertebras of a man’s skeleton (Fig. 6,1-4). This heavy Judging by the depth of penetration into soft wound could cause the death of the buried person. The tissues and bone destruction, all arrow hits were rather arrowhead (Fig. 6,1) is a dating object, which is referred heavy and most frequently lethal. These features testify

©2021 Global Journals Artefacts of Violence of the Bronze and Copper Ages in the South of Western Siberia not only to a considerable deadly force of bows but also [Ozheredov, Yakovlev, 1993, p. 130]. According to the to the fact of shooting at the poorly defended enemy. materials of the burial complexes of the Upper Ob Unlike those blows delivered with hatchet region (Staroaleika-2), such pendants could be used as hammer, the chronology of burial complexes containing fastenings (Fig. 7,4-6,11) of the sheath [Kungurov, the evidence of arrow injuries is characterized by wider 2005]. All these items date back to no later than the dating (from the first half to the last quarter of 1000 BC). middle of 1000 BC. It is most vividly illustrated by a considerable typological iii. Swords variety of arrowheads (bronze, horny, iron, socketed, The miniature bronze dagger cast in the one- tanged). This peculiarity is determined by two factors. sided mould (Fig. 7,1) is known in the materials of the Firstly, by a wider area of small weapon application. cult complex of the transition time from the Late Bronze Secondly, by rather a limited period of employment of Age to the Early Iron Age – Zavyalovo-1 on the right the hatchet hammer as a type of weapons. bank of the Ob River, to the south of the city of The main localization of ancient archeological Novosibirsk [Borodovsky, 2002, p. 84]. The total complexes containing evidence of arrow injuries related dimensions of the item allow comparing it with votive to the Upper Ob valley is not accidental. During several Tagar daggers of the last third of 1000 BC, but the historic periods, this territory encompassed the features decoration of the handle and crossguard brings the 2021 of the trasit route and frontier zone. It is here where the dagger closer to the samples of the Cimmerian ear facts of armed conflicts with the use of bows and arrows th th Y

weapons (8 -7 centuries BC). It is this historic period are recorded in very scare and poor written sources that is characterized with corresponding decoration of 17 th th even in the 17 -18 centuries. The places of these fights items of piercing weapons and their images on deer are very close to the location of the abovementioned stones [Chlenova, 1984, p. 23, Fig. 7]. Another miniature archeological complexes with the evidence of arrow bronze dagger belonged to the Novoobintsevo treasure injuries. (Fig. 7,2) located on the high bank of the Ob River, to i) Objects symbolizing weapons the north of the city of Barnaul. This complex dates back th rd Violence-related weapons, which are frequently to the 4 -3 centuries BC [Borodaev, 1987, p. 111]. regarded as its symbol, sometimes became a Another miniature bronze dagger from the Upper Ob decoration, an amulet or a sample for votive products basin originates from the accompanying inventory of the (Fig. 7). Maima-4 cemetery on the right bank of the Lower Katun (Fig. 7,3). This burial complex dates back to the 3rd j) Pendants in the form of weapons century BC [Abdulganeev, Kireev, Kungurova, Larin,

i. Arrowheads 2004, p. 253]. ) B

In the Upper Ob region, in the pair deposition (

(No.22) from the phreatic burial ground of Blizhnie II. Pictures of Military Conflicts Volume XXI Issue I Version Elbany-7 [Gryaznov, 1956, p. 56, tabl. XIX, 1], the Military conflicts in the pictures of the Scythian pectoral of a young woman included a bead made from time are regarded as rather a rare plot. For the territory a bronze, socketed arrowhead with a broken spike of the south of Western Siberia, one can provide just (Fig. 7,7,8). The deposition is referred to the transition several examples (Fig. 8) from burial complexes period from the Late Bronze to the Early Iron Age and (Bashadar, Tepsei-3) and separate decoration elements - th dates back to no later than the 7 century BC. (the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great). Certain analogues to this decoration can be According to some researchers, the found in Central Asia and Iran. The complex waist zoomorphic decorations of the wooden sarcophagus pendant (Fig. 7,9) from seven bronze two-bladed from the Elite Second Bashadar burial mound (Fig. 8,2) socketed arrowheads was discovered in Burial Mound 4 are regarded as picturesque reproduction of battle of the Saka time cemetery of Aidyn-Kul-3 [Litvinsky, scenes, in which the military leader buried in it took part 1968, pp. 89,90]. The elements of the sculpture from intravitam [Surazakov, 1986, pp. 24,25]. The figure of a Persepolis (Iran) include an image depicting a pendant tiger successively overriding a whole set of hoofed from five arrowheads tied to a long (leather?) cord. animals could convey an image of the military leader Global Journal of Human Social Science ii. Bows who successively “bent to submission or destroyed” The miniature bronze images of bows of the various tribal groups represented by the images of a Scythian type (Fig. 7,12) are known from Derbent by moose, sheep, and boar. Scythes to Aimyrlyg in Tuva. On the territory of Western The golden items of the Siberian Collection of Siberia, a great number of the similar bronze models of Peter the Great (Fig. 7,1) include an embossed plate bows (Fig. 7,10) is known in the Stepanovskoe depicting “a parade of warriors returning from the “treasure” {Pletneva, 1977, p. 74, Fig. 25,17] and campaign” [Rudenko, 1962, pp. 28,49,50]. In our Berezovy Mys [Roslyakov, 2015, p. 173, Fig. 3,7]. They opinion, this composition should be interpreted as were regarded as attributes of the ancient cult places persecution of one group of warriors by the other. There

are two warriors depicted on the left side of the plate, 3. Алябина В.П., Коников Б.А. Древнее святилище на next to whom there are horses with dead warriors’ окраине Омска // Памятники истории и культуры bodies on their backs. On the right side, there is a group Омской области. Омск. 1995. of three horse soldiers riding after them, shooting bows, 4. Аннинский С.А. Известия венгерских миссионеров and stabbing them with spears. XIII-XIV вв. о татарах и Восточной Европе. // A vivid illustration of military conflicts involving Исторический архив. М., 1940, Т. 3. - С. 89 - 94. both genders is represented by pictures on wooden 5. Баркова Л.Л., Гохман И.И. Еще раз о мумиях plaques (Fig. 8,3) [Complex of Archeological человека из пазырыкских курганов. // АСГЭ, Вып. Monuments …, 1979, p. 96] from Tepsei-3 (Tomb 1) in 35, СПБ., 2001, - С. 78 -90. the Middle Yenisei region. A possibility of such events is 6. Бичурин Н.Я. (Ианкиф) Собрание сведений о indirectly confirmed by anthropological materials from народах, обитавших в Средней Азии в древние burial monuments of the Kokel culture (Alexeev, времена. Ч. 1, М., Л., 1950. Gokhman, 1970, p. 248) of Tuva and evidence of mass 7. Бородаев В.Б. Новообинцевский клад. // military injuries on male and female skulls in the Антропоморфные изображения. Новосибирск: cemetery of Bystrovka-2 in the Upper Ob region Наука, 1987. – С. 96 – 114. 2021 [Borodovsky, 2002, p. 113]. 8. Бородовский А.П. Проблема исторических корней

ear обычая скальпирования в Западной Сибири // Y III. Conclusion Проблемы археологии, этнографии, антропологии 18 The archeological sources reflecting the Сибири и сопредельных территорий. Т.III -

sources of violence on the territory of Southern Siberia in Новосибирск: Изд-во Ин-та археологии и

the Bronze and Copper Ages are quite various and этнографии СО РАН, 1997а. - C. 164 - 169.

illustrative. It is related to a number of factors. First of all, 9. Бородовский А.П. Древнее косторезное дело юга

to the vicinity of the Upper Ob basin to the territory of Западной Сибири. Новосибирск: Издательство

Central Asia as a region with the historically established ИАЭТ СО РАН, 1997б. - 224 с.

culture of military violence. It is also noteworthy that the 10. Бородовский А.П. Археологические памятники

territory of South Siberia was not such a distant Искитимского района Новосибирской области.

periphery, which was directly affected by the Материалы "Свода памятников истории и культуры

consequences of large-scale military conflicts of ancient народов России". Вып. 6. – Новосибирск, [Б.и.]

times and migration activity of early nomads. The 2002. – 207 c.

archeological materials related to ancient violence are 11. Бородовский А.П. Древний резной рог Южной

) more versatile and concrete than the quotable ancient Сибири. – Новосибирск: Изд-во ИАЭТ СО РАН, B

( descriptions, which frequently resulted from direct 2007. – 180 с.

Volume XXI Issue I Version observation of those facts. Therefore, the thorough work 12. Бородовский А.П. Слюсаренко И.Ю., Кузьмин Я.В.,

aimed at summarizing such data within the framework of Орлова Л.А., Кристен Дж.А., Гаркуша Ю.Н., Бурр

particular territories and certain historic periods is Дж. С., Джалл Э.Дж.Т. extremely important for reconstruction of violence 13. Хронология погребальных комплексов раннего traditions within the context of ancient cultures. железного века в верхнем Приобье по данным - Acknowledgement древестно -кольцевого и радиоуглеродного методов (на примере курганной группы Быстровка -2) // The study was performed under the R&D Археология , этнография и антропология Евразии. – Project No. 0329-2019-0007 of the Institute of 2003. – № 3 (15). – С. 79-92 . Archaeology and Ethnography of SB RAS, “Study, 14. Бородовский А.П. Табарев А.В Скальпирование в Preservation, and Museumification of the Archaeological Северной Америке и Западной Сибири по данным and Ethno-Cultural Heritage of Siberia”. археологии // Археология, этнография и антропология Евразии. – 2005. – № 1 (21). – С. References Références Referencias 87-96. 1. Абдулганеев М.Т., Кунгурова Н.Ю., Ларин О.В. 15. Вадецкая Э.Б. Черты погребальной обрядности Global Journal of Human Social Science Могильник Майма-4 (по раскопкам 1998 г.). таштыкских племен по материалам грунтовых //Комплексные исследования древних и могильников на Енисее . // Первобытная археология традиционных обществ Евразии. Барнаул: Изд-во Сибири. Л ., 1975. Алтайского гос. ун-та, 2004. – С. 246 – 253. 16. Галанина Л.К. Курджипский курган. Л., 1980. 2. Алексеев В.П., Гохман И.И. 17. Геродот. История в девяти книгах. Л.: Наука, 1972. Палеоантропологические материалы гунно- - 600 с. сарматского времени на могильнике Кокэль // 18. Головнев А.В. Говорящие культуры, традиции угров Труды ТКАЭЭ. Л. 1970. и самодийцев . Екатеринбург , 1995. - 606 с.

19. Гондатти Н.Л . Следы языческих верований у 36. Мамонова Н.Н. Боевые травмы на черепах из манси. // Труды этнографического отделения могильника Улангом. // РА, 1997, №4. – С. императорского общества любит елей 108-121. естествознания, антропологии и этнографии при 37. Медникова М.Б. К вопросу о распространении Московском университете. М., 1886, кн. 7. посмертной трепанации черепов в 20. Гохман И.И. Палеоантроплогия и Центральной Азии. // РА., 1997, №4. – С. демографическая медицина. // Антропология – 130-139. медицине. М., 1989. 38. Марсадолов Л.С. История и итоги изучения 21. Грязнов М.П. Первый Пазырыский курган. Л.: археологических памятников Алтая VIII-IX вв. до Гос. Эрмитаж, 1950. – 90 с. н.э. СПб.: Изд-во ГЭ, 1996. - 54 с. 22. Грязнов М.П. История древних племен Верхней 39. Матющенко В.И. Самусьский могильник. – Оби. МИА № 48. М-Л: Изд-во АН СССР, 1956. – Труды ТГУ, т.150, Томск, 1960. 200 с. 40. Новиков А.В. Исследование на могильнике 23. Грач А.Д. Древние кочевники в центре Азии. М.: ирменской культуры Камень-1 //Пространство Наука, 1980. – 255 с. . 24. . . – культуры в археологическом измерении Девлет М А Большой Салбыкский курган 2021 Западная Сибирь и сопредельные территории. могила племенного вождя. // Из Истории

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32. Комплекс археологических памятников у горы 51. Руденко С. И. Культура населения Горного

Тепсей на Енисее. Новосибирск: Наука, 1979. – Алтая в скифское время. – М.; Л.: Изд-во АН

166 с. СССР, 1953. – 370 с.

Global Journal of Human Social Science 33. Кубарев В.Д. Курганы Уландрыка. Новосибирск: 52. Руденко С. И. Культура населения

Наука, 1987. – 300 с. Центрального Алтая в скифское время. – М.; Л.:

34. Кунгуров А.Л. Ножны староалейской культуры. Изд-во АН СССР, 1960. – 360 с.

//Снаряжение кочевников Евразии. Барнаул: 53. Рыкун М.П. О характере травматических

Изд-во Алтайского гос. Ун-та, 2005. – С. 170 – повреждений мужского населения Каменской 175. культуры (по материалам могильника 35. Литвинский Б.А. Оружие населения Памира и Новотроицкое-1). //Итоги изучения скифской Ферганы в сакское время. //Материальная эпохи Алтая и сопредельных территорий. культура Таджикистана . Душанбе, [Б.и.] 1968. – Барнаул: Изд-во Алтайского гос. Ун-та, 1999. – С. 69 – 115. С. 151 – 154.

54. Советова О.С. О возможностях использования исторической перспективе. Гуннский феномен. наскальных изображений в качестве истории Ч. 1. Улан-Удэ, 1996, - С. 40 – 42. военного дела племен тагарской эпохи. // 61. Чиндина Л.А. Садовское городище // Вопросы Археология, этнография и антропология археологии и этнографии Сибири. Томск, 1978. Евразии, № 4 (24), 2005. – С. 77 – 84. 62. Членов Н.Л. Голенные камни как исторический 55. Стратановский Г.А. Примечания. // Геродот источник. Новосибирск: наука, 1984. – 98 с. История в девяти книгах. Л., 1972. С.- 501 - 546. 63. Членова Н.Л. Памятники конца эпохи бронзы в 56. Суразаков А.С. К семантике изображений Западной Сибири. М.: [Б.и.], 1994. – 170 с. башадарского саркофага. //Скифская эпоха 64. Borodovsky A.P. Sites of Tagarian Culture in the Алтая. Барнаул, [Б.и.] 1986. – С. 23 – 26. Environs of Minusinsk Town, Their Territorial and 57. Троицкая Т.Н, Бородовский А.П. Cultural Specific Peculiarities and Ethnic Affinities: Большереченская культура лесостепного Local Minusinskian Variant // Journal of Korean Приобья. – Новосибирск: Наука, 1994. – 183 c. Ancient Historical Society Hanguk Sanggosa 58. Хазанов А.М. Избранные научные труды. Hakbo. -1995. - № 18. -p. 487-522. Очерки военного дела сарматов. СПБ: Изд-во 65. Borodovskii A.P., Slusarenko I.Yu., Kuzmin Y.V., 2021 Санкт-Петербургского гос. ун-та, 2008. – 293 с. Orlova L.A., Christen J.A., Garkusha Yu.N., Burr 59. Хлобыстина М.Д. Ритуал «черепа и головы» в G.S. and Jull A.J.T. Chronology of Early Iron Age ear

Y культурах северной Евразии раннего голоцена Burial Assemblages in the Upper Ob Area Based

20 // Stratum № 1, 1999 – С. 326 – 333. on the Tree-Ring and Radiocarbon Methods: 60. Худяков Ю.С. Хунны в Саяно-Алтае. // 100 лет Bystrovka-2 Burial Ground// Archaeology, Ethnology гуннской археологии. Номадизм прошлое, & Anthropology Eurasia. – 2003. – N 3 (15). – P. настоящее в глобальном контексте и 79-92.

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Fig. 1: Map of violence artefacts distribution in the archeological complexes of the Bronze and Copper Ages in the southern part of Western Siberia.

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Fig. 2: Depositions of “deprived” representatives of ancient groups in the elite (Great Salbyk Burial Mound) and 21

ordinary (Beregovoy-1) burial mounds of the Tagar archeological culture in the Middle Yenisei region (Khakasia, Krasnoyarsk krai).

1. Great Salbyk Burial Mound; 2. Inlet deposition in the Great Salbyk Burial Mound; 3. Deposition in the periphery of the Beregovoy-1 burial mound (Burial Mound 4, Deposition 1).

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Fig. 3: Facts of scalping in the Early Iron Age on the territory of the southern part of Western Siberia.

1. A rock painting from the Kunya Mount; 2. a rock painting from Abakano-Perevoz; 3-7. Facts of scalping (Bystrovka-2, Burial Mound 1, 2); 1,2. the Middle Yenisei region; 3-7. the Upper Ob region.

Fig. 4: Cut off heads from the burial complexes of the Early Iron Age of the southern part of Western Siberia. 1,2,4. Collective headless depositions from Bystrovka-2,3; 4, 5. A deposition without the head, which is replaced by a boney arrowhead, Bystrovka-1 (Burial Mound 4, Grave 3); 3,6,10,11,12,13,14. Cut off and trepanized skulls (Bystrovka-2, Burial Mound 9); 7. Wooden decorations of the horse bridle from the First Pazyryk Burial Mound; 8. A ceramic vessel of the Kulai archeological culture; 9. A ceramic vessel of the Sargat archeological culture; 15. A trepanized skull (Bystrovka-2, Burial Mound 10).

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Fig. 5: Injuries inflicted by a crush weapon, i.e. a hatchet hammer (the Middle Yenisei region, the Lower Katun region) Global Journal of Human Social Science 1, 2. Petroglyphic compositions with the use of hatchet hammers; 1. The Kunya Mount; 2.2. the Tepsei Mount; 3. Sagyr (Eastern Kazakhstan); 4. a bronze hatchet hammer of the Tagar archeological culture (Beregovoy-1); 5,6. skulls with holes made by hatchet hammers from the Novotroitskoe-1 burial group (Burial Mound 28, Deposition 1, Skeleton 2; Burial Mound 30, Grave 1, Skeleton 1). 7. a skull with the traces of holes made by hatchet hammer from Burial Mound 3, Tomb 2 of the Tagar cemetery of Beregovoy-1; 8. the direction of hits delivered by hatchet hammer at the pelvic bone of the buried person (Chultukov Log-1, Burial Mound 38); 9. a pelvic bone from the northern Pazyryk deposition (Chultukov Log-1, Burial Mound 38). 10. an image of the fight between dismount warriors and a horse soldier on the golden comb from the Solokh burial mound (the Northern Black Sea region).

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Fig. 6: Facts of arrow injuries in the Bronze and Copper Ages (the southern part of Western Siberia).

th th 1,2,3. Ordynskoe-1, Burial Mound 3, Deposition 8 (the Irmen culture of the 9 -8 centuries BC); 4. Novotroitskoe-2 Global Journal of Human Social Science (5th-3rd centuries BC); 5,6,7,8. Blizhnie Elbany 14, Deposition 11 (the transition period from the Late Bronze to the Early Iron Age, 7th-6th c enturies BC); 9,10,11. Bergul-1 (the Novochekino culture of the 4th-3rd centuries BC); 12, 13,14,15. Bystrovka-2, Burial Mound 2, Depositions 14,18 (4th-3rd centuries BC); 16. Areas of arrow injuries; 1,4,7,9. Bronze; 12. Ore; 15. Horn.

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( Volume XXI Issue I Version - Fig. 7: Miniature weapons and use of military items as decorations and pendants. 1. Zavyalovo-1; 2. the Novoobintsevo treasure; 3. Maima-4; 4,5,6. reconstruction of the sheath fastenings from Staroaleika-2; 7,8. a pendant from a bronze arrowhead on the women’s pectoral (Blizhnie Elbany 7); 9. a waist pendant from bronze arrowheads (Aidyn Kul 1, Central Asia); 10. the Stepanovo collection; 11. Staroaleika-2; 12. Aimyrlyg (Tuva); 13. Irtyash-13; 14. the Bobrovo cemetery (Kazakhstan).

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( Volume XXI Issue I Version Fig. 8: Battle scenes of the Scythian and Hun-Sarmatian time of the southern part of Western Siberia. 1. A golden plate from the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great (Western Siberia); 2. decoration of a wooden carved log from the Second Bashadar Burial Mound (Gorny Altai); 3. the Tepsei wooden carved plates (the Middle Yenisei region). -

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Assessment of Population Growth on Vegetation Cover in Numan, Demsa and Lamurde Lgas Areas of Adamawa State By Joel Eli, Abbas Bashir, Aisha Mubi, S.Umar & Gajawa Y. Modibbo Adama University of Technology Abstract- This study examined the effects of population growth on vegetation exploitation in Numan, Demsa and Lamurde LGAs of Adamawa State. The primary data was obtained from the field through the used of structured questionnaire, while the secondary data includes satellite images Thematic Mapper (TM) of 1986, Enhance Thematic Mapper (ETM) of 2001 and Enhance Thematic Mapper Plus (+ETM) of 2017. Other secondary data include population data which was collected from National Population Commission Adamawa State. 383 household heads respondents were selected to represent the population, using a marginal error of 5%, and questionnaire was administered randomly to the household heads respondents. Descriptive and inferential statistics were the analytical tools used for the study, Linear and Exponential model were used to examine the pattern of change in population growth. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI ) was used to distinguish healthy vegetation from non- vegetated areas. Results of the findings revealed that there was an increase of 28.8% in the past 12 years (2006-2018) in the population of the study area. The study shows that there is a long-term inverted V- shaped curve relationship between population growth and vegetation cover, which means that the vegetation cover tends to decrease gradually over time with the increase in population growth. Keywords: population growth, vegetation cover and exploitation. GJHSS-B Classification: FOR Code: 040699

AssessmentofPopulationGrowthonVegetationCoverinNumanDemsaandLamurdeLgasAreasofAdamawaState

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2021. Joel Eli, Abbas Bashir, Aisha Mubi, S.Umar & Gajawa Y. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Assessment of Population Growth on Vegetation Cover in Numan, Demsa and Lamurde Lgas Areas of Adamawa State

α σ ρ Ѡ ¥ Joel Eli , Abbas Bashir , Aisha Mubi , S.Umar & Gajawa Y.

Abstract - This study examined the effects of population growth past three decades natural resources especially on vegetation exploitation in Numan, Demsa and Lamurde vegetation have depleted remarkably resulting from LGAs of Adamawa State. The primary data was obtained from accelerated pace of economic and social the ﬁeld through the used of structured questionnaire, while transformation. Economic changes such as large the secondary data includes satellite images Thematic Mapper increases in population, agricultural output, industrial 2021 (TM) of 1986, Enhance Thematic Mapper (ETM) of 2001 and production, capital accumulation, and innovative

Enhance Thematic Mapper Plus (+ETM) of 2017. Other ear secondary data include population data which was collected technologies have transformed natural resource base, Y

both as a source of factor inputs and as a by-product of from National Population Commission Adamawa State. 383 27 household heads respondents were selected to represent the pollution associated with economic activity. The population, using a marginal error of 5%, and questionnaire continuously accelerated and unabated environmental was administered randomly to the household heads degradation in Nigeria is unhealthy for people’s health respondents. Descriptive and inferential statistics were the and livelihoods, the survival of species, and ecosystem analytical tools used for the study, Linear and Exponential services that are the foundation for long-term economic model were used to examine the pattern of change in development (FAO, 2017). population growth. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI ) was used to distinguish healthy vegetation from non- Forest provides critical sources of food, vegetated areas. Results of the ﬁndings revealed that there medicine, shelter and building materials, fuel and cash was an increase of 28.8% in the past 12 years (2006-2018) in income. More that 15million people in Sub-Sahara Africa the population of the study area. The study shows that there is earn their income from forest-related enterprise such as a long-term inverted V-shaped curve relationship between fuelwood and charcoal sales, small-scale saw-milling, population growth and vegetation cover, which means that the commercial hunting and handicraft production vegetation cover tends to decrease gradually over time with (Kaimowtz, 2003). Forest products play important roles ) B the increase in population growth. The first turning point, in supporting rural livelihoods and food security in many ( Volume XXI Issue I Version where the relationship between population density and NDVI developing countries. Forest provides critical sources of changes from negative to positive correlation, occurs at the population of 198,243 in 1986 while the NDVI is 0.423 (48%) food, medicine, shelter, and building materials, fuels of the total Land area. The second turning point, where the and cash income. More than 15 million people in Sub- relationship between population density and NDVI changes Sahara Africa earn their income from forest-related enterprises such as firewood and charcoal sales, small-

from positive to negative correlation, occurs at the population - of 297,350 in 2001 with NDVI of 0.325 (32.5%) of the total land scale saw-milling, commercial hunting and handicraft area cover. Further increase in population will lead to increase production. Forest resources supply nearly half total in demand for natural resources (land, pasture and water) that wood requirements of the country and its dwindling may inadvertently lead to over exploitation of the vegetation rapidly (Iheke and Eziuche, 2016). resources and inexorable degradation of the environment. The study recommended that government should address and There are alternative views on population- check population expulsion. environment linkages. Most theories of population and Keywords: population growth, vegetation cover and environment are expounded primarily in relation to exploitation. agricultural resource usage, the neoclassical theory contends that population growth will increase demand I. Introduction and thus force producers to become more efficient Global Journal of Human Social Science (Talbot, 2010). The classical theory is based on Matlthus apid pace of population growth, urbanization and in that resources cannot keep pace with population. industrialization has led to serious environmental Dependency theories state that the relation of concerns in the developing countries. Over the R developed to developing nation is that of dependence Author α: Aliyu Musdafa College Yola, Adamawa State . and is explosive of the environment (Okwori, Ajegi, e-mail: [email protected] Ochinyabo and Abu, 2015). Intermediate variable Author σ ρ Ѡ: Department of Geography Modibbo Adama University of theories view population growth a proximate cause of Technology, Yola. environment degradation, but they can be applied Author ¥: Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering Technology, College of Agriculture Ganye Adamawa State Nigeria. mutandis mutatis to all types of natural resources

(Mohsin and Usman, 2005). From the natural science more means of transport, more consumption of fossil perspective, humankind is one of the many species fuels and more pollution of air, land and water. Thus competing for the resources of the biosphere. As the growth of population leads to exploitation of natural resources of any ecosystem are finite, so is the latter's resources (Vegetation), land and water. carrying capacity; hence, beyond a point, each Nigeria population is currently estimated at 192 additional inhabitant has a negative impact on the million individuals with growth rate of 2.5% against the productivity of resources; Policy-wise, this perspective backward growth rate of the country economy (National leads to advocacy for population stabilization (United Bureau of Statistics, 2016). The high population growth Nation, 2011). of Nigeria is described as a “risk factor” by the Population factors were seen, sometimes, as Economic Recovery and Growth Plan. The Federal inhibitors of sustainable development: demographic Government of Nigeria declares the nation’s growth as factors, combined with poverty and lack of access to one of the unsustainable factors of the economy of the resources in some areas, and excessive consumption country. and wasteful production patterns in others, cause or Rapid population growth of Numan, Demsa and exacerbate problems of environmental degradation and Lamurde Local Government Areas, has made it one of 2021 resource depletion and thus inhibit sustainable the fastest growing in Adamawa State. The population development and pressure on the environment may ear projection of the areas increased significantly by 25%

Y result from rapid population growth, distribution and

between 2006 and 2016 (NPC 2006; National Bureau of 28 migration, especially in ecologically vulnerable Statistics, 2015). Concomitant with this high rate of ecosystems (United Nations, 2010). population growth has been a noticeable increase in Man depends on the products of the natural land cover change within the area. An enormous environment for his multifarious needs, for example his transition of the land from forest cover to agriculture and food, shelter and clothing. Man exploits swamps, forest, urban land uses is observable in the area. Urban and grasslands, rocks, the atmosphere, water and other agricultural expansions caused by the rapid population resources of his natural environment to satisfy these growth in the area, are among the major drivers basic needs. The crucial role of vegetation to life has of vegetation change in the area (Pooter, Bonger, resulted to intervened advertently causing serious Kouame & Hawthrone, 2004). Other sources of disturbance to natural equilibrium (Animashaun, 2002), vegetation disturbances in the area includes, Today, the rate of exploitation of natural resources is overgrazing, fuel wood extraction, bush burning and faster than the time it would take nature to replenish desert encroachment all of which poses serious them. With increasing anthropogenic pressures at local, ecological, social and economic consequences )

B regional, and even global scales, an understanding of (Mohammed, 2015).

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Volume XXI Issue I Version both the nature of change and the responses of natural The extent of which needs to be investigated for systems to change becomes pertinent. Human beings the sake of planning to mitigate further decline in generally have been viewed as destructive intruders to vegetation cover. However, population growth tends to natural ecosystems; hence, this suggests stringent rules increase the pressure of population on land, leading to and legislation that will protect the vegetation and its rise in vegetation exploitation because of the scarcity of

- resource deposit (Babagana, Mohammed and Garba, the co-operant factors to increase demand of 2012). In as much as human beings are viewed this vegetation. This is in addition to the adverse effect way, human population and the environment have a very that population growth has on standard of living, strong complementary linkages or relationships. In employment, capital formation, environment, social actual fact, biodiversity conservation efforts especially infrastructure and agricultural development (Jhingan, vegetation can only be sustained if human beings give 2005). If the present population trends continue in this their support. area, the demand for vegetation resources will also rise

a) Statement of the problem and the implications on the vegetation will be huge and The rapid increase of human population is may have ripple effects on poverty and environmental putting an incredible strain on our environment. While sustainability. Global Journal of Human Social Science developed countries continue to pollute the environment Cursory observation of vegetation stock in the and deplete its resources, developing countries are area reveals that it is under pressure, to this extent the under increasing pressure to compete economically and study is aimed at assessing the effects of Population their industrial advancements are damaging as well. Growth and Poverty on Exploitation of Vegetation The demands that this growth places on our global Resources in Numan, Demsa and Lamurde LGAs of environment are threatening the future of sustainable life Adamawa State and to make recommendation towards on earth (Population ReferenceBureau2007). More poverty reduction strategies, population growth control, population means more space to construct houses and planning and environmental sustainability in the study

availability of more consumer goods. It also requires area.

II. Methodology longitude 11°47'N and 12°2'E. it shares boundary with Guyuk, Shalleng and Song LGAs in the North, Girei and a) Study Area Yola South LGAs in the East, Fufore Mayo Belwa LGAs i. Location and Taraba state in the south and west, Gombe state in Numan, Demsa and Lamurde local government its Northwest. According to the Federal Official Gazette areas are located in Adamawa state, the northeastern of Nigeria (2009) Numan occupies about 746.38 square Nigeria, and it is among the four administrative divisions kilometers. (Bitrus, Nasiru, Halilu and Lynda, 2018). of the state. The study area (Numan, Demsa and Lamurde) is located within latitude 9°25'N and 9°36'N and 2021 ear Y

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Figure 1.1: Location of Adamawa State showing the study Area

ii. Population and socio-economic activities notable vegetation zone Northern Guinea Savannah According to the National Population Census Zone, their cash crops are cotton and groundnut while (2006), Numan, Demsa and Lamurde LGAs had a total food crops include maize, yam, cassava, guinea corn, Population 381,120 people, with Numan 91,459, Demsa millet and rice. The village communities living on the 178,407 and Lamurde 111,254 while the population banks of the rivers engage in fishing. Trade also projection for 2016 stand at 509,400 people with an flourishes in the area with the area hosting several annual growth rate of about 2.83%. The population is markets which provide platforms for the exchange of a multiethnic, people with different shades of work, variety of commodities. Other important economic income group, cultural background, education and activities in area include hunting, leather works and religion live together in the area. production of charcoal (Information Unit Numan L.G.A. Mahmud (1997) observed that the economic 2013). resource of Demsa, Numan and Lamurde LGAs b) Types and sources of data centered on agriculture with crops like, cotton, The primary data collected for this study groundnut, rice, cowpea, sorghum, bean, millet, maize include; background of the household head, and guinea corn, other include craft, fishing etc. It is also occupational characteristics, income level, while the 2021 an important area for cattle, sheep and goat rearing. secondary data includes population data which was Irrigation is done along the riverbank with mostly ear obtained from the National Population Commission, Y vegetable gardening; fishing is also carried out at the

Adamawa state for the 1991 and 2006 census, satellite 30 riverbank. Others are employed in services such as

images Thematic Mapper (TM) 7 bands of 1986, administrative, industrial and commercial sectors. The Enhance Thematic Mapper (ETM) 8 bands of 2001 and area can be considered a very vital community to the Enhance Thematic Mapper+ (ETM+) 11bands of 2017. state’s economic growth and development considering The images were used for LULC classification and NDVI. the large number of the indigenes involvement in The acquisition dates of all the three images (Landsat agricultural activities such as farming, fishing, cattle TM 1986, ETM 2001 and ETM+ 2017) falls within rearing and large number of produce made available December, was downloaded from the United State for exportation outside the state (Khobe, Sanu and geological Survey (USGS). Kwaga, 2009).

The major occupation of the people of Numan, Demsa and Lamurde is farming as reflected in their Table 2.1: Types of Landsat used in the study )

B Image Path Row Resolution No. of Bands Date of Acquisition Data Source

( st

Volume XXI Issue I Version Landsat Tm 1986 186 53 30 x 30 7 21 Dec. 1986 USGS Landsat ETM+ 2001 186 53 30 x 30 8 22nd Dec. 2001 USGS Landsat ETM+ 2017 186 53 30 x 30 11 10th Dec. 2017 USGS Source: United State Geological Survey, 2017 c) Instruments for Data collection calculate the line of best fit for a supplied set of y- and x- - ArcGis 10.2 software was used for the Land Use values. The calculated line satisfies the simple straight Land Cover (LULC) and NDVI analysis. Data collected line equation: from the questionnaire was coded in spread sheet (MS y = mx + b EXCEL 2010). MiniTab version 22 was used for the descriptive statistic and regression analysis. where, y = Change in Population distribution; (Appendix II) d) Method of data Analysis The study employed host of analytical tools x = Period (changes in population from 1986 to 2017); based on the objectives. Descriptive and inferential m = is the slope (gradient) of the line; statistics were the analytical tools used for the study. b = is a constant, equal to the value of y when x = 0.

Global Journal of Human Social Science The descriptive tools include the used of average and While annual rate of population growth was percentage. The inferential statistics include Regression used to examine the extent of change in population analysis, ArcGis 10.2 software was used for the Land growth in the study area. Use Land Cover Analysis (LULC) and the Normalized difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) analysis. i. Extent and pattern of change in population growth Trend analysis was used to show the extent and Where; trend of change in population growth over time in the r = Annual rate of population growth of Numan, Demsa study area, Excel Trend Function finds the linear trend to and Lamurde

Pt+n= 1991 census figure of Numan Demsa and Where; Lamurde (Appendix II) NIR= the spectral reflectance measurement acquired in

Pt+n= 2006 Population Census Figure (Appendix II) the near-infrared region (band) n = Population Census figure of 2006 – 1991 Population R= the spectral reflectance measurement acquired in Census figure the red region (band). e = the natural logarithm, value of approx.. 2.718 In the case of Landsat image data To test the for the curve relationship between TM4= near infrared band, population growth and vegetation cover, a simplified TM3= red band. cubic polynomial regression equation was used as The 1986, 2001 and 2017 satellite images were follows: reclassified based on the NDVI threshold values. V = c + β P + β P2 + β P3 + u (1) 1 2 3 III. Results Where: a) Relationship between population growth and V= (Normalized Different Vegetation Index of the Numan Vegetation cover Demsa and Lamurde LGAs 1986 to 2017) is the index Results obtained from the regression analysis 2021 reflecting the vegetation cover, (Table 3.1) show that there is an inverted V-shaped ear P= (population density of Numan, Demsa and Lamurde Y curve relationship between population growth and 1986, 2001 and 2017) is the index reflecting the vegetation cover. The panel regression curve of 31 population, (see Appendix II) population and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index c = is a constant, (NDVI) is shown in Figure 3.1. The first turning point, u = is the random error, where the relationship between population density and The parameters β1, β2 and β3 are the NDVI changes from negative to positive correlation, coefficients of the first, second and third term of P occurs at the population of 198,243 in 1986 while the (Population Density), respectively. NDVI is 0.423 (48%) of the total Land area. The second turning point, where the relationship between population ii. Changes in level and pattern of exploitation of forest density and NDVI changes from positive to negative vegetation resources in the study area. correlation, occurs at the population of 297,350 in 2001 Land Use Land Cover Change Detection with NDVI of 0.325 (32.5%) of the total land area cover. Analysis and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index The study shows that there is a long-term (NDVI) were used to examine the changes in pattern of

inverted V-shaped curve relationship between )

landuse land cover classes and the vegetation of the B

population growth and vegetation cover, which means ( study area. that the vegetation cover tends to decrease gradually Volume XXI Issue I Version iii. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) over time with the increase in population growth. NDVI was used to distinguish healthy vegetation The influenced of population growth on from others or from non-vegetated areas using red and vegetation cover in the study area can be considered as near-infrared reflectance values and this was integrated two effects, one is the consuming destruction effect. in the post-classification analysis to discriminate Population growth is inevitably resulting in increasing - between the green cover and barren lands. The demands for life necessities. To meet these demands, importance of the NDVI is to determine the density of large areas with good vegetation cover were being green on a patch of land. Theoretically, NDVI threshold exploited for construction of houses, roads, factories value ranges between -1 to +1. Measured value range and shops, and the vegetation resources were from - 0.35 (water) through zero (soil) to +0.6 (dense plundered, resulting in a vegetation cover decrease. green vegetation). Based on grey scale this Vegetation is an essential element for human corresponds to a pixel digital number of 135 or higher. development, and it can help improve the living The more positive the NDVI the more green vegetation environment as well as providing productive materials there is within a pixel. and a source of energy for humans. With the population

This research used NDVI based on the red growth, the demands for the ecological functions Global Journal of Human Social Science band and near-infrared band of Landsat imageries and provided by vegetation in the study area have increase. this was derived using expression given in Equations 1 Evidence from this study shows that rapid population and 2 for Landsat imageries respectively. growth, in combination with other factors, contributes to NIR – R increasing vegetation exploitation. Growing populations NDVI = …………….. (1) NIR + R mean increased demand for food, and a corresponding

need to convert forests to agricultural land. Land TM4 – TM 3 …………….. (2) shortages in traditional farming areas result from the NDVI = TM4 + TM3 combination of several factors among them a growing

number of people, a high population density, and the accumulation of previous population growth. Table 3.1: Regression analysis to show relationship between Vegetation cover and population

Dependent Va riable: NDVI Model Summary Parameter Estimates Equation R Square F df1 df2 Sig. Constant

Linear .695 2.278 1 1 .373 .459

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Figure 3.1: Relationships between Population Distribution and Vegetation Cover Based on the results shown in figure 3.1 two decreases fast with the population growth when the effects, Conceptual model was constructed as follows: consuming destruction effect is much stronger than the

Global Journal of Human Social Science the long-term relationship between population growth planting construction effect. While the second stage, and vegetation cover can be separated into two stages there is an inverse relationship between population in the study area where there are frequent human growth and vegetation cover. With the population activities and the influence of climate change on continuing to expand beyond a certain limit, the vegetation cover changes. At the first stage, there is an consuming destruction effects surpass the planting inverse relationship between population growth and construction effect, and then vegetation cover tends to vegetation cover. As the vegetation cover is relatively decrease with population growth. high and the public facilities are imperfect at the early stage of population growth, the vegetation cover

©2021 Global Journals Assessment of Population Growth on Vegetation Cover in Numan, Demsa and Lamurde Lgas Areas of Adamawa State b) Comparison of NDVI results of 1986, 2001 and 2017 Generally, the result of the NDVI values shows An image differencing technique was used that the vegetation cover in general was reduced and whereby NDVI values from three images were the forests in particular ware depleted, the trend shows subtracted from each other to obtain changes in NDVI. there was depletion of natural vegetation but an This was subsequently converted to a NDVI increase in agricultural activities which were associated (representing vegetation density). Thus, by using the with increasing participation in out-grower, non out- NDVI result of three different years’ image (1986, grower activities of the pre and post Savanna sugar 2001and 2017) vegetation changes were calculated with scheme and the increasing irrigation activities, rice and NDVI= (NIR-RED) / (NIR+RED). Where NIR is the near maize farming throughout the year in part of Numan and infrared band response for a given pixel and RED is the Lamurde LGAs as the dark green colour can be seen in red response. Green and healthy vegetation reflects area closer to the riverbank where irrigation and much less solar radiation in the visible (channel 1) agricultural activities are mostly found. The major reason compared to those in the nearinfrared (channel 2). for depletion of the vegetation in general and natural More importantly when vegetation is under stress, the vegetation in particular is due to high deforestation rate, channel 1 value may increase and the channel 2 values and high population pressure. Similar the increased in may decrease. the pixel value were concentrated around area of higher 2021 The interpretation of the NDVI image results, irrigation activities and along the river Benue through, ear

revealed an irregular pattern of vegetation cover in the increasing NDVI between 1986 to 2001 only Y Demsa, Lamurde and Numan LGAs. Periods of reflected increasing in green vegetation resulting from 33 remarkable vegetation decrease as well as increase irrigation activities, the present of river Benue through have been identified. and the Savannah sugar farm and factory, but studying The maximum values of the vegetation index the results of the NDVI shows a significant decrease of were decreases from 0.423 in 1986 to 0.325 in 2001and trees cover and scrubs toward the southern part of the decreases to 0.305 in 2017. From 1986 to 2017 there map. was by far reduction in the NDVI value by 23.1% figures 3.2a, Figure 3.2b and Figure 3.2c respectively. Table 3.2: NDVI statistics of 1986, 2001 and 2017

NDVI Value 1986 2001 2017

Maximum Pixel Value 0.423 0.325 0.305 ) B

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Figure 3.2 a: NDVI analysis of 1986 Figure 3.2 b: NDVI analysis of 2001

2021 Figure 3.2 c: NDVI analysis of 2017

ear c) Impact of population growth and poverty on annual income exploit more fuel wood than the Y

vegetation households who are not fully involved in farming and 34

Relationship between population growth and have low gross annual income. The dependency on fuel poverty on Vegetation exploitation, multiple regression wood for household energy security is higher among analysis was used in determining the factors influencing proximate families than the distant families. Similarly, the vegetation in form of collection of vegetation for higher the forest resource possession in the households wood, roofing materials, fencing, herbs, fuelwood lower is the dependency on forests for fuel wood. consumption, farming, irrigation activities and building of Access to alternative energy sources is the crucial houses in the study area. variable having direct impact on fuel wood exploitation, There exists a direct relationship between hence, the families who have higher access to human population and poverty on vegetation demand, alternative energy sources have lower dependency on hence, the cutting down of wet wood can be said to be fuel wood. on the increase. The rate of consumption of fuel wood in study area exceeds the rate of production. It is therefore

) right to say this renewable source of energy would B

( sooner or later be scarce, should these form of Volume XXI Issue I Version exploitation continue. On the issue of vegetation exploitation in the study area the result shows that 73.1% exploited the vegetation for fuel wood, 11.2% uses the vegetation for roofing and fencing of their houses, 7.0% uses the - vegetation as sources of vegetable for cooking in their houses, 4.7% exploited the vegetation and used it as fencing pole to fenced their houses and 3.9% of the respondents uses vegetation for fruits and served as medicinal for cure of various ailment (herb). The distribution of households by types of energy used, 65.3% which constituted majority of the respondents

used firewood exclusive, 0.3% used charcoal exclusive, 5% of the respondents used both firewood and charcoal, 26.9% used firewood and kerosene, 0.5% Global Journal of Human Social Science used gas as source of energy for cooking. The household size has direct linkage with the quantity of fuel wood exploitation. This implies that larger families exploit more fuel wood than their counterparts with smaller families. occupation and gross annual income are the prominent economic resources which have direct link with the household fuel wood exploitation. This implies that the households who are fully involved in farming and having considerable gross

Table 3.3: Multiple regression analysis of socio-economic factors influencing vegetation (fuel-wood) Consumption Coefficientsa

Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients Model t Sig. B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) .392 .528 .741 .459

Income 2.628E-6 .000 .029 .515 .607

Gender -1.556 .306 -.358 -5.080 .000

Marital status 1.019 .170 .426 5.989 .000

Education -.006 .113 -.003 -.052 .959

Occupation .149 .084 .085 1.773 .077

Household .159 .036 .209 4.371 .000

2021 a. Dependent Variable: Expenditure on Fuelwood

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T he result of the multiple regression analysis in chief, exceptionally preferred and cheap energy source Y table 3.3 indicated that the determinant factors viz., because the area is characterized by resource poor, low 35 household size, occupation, education, marital status, income and peasant farmers with inadequacies of gender and income, forest resource possession and socioeconomic and biophysical infrastructure. The access to alternative energy source had significant analyses herein suggest that varying degree of contribution to the fuel wood exploitation and thus, were household’s fuel wood exploitation is primarily driven by the potential predictors in explaining the variation in the several socioeconomic and biophysical conditions. The fuel wood exploitation. The positive Coefficient of study has evidently shown that there is a huge pressure number per household, occupation, marital status and on natural forests for fuel wood to meet household income implies that the more the number of married energy security resulting in deforestation and people in a population the higher the consumption of degradation of the natural environment. vegetation and vice versa. High rate of poverty in the country contributes Number of people in households tends to connects much to deforestation, reason because 73.1% increase the demand for fuelwood, the implication is exploited the vegetation for fuel wood, as a result of it, ) that as the family increases the demand for fuelwood high numbers depends on wood fuel widely known as B

(

also increases, the use of fuelwood is a cost-saving Charcoal in the country for their live hood for people in Volume XXI Issue I Version mechanism to cope with prevailing economic realities so the rural areas and urban areas with its modern that the limited funds can be used to meet other basic constructed charcoal burners. With the high demands of family needs. Education was found to inversely affect this product called charcoal which is been produced the consumption of fuelwood in the area. For every through cutting down of forest trees comes high rate of

increase in income of household heads, fuelwood deforestation, also another source of income for many - consumption decreases. Increase in income increases people. This charcoal production has severe effects to the purchasing power of people; hence, households our forest reserves. Over consumption of this wood fuel may increase the consumption of other alternative has led to deforestation and habitat loss with its sources of domestic fuel such as kerosene and gas, combustion that generates emission impact to the thereby reducing the consumption of fuelwood while climate change. decrease in income level of the head of households The growth in population affects economic tends to increase the use more wood fuel to meet their growth, leads to a decline in per capita income and domestic requirements. A critical implication here is that deepens poverty. This mismatch which results in the more pressure is brought to bear on the patchy population-poverty cycle also has imminent vegetation and, as time goes on, the movement of wood consequences on environmental degradation and raises Global Journal of Human Social Science fuel in the form of commercially processed charcoal will concern about sustainable development and human intensify, bringing much pressure on the largely welfare. overexploited forests in the study area. Diversification of alternative energy sources, The rural people exploit enormous quantity of reduction of the prices of alternative energy sources, fuel wood mostly from the forests and their farms and provision of rural infrastructure, development and utilize same for cooking, fencing, vegetable, and promotion of low-cost technologies for reducing fuel roofing. Households’ dependency on fuel wood as a wood consumption, implementation of afforestation source of energy is overwhelming. The fuel wood is programmes, substitution of fuel wood and awareness

development towards environmental protection and Washington, DC: International Food Policy biodiversity conservation will have a significant impact Research Institute. on reducing pressure on natural forests in the study 5. Harte, J. (2007) ‘Human population as a dynamic area. factor in environmental degradation’, Population and Environment, Vol. 28, Nos. 4–5, pp. 223–236. IV. Conclusion and Recommendations 6. Iheke, O. R. and Eziuche, A. O. (2016) Forest Resources Exploitation and its Implications on Rural The findings of this research revealed that, the Agro-Economy in Isiala Ngwa North Local population of the study area is increasing at an alarming Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria. Nigerian rate with an average increase per year of 11608 that is Journal of Agriculture, Food and Environment. an increment of 2.2% per year. Further increase in 12(1): 37-43. population will lead to increase in demand for natural 7. Kaimowitz, D. (2003). Not by Bread Alone ... Forests resources (land, pasture, water etc) that may and Rural Livelihood in Sub- Saharan Africa. In inadvertently lead to over exploitation of the vegetation Oskanen, T., Pajari, B. and Tuomasjukka, T. (eds.): resources and inexorable degradation of the Forest In Poverty Reduction Strategies: Capturing the environment.

2021 Potential, EFI Proceedings No. 47. European Forest The NDVI status of the vegetation cover shows Institute: Joensuu, Finland p. 7-15. Nigerian Journal

ear both decrease and increase in the pixel value which was

Y of Agriculture, Food and Environment.

associated with the pre and post establishment of the 8. Mohsin H. A., Usman A., Syed A. W., Zeshan I., 36 Savannah sugar factory and the increased in irrigation (2005) Interaction between Population and activities toward the river Benue through as the darker Environmental Degradation. The Pakistan green pixel value were seen concentrated at Savannah. Development Review 44: 4 Part II pp. 1135–1150. Finally, vegetation resources play multiple roles 9. Muhammad R. J., (2016) “Dynamics of poverty, at global as well as local levels. vegetation are sources deforestation and beekeeping in Northern Nigeria, of economically valued products like industrial wood, concern for policy makers – part II” Journal of fuel-wood, non-wood forest products such as fibre, physical and Agricultural science. food, medicines. In essence it is a source of income and 10. National Bureau of Statistics (2015) Nigerian Gross employment. It also provides maintenance of biological Domestic Product Report second Quarter of 2015. diversity (habitats, species and genetic resources), and 11. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2006). Core controls against climate change. Burgeoning population Welfare Indicator Questionnaire Survey - Abia State affects forest stock. People living around the forest Report. A Publication of National Bureau of reserve exploit the forest reserve for survival and ) Statistics, Abuja. B livelihood. However, the rapidly growing population has

( 12. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2005). Poverty Volume XXI Issue I Version mounted a lot of pressure on the reserve which is not Profile for Nigeria. A Publication of National Bureau well protected thereby leading to rapid depletion of of Statistics, Abuja, Nigeria. forest resources in the reserve. Based on these findings, 13. National Planning Commission (NPC) (2007). it is therefore recommended that: Government should Population Statistics www.npc.org. address and check population expulsion, through; birth 14. Nigerian Population Commission (2006).2006 - control, educating the populace, as well as restricting Nigerian Census Figures. Nigerian Population the number of immigrants from neighboring countries. Commission, Abuja. References Références Referencias 15. Okwori Joseph, Ajegi Simeon O., Ochinyabo Samuel, and Abu John (2015) An Empirical 1. Animashaun, I. A. (2002) Environment and Investigation of Malthusian Population Theory Development: A General Perspective, in J. U. Obot, in Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in I. A. Animashaun, and E. A. Fayose (eds.) Economics and Management Sciences (JETEMS) Environment and Development in Nigeria. Port 6(8): 367-375. Harcourt: Double Diamond publications. 16. Population Reference Bureau (2013). "2013 2. Babagana G., Mohammed M. AJI and Garba M., World Population Factsheet" (PDF). www.pbr.org. Global Journal of Human Social Science (2012), Environmental Impact of Natural Resources Population Reference Bureau. Exploitation in Nigeria and the Way Forward. Journal 17. Population Reference Bureau (2007) Population & of Applied Technology in Environmental Sanitation economic Development Linkages 2007 Data Sheet. Volume 2, Number 2: 95-102. Washington, DC: 3. FAO (2010)). "Natural Forest Management". Nations, 18. Talbot G. Griffith (2010). Population Problems of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Age of Malthus. Cambridge University Press. p. 97. Report.www.fao.org. 19. UN (2018). United Nations Common Country 4. FAO (2017). International Food Policy Research Analysis (CCA). United Nations Development Institute. 2017 Global Food Policy Report. Assistance Framework UNDAF IV.

20. UN, (2001). United Nations System in Nigeria: Nigeria Common Country Assessment. 21. UN, (2010).World statistics pocketbook, United Nations Statistics Division. 22. UNDP (2002) Linking Poverty Reduction and Environmental Management: Policy Challenges and Opportunities, Discussion Document, January 2002. 23. UNDP. (2010), Human Development Report. New York: Oxford. 24. UNEP (1995) Poverty and the Environment: Reconciling Short Term Needs with Long Term Sustainability Goals. Kenya: UNEP. 25. UNFPA (2001) ‘Population, environment, poverty linkages: operational challenges’, Population and Development Strategy Series, United Nations Population Fund, New York, NY. 2021 26. United Nation (2019).United Nation Population ear

Estimates 2019. Department of Economic and Y

Social Affairs, Population Division. Worldometers 37 (www.worldometers.info//) 27. United Nations (2011). Population, Environment and Development: The Concise Report, New York. 28. United Nations Population Division (2015). World population prospects: The 2014 revision. New York, United Nations. 29. World Bank, World Bank rural population indicators (2016) Washington (DC), 2015. 30. World Bank, World Development Indicators Database (2016), accessed November 30, 2016, http://data.worldbank.org/datacatalog/world- development-indicators. )

31. World Bank. (2012), World Development Indicators. B

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Washington, DC: World Bank. Volume XXI Issue I Version 32. World Population Prospects (2017): The 2017 Revision: Key Findings and Advance Tables". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. p. 2.

33. Worldometers (2019) Department of Economic and - Social Affairs, Population Division. World Population Prospects: The 2019 Revision. www.worldometers. info//

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Analysis of Water Quality for Domestic use in Lafia Town, Nasarawa State, Nigeria By Iliyasu M Anzaku & Garba Umar Bayero University Abstract- Lafia is a town in the middle belt of Nigeria, located within Latitude 8° 25W and 8° 35W and Longitudes 8°28’E and 8°34’E. Lafia covers an area of about 258km2 and has a population of about 330,712 inhabitants. This population caused environmental pollution as a result pressures exerts on the available water sources. It is against this background that this study is carried out to analyze the water quality for domestic use in Lafia town with the aim of examining the water quality status of the area compared to the World Health Organization permissible guidelines for portable water. The method adopted involves the use of reconnaissance survey. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources and subjected to descriptive and laboratory analysis. The result shows that stream water source is the most polluted in Lafia with colour concentration of 10.5pt/co, turbidity of 8.5NTU and temperature of 26.4°c. The chemical properties for all the water sources sampled were slightly above the World Health Organization permissible guidelines. The result also shows that none of the water sources met the permissible guidelines in terms of chemical and microbiological properties. It was recommended amongst others that Nasarawa state water board should be provided with modern facilities for efficient address of domestic water use in Lafia. Clear water for everyone in Lafia for sustainable development. Keywords: water, quality, domestic, uses, chemical. GJHSS-B Classification: FOR Code: 090508

AnalysisofWaterQualityforDomesticuseinLafiaTownNasarawaStateNigeria

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2021. Iliyasu M Anzaku & Garba Umar. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Analysis of Water Quality for Domestic use in Lafia Town, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

α σ Iliyasu M Anzaku & Garba Umar

Abstra ct- Lafia is a town in the middle belt of Nigeria, located constipation by circulating food through intestinal tracts within Latitude 8° 25W and 8° 35W and Longitudes 8°28’E and and eliminating waste from the body. All the cells and 2 8°34’E. Lafia covers an area of about 258km and has a organs that make up entire anatomy and physiology of population of about 330,712 inhabitants. This population human body depend on water for their proper caused environmental pollution as a result pressures exerts on functioning. the available water sources. It is against this background that this study is carried out to analyze the water quality for Water has no substitute; however, due to its

domestic use in Lafia town with the aim of examining the water abundance mankind uses it extensively for various 2021 quality status of the area compared to the World Health purposes. The different uses of water affect both quality

Organization permissible guidelines for portable water. The and quantity of the available water supply. Proper ear Y method adopted involves the use of reconnaissance survey. management practices therefore plays an important role Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources 39

in local, national and international polices on water and subjected to descriptive and laboratory analysis. The supply quality (Chaplin, 2008). According to Eziashi result shows that stream water source is the most polluted in Lafia with colour concentration of 10.5pt/co, turbidity of (1997), much of the earth’s water is in the ocean (97%) 8.5NTU and temperature of 26.4°c. The chemical properties or rock as ice (18%). The largest volumes of fresh water for all the water sources sampled were slightly above the are stored as underground water accounting for about World Health Organization permissible guidelines. The result (0.6%). Only a tiny fraction (0.01%) is present as fresh also shows that none of the water sources met the permissible water in lakes, streams and rivers. It is this proportion of guidelines in terms of chemical and microbiological properties. water on earth that is important for many of the terrestrial It was recommended amongst others that Nasarawa state ecosystems, including man for several uses such as water board should be provided with modern facilities for domestic, commercial and industrial use. Some efficient address of domestic water use in Lafia. Clear water for countries of the world have abundant supply of water everyone in Lafia for sustainable development. from deep wells and underground springs. Others have Keywords: water, quality, domestic, uses, chemical. to make extensive use of rivers, lakes and other ) B

I. Introduction sources. The supply of drinking water derives from these ( sources must not constitutes danger to both health of Volume XXI Issue I Version ater is a universal solvent that is chemically consumers either through infectious organisms made up of two molecules of hydrogen atoms (bacteria, virus protozoa) or through the presence of (H and one molecule of oxygen atom (0) W 2) toxic waste inorganic or radioactive materials (Maud, combined to form the compound, H20 (water). Water is 1990). - a major constituent of every living matter and it is very The quality of water is very important as its essential for life sustenance on earth. Water supports quantity. Many human activities and their bye- products plant and animal lives, and is equally a very important have the potential to pollute water, as well as large and raw material for industries. Without water, life and small industrial enterprises, water industry, urban industry cannot function. All Living organisms are infrastructure, agriculture, transport, discharges from composed of cells that contain at least 60% of water abandoned mines, deliberate or accidental pollution (Enger and Smith, 2002). About two- third of human incidence, all affects water quality. Pollutants from the body is made up of water (Ayoade and Akintola, 1999). aforementioned may enter surface or underground According to the National Health and Medical Research water directly or indirectly, or may affects atmospheric Council (NHMRC)(2006) the human brain contain 95% water quality such pollution may arise as point sources water, heart 73%, blood 83%, bone 22%, liver 96%, such as discharges through pipes, or non-point sources Global Journal of Human Social Science lungs 86% and muscles 75%. In the mechanics of the and hence more dispersed and diffused. body water is a very valuable substance that regulates Water must be substantially free from dissolved body temperature and also helps to alleviate salts, plants and animal waste, and bacterial Author α: Department of Science, School of Continuing Education, contamination to be suitable for human consumption. Bayero University, PMB Kano, Nigeria. The ocean which covers approximately 70% of the e-mails: [email protected], [email protected] earth’s surface contains over 97% of water. However, Author σ: Department of Geography, Faculty of Environmental Science, saltwater is not suitable for human consumption and Nasarawa State University, PMB 1022, Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. some industrial process. Freshwater is devoid of salt

found in ocean water. Unpolluted freshwater suitable for mining, grazing construction works, excess nutrients drinking is known as potable water. Early human from soil erosion, human and animal waste and effluent migration routes and settlement sites were influenced from sewage treatment plants pathogens from sewage by availability of drinking water. During the ancient and livestock waste, and hazardous chemicals time clean freshwater supplies were considered produced by industrialized nations. All these categories inexhaustible. But in recent times, despite advancement of waste are increasing because of rapid population in drilling, irrigation and purification, the location, growth and industrialization. quantity, quality and control of potable water becomes II. an important factor for consideration. It is only recently Study Area that man began to understand that all the useable water Lafia town being the study area is located in supply could probably be exhausted because of the Middle Belt, Nigeria. It is the capital city of Nasarawa rapid world population increase compared to available state and is one of the 13 Local Government Areas in water supply. This resulted to increased demand for Nasarawa state. Lafia Local government Area was water supply for industrial, agricultural and personal carved out of the then Benue-Plateau state in 1976, later needs. The present shortage of water supply the world Plateau state and now Nasarawa state, created on 1st 2021 over can be attributed to human negligence in water October 1996. Globally, Lafia is located within latitudes management policies, population increased and climate 8°25 N and 8°35 N and longitudes 8°28 E and 8°34 E. ear ꞌ ꞌ ꞌ ꞌ

Y change. Water pollution has negatively affected water the Local Government Area covers an area of about

2 40 supplies throughout the world for example Rivers in 258Km , extending over an area of about 18km from Poland, Latin America and Asia are severely polluted as North to south and 14km from East to West. The town is a result of high population density and industrial located about 195km from Jos (in the north) and about activities. Aquifers used as sources of drinking water in 90km from Makurdi (in the South). Also Lafia town is many parts of the world are becoming contaminated accessible through Akwanga Abuja road in the North, with pesticides, herbicides and hazardous organic Doma Road to the West and Obi-Keana road to the chemicals. south. Lafia is bounded to the North by Shabu, to the In China for instance, 41 large cities get their West by Dorna to the East by Assakio and to the South drinking water from polluted water sources. During the East by Daddere. The town has a population of about passage of water through hydrological cycle, water is 330,712 inhabitants (2006 census). The map of usually polluted by sediments, washed from the land Nasarawa state showing location of Lafia is presented in into surface water by erosion and farming activities, Figure 1 and 2 below. ) B

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Source: NAGIS, 2019 Fig. 1: Nasarawa State Showing Lafia LGA

Source: NAGIS 2019 Fig. 2: Lafia showing wards The geology of Lafia town is made up of namely fecal coli form count and total coli form count. Basement Complex rocks. The geological setting of the The two techniques are chosen because of the area offers limited numbers of good aquifers as they are availability of reagents required for the analysis which

found far below underground. As a result, availability also reduced the cost of the analysis. ) B and reliability of surface and ground water in terms of Using laboratory analysis, the physical, ( both quality and quantity is uncertain, since yields from chemical and microbiological properties of the water Volume XXI Issue I Version such aquifers are not enough to meet the water demand collected from the different five sources were analysed. of the inhabitants, (Carter, 1953). The topography of The analysis involves the measurement of the presences Lafia town is made up of gentle undulating terrain of group of contaminant and their properties. Also generally below 400 metres with series of slopes to the analyze was the physiochemical parameters such wider Benue plain. This is because the town is located as colour, turbidity, H, temperature, hardness and - between the Benue valley and the Jos plateau. The town presences of sulphate, lead, chlorides, iron, copper, and is drained by several streams such as Amba stream, total dissolved solids (TDS). Analyses were equally done Akurba stream, etc. The soils type is tropical ferruginous with regards to microbiological characteristics which soil and is categorized as reddish brown which suggest measures total coli form count (TC) and coli form the presence of microbial activities. It supports organization unit. The instruments used in carrying out agricultural production. The vegetation type is Southern the analysis include:

Guinea Savanna; it is characterized by discontinuous − TDS conditional meter (HACH) model 446000.00 canopy, shrubs with luxuriant and dense grasses with tress attaining an average height of about 15 to 30 − Titrernetry Digital Titrator (HACH) model 1699.01 metres. The common tress found in the area includes − Spectrophotometer (HACH) model DR 2000 Global Journal of Human Social Science locust bean, Shea butter, palm trees, etc. the Most − Palm test parameter. important crops grown in the area includes maize, The results generated from the laboratory sorghum, cassava, cowpea, yarn etc. analysis were presented in tables, figure and graphs. a) Materials and Methods III. Results and Discussion This study employs volumetric techniques in analyzing physical and chemical parameters of the The data gathered from various sources for this sampled water. In addition, microbiological analytical study were presented in tabular forms. Graphs and techniques were employed for biological parameters figures and analyzed as follows

a) Physical Properties of Sampled Water Table 1 below shows the concentration of physical properties of the sampled water as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Physical Parameters of Sampled Water in Lafia S/No Water parameter WHO Std Sample water sources Borehole well Rain Stream Tap 1 Colour (pt/co) 5(pt/co) 6.0 6.4 2.0 10.5 4.0 2 Turbidity (NTU) 5NTU 3.0 4.5 1.4 8.5 2.9 3 Temperature (°C) 25°C 22.5 23.4 15.4 26.4 20.5 Source: Field survey, 2019 Table 1 shows physical parameter of sampled with reference to WHO permissible guidelines. Below is water sources in Lafia. The values in Table 1 are used to the graphical representation of concentration of physical represent a clear graph shown in Figure 3 to further parameter in sampled water shown in Figure 3. illustrate the concentration of the physical parameters

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Figure 3: Concentration of Physical Parameters. - Figure 3 shows that colour concentration was suspended material in water brought about by human highest in stream water 10.5pt/Co and lowest in rain activities such as swimming; eroded materials from the water 2.0pt/Co the range was 8.5 well water sample land through run- off and other natural processesin the 6.4pt/Co, and borehole water 6.0pt/co was above the case of temperature, the result shows that stream water guidelines value of 5pt/co for potable water include tap has the highest temperature 26.4°C above the guideline water, 4.0pt/Co and rain water 2.0 pt/Co which recorded value of WHO for potable water other samples are, well colour concentration below the guideline value of WHO. water23.4°C, borehole water 22.5°C, tap water 20.5°C High colour concentration in stream water can be rain water 15.4°C below the permissible guidelines of attributed to dissolved coloured materials in stream due WHO for portable water. The range in temperature was

Global Journal of Human Social Science to surface exposure. The range is therefore wide by this 11°C. High temperature in stream water can be result. In terms of turbidity. stream water recorded attributed to the heat of the day. 8.5NTU highest above WHO guideline and rain water 1.4 Health implication of the findings: Colour if holmic NTU lowest below the guidelines and the range was substances are present in water such as Arsenic-rich 7.INTU a wide range). Hence only stream water water over a long period of time, it results in skin recorded turbidity concentration above the WHO problems also if the colour is associated with red guideline for potable water. Well water with 4.5 NW, phosphorus it renders the water fairly unreliable for other borehole 3.0 NW and tap 2.9 NUT turbidity organisms. concentration fall below/WHO guideline value for potable water. The high turbidity in stream was due to

Turbidity: Health implication of turbidity is simply Temperature: Implication of temperature on human aesthetic for human and on other organisms; it renders health is not direct; however, temperature alters the rate the inability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. of microbiological activities in water. b) Chemical Properties of Sampled Water i. pH, Calcium, Nitrates, Chlorides, and sulphates) of sampled water in Lafia. The above properties ranges are presented in Figure 4 below as drawn from Table 2. Table 2: Chemical parameters (pH, calcium, nitrate, chlorides, and sulphates) In Lafia

S/No Chemical parameter WHO Std Different Water sources Borehole well Rain Stream Tap 1 pH 7 6.2 7.5 6.9 6.8 6.3 2 Calcium (mg/1) 100(mg/1) 101 105 109 106 102 3 Nitrate (mg/1) 25(mg/1) 22 28 30 40.5 27 4 Chlorides (mg/1) 25(mg/1) 26.1 23.2 22 20.0 21.5 5 Sulphate (mg/1) 25(mg/1) 22.5 21.0 20.5 28.3 23 2021

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Table shows the concentration of chemical properties; the values in the table are used to represent a bar 43 graph as shown in Figure 4 illustrating concentration of pH, Calcium, Nitrates, and Sulphates below.

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Figure 4: Concentration of Chemical Parameters Figure 4 show that, pH of the five different 26.1mg/I above WHO permissible guidelines for potable sources of water falls within the guideline value of WHO. water and the least was rain Water 20.5 mg/I. however, However, pH concentration in well water was highest borehole, well and tap water falls below the guideline with 7, 5 and lowest in tap water 6.3. This implies that value. Global Journal of Human Social Science water in wells was slightly alkaline and borehole, rain, ii. TDS and Hardness of sampled water in Lafia. streams and Tap water were, weekly acidic in Lafia. The data gathered concerning chemical Calcium concentration is highest in rain water 109mg/I. properties (TDS and Hardness) from five water sources However, the five water samples fall above WHO sampled are presented and analyzed in figure 5 below, guidelines. Nitrate concentration was highest in stream been drawn from Table 3. water 40.5mg/i and lowest in borehole water 22mg/l. Below WHO guidelines rain, tap, and well water slightly fall above the standard in the cases of chloride, borehole water has the highest concentration of

Table 3: Chemical properties (TDS and Hardness) of water sources in lafia S/No Chemical properties WHO Std Difference Water Sources Borehole Well Rain Stream Tap 2 TDS(mh/1) 500 280 302 42 406 273 2 Hardness (mg/1) 100 134 140 105 136 107 Source: Field survey, 2019. Table 3 presents chemical properties in the water samples. The values in bar graph in Figure 5 to table are further represented concentration of the show the distinct reference to the WHO permissible properties with shown below. (TDS and Hardness) of guide lines, shown below

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44 250 TDS (mg/1) 200 Hardness (mg/1) 150

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0 Borehole Well Rain Stream Tap ) B

( Volume XXI Issue I Version Figure 4.5: Concentration of Chemical Properties (TDS, Hardness)

Figure 5 shows that stream water has the iii. (Lead, Copper and Iron) of Water samples in Lafia. highest concentration of TDS of 406mg/l and lowest in The data obtained with regards to chemical rain water 42mg/I. However, the five water sources have properties (lead, copper, and iron) from five water

- TDS concentration below WHO guidelines. With regards sources were analyzed and presented in Table 4 as to hardness, the aforementioned water source has the represented in Figure 6 below. hardness concentration above WHO acceptable guidelines. Well water has the highest hardness 14mg/l and the lowest rainwater 105mg/l among the different water sources. Table 4: Chemical properties (lead, copper and iron) from water sources in Lafla

S/No Chemical properties WHO Std Different Water Sources Borehole well Rain Stream Tap Global Journal of Human Social Science 1 Lead (mg/1) 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.08 2 Copper (mg/1) 1.0 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.3 0.4 3 Iron (mg/1)) 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.6 Source: Field survey, 2019 Table 4 shows the chemical properties (lead, copper and iron). The table values are represented in graphical form in Figure 6 indicating concentration levels in each of the water sources as shown in Figure 6 below.

1.2

0.8

Lead (mg/1) 0.6 Copper (mg/1) Iron (mg/1) 0.4

0.2 2021 ear Y

0 45 Borehole Well Rain Stream Tap

Figure 6: Concentration of Chemical Properties (Lead, Copper and Iron) Figure 6 shows that, lead concentration was inhibit oxygen and mental development in babies and highest in tap water 0.08mg/I above WHO guidelines. children, hence, children arc mostly prone to health The other four sources of water (borehole 0.4 well, effect of lead. Iron and copper: excessive dose of iron 0.03mg/I rain, 0.01mg/I and stream 0.02mg/l) fall below and copper leads to severe mucosal irritation, WHO permissible guidelines for potable water. Rain gastrointestinal irritation disorder of the respiratory water shows the least lead concentration 0.01mg/I. mechanism, liver and kidney disorder. Based on this Copper shows high concentration of 0.4mg/i in tap finding and health implication association with these water and lowest in rain water 0.01mg/i. However, the trace elements, proper water treatment and mitigation ) five water sources (borehole, stream and tap lies above measure should be adopted against those trace B

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the WHO permissible guidelines for potable water while elements event thought the different is not significant. Volume XXI Issue I Version well and rain water sample fall below the WHO c) Microbiological Parameter of Sampled Water in Lafia guidelines. In the case of iron, stream water has the The data gathered from five different water highest Iron concentration of 0.08mg/i follow by well sources concerning microbiological parameters ofwater water 0.7mg/I, tap water 0.6mg/i while borehole 0.4mg/i are presented and analyzed in Table 5 and the graph is and the rain 0.3mg/I lies below WHO guidelines. The - shown in Figure 7 below. health implication of high concentration of led in water Table 5: Microbiological characteristic of Sample Water sources S/No Microbiological parameter WHO Std Water sources Borehole Well Rain Stream Tap 1 F.coli form (MPN/100ml) 0 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.02 2 T.coli form (MPN/100ml) 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.7 0.2 Source: Field survey, 2019 Table 5 shows the microbiological characteristics of sample water sources with reference Global Journal of Human Social Science to WHO permissible guide lines. The table values are further presented in bar graph to clearly illustrate the concentration level of the microbiological properties as shown in Figure 6 below.

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 F. coli form (MPN/100ml) T.coli form (MPN/100ml) 0.3

0.2 2021 0.1 ear Y

46 0 Borehole Well Rain Stream Tap

Figure 6: Microbiological Parameter of Sampled Water In figure 6, it is evident that none of the five qualitative description, stream water has the highest water sources meet the maximum allowable concentration of physical and microbiological properties concentration faecal coli form of count of 0 count/100mI of water. However, by statistical analysis, the five set by WHO and NAFDAC, the highest concentration of sources of water in Lafia have no statistical significance faecal coli form was observed in stream water 0.05 difference from the WHO permissible guidelines for count/100ml, other samples have the following potable water. It is therefore the collective responsibility concentrations well water 0.04MPN/100ml, borehole of both private and public sectors for ensuring effective 0.03 MPN/100ml, tap 0.2 MPN/100ml and the lowest management of water sources for greater sustainability. )

B rain 0.01 MPN/100ml.In the case of total coli form, Furthermore, the research has provided explanatory

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Volume XXI Issue I Version stream water has the highest T. coli form count of 0.7 information statistically and descriptively on the quality Count MPN/100ml followed by borehole 0.5MPN/100ml, status (Physical, Chemical and Microbiological) well 0.4MPN/100ml, Tap 0.2MPN/100ml and rain parameters of five common sources of water for 0.1MPN/100ml. Hence none of the five water sources domestic uses in Lafia. meet the WHO permissible guidelines for potable water. References Références Referencias - The health implication of the finding is that presence of micro-organisms in stream water can lead 1. Ama, E. 0. A. (1996) ‘Keynote address- water to number of disease which can be transmitted by pollution and health of the nation: ‘a.’ FEPA?’ in pathogenic microorganisms. This could lead to outbreak Ama, E.O.A. and Adedipe, N.0. (EDS), First National of several water-related diseases such as typhoid fever, Seminar on Quality Monitory and Status in Nigeria. cholera, acute diarrhoea, bacillary dysentery etc. This FEPA: Abuja, 3-10. renders stream water unsuitable for human 2. Ameh, E.G. and Mornob, A. (2006). Quality of

consumption unless proper water treatment strategies is groundwater in Port Harcourt, River State. Journal of adopted otherwise stream water is not suitable for Environmental Science. ‘University of Jos. human consumption in Lafia. 3. APHA (1998). Standard Methods for the Global Journal of Human Social Science Examination for Water and Waste Water. (20ed). IV. Conclusion Washington, DC: American Public Health Water quality in simple terms pertains to the Association. physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics of 4. Ayoade, J. 0. And Akintola, F.Q. (1999) ‘Water and water relative to its specific use. The study found that Man’. In Faniran, A. and Okunrotifa, P.O. (eds.), stream water source was the most polluted source of A handbook of Geography Teaching for Schools water as a result of exposure to different materials and Colleges. Ibadan: Heinemann. making it prone to high concentration of physical, 5. Ayoade, J.O. (1988). Tropical Hydrology and Water chemical and microbiological properties. By way of Resources. London: Macmilla.

6. Botkin, B.D. and Keller, A.E. (1997). Environmental 24. WHO (1974). Health hazards of the Human Science. ’Earth as a Living Planet. 2ed. Canada.’ Environment. WHO Geneva, 36-64. John Wiley. 25. WHO (1 993). International Standards for Drinking 7. Chanlett, E. T. (1974). Environmental Protection.’ Water. Geneva: WHO. 3645. International Student edition, Tokyo: McGraw-Hill 26. WHO (1997).Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: 8. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2009). A World Surveillance and Control of Community Supplies Knowledge at Your Findings. Bristol.’ Encyclopaedia (2%d.) Vol.3. Geneva: WHO. Britannica (Delux Edition). 27. WHO (2000). Global Water and Sanitation 9. Eziahi, AC. (1999). “Surface Water Pollution in Assessment Repon 2000. Geneva: WHO. Nigeria.’ causes, consequences and solutions. Journal of public and Private Law, 3(3): 111-124. 10. Eziashi, A. C. (1997).’Environmental Implications of indiscriminate dumping of castes in stream channels’. In Udoh and A/cpa (eds.), Environmental Education and sustainable Development. Jos.’ Fab Education Books. 2021 11. Faniran, A. (1977). ‘Rural Water Supply in Nigeria ‘s ear

Basement Complex: A study in south western Y

Nigeria,’. The Nigerian Geographical Journal, 25 47 (1&2): 205-209. 12. Fredick, D.K. (1995) ‘America’s Water Supply: Status and Prospect for the Future’. Consequences, 1(1): 62-65. 13. Getis, A, Getis, 3 and Fellmann, J.D. (2004) Introduction to Geography. (9thed.). New York McGraw Hill Education. 14. Gray, N.F. (1994). Drinking — Water Quality Problems and Solutions. London: John Wiley, 43-64. 15. Helmer, R. (1996). ‘Water Quality monitoring: national needs and international challenges’. In Ama, ED. A. and Adedipe, N.D. (eds.), First National )

Seminar on Water Quality Monitoring and Status in B

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Mgerla. Abuja: FEPA, 11-25. Volume XXI Issue I Version 16. Twugo, K.O. (1999). Introduction to water quality and pollution control: Basic concepts in water pollution control 9, 10-16. 17. Khitoliya, R.K. (2004). Environmental Pollution:

Management and Control for Sustainable - Development. Ram Nagar, New Delhi: S. Chad and Company Ltd. 18. Krantz, D. and Kifferstein, B. (2006). ’Water Pollution and Society ‘. nw.umickedw’gs26s. 19. McDonald, T. A and Kay, D. (1988). Water Resources: Issues and Strategies. United Sates: Longman Scientific and technical 20. Morris, T.K. (2005). ‘A Systematic Problem: Poor sanitation undermines water quality ‘The Liberian

Dialogue 43. Global Journal of Human Social Science 21. NAFDAC (2001). Consumer Safety Bulletin. National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control Nigeria. 22. National Population Commission (1996). Population Enumerator’s Manual, Lafia. 23. Okoronkwo. M.O. and Zoakah A.I. (1998) ‘Bacteriological quality of water In a drought afflicted community in Northern Nigeria Journal of Medical Laboratory Sciences.7 and 67.

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Global Journal of Human Social Science

Indigenous Khasi Tribe of Meghalaya and Environmental Sustainability: A Study By Dr. Sinchini Kundu Raiganj University Abstract- In the era of modernization and globalization climate changes and environmental degradation are the big threat for all the species of earth and their sustainability. The indigenous ecological knowledge and behaviour of the tribal people towards nature is generally based on sustainability, productivity and optimum balanced utilization of available land and other natural resource. In India the total tribal population is 8.6% of which 89.97% live in rural areas. This subcontinent is the largest tribal populated country where different ethnic groups co-exist in a same territory with their diversified traditional culture. A Major portion of tribal people inhabits in the northeast part of India and Khasi is one of them. They live in different states of India such as in Meghalaya, Assam, and Manipur but the major portion of the total Khasi population is found in north east forest region of Meghalaya. They are the ecological components of this forest ecology. Their intra and interconnection with nature is always symbiotic. But due to the globalization, the influence of modern culture, intermingling and cultural hegemony, most of the tribal cultures are in the way of extinction. Rural people tend to imitate the modern culture without thinking the effects and want to get shifted in urban areas for better facilities and livelihood opportunities. Keywords: globalization, modernization, climate changes, ecological culture, khasi tribe, sustainable development. GJHSS-B Classification: FOR Code: 040699

IndigenousKhas iTribeofMeghalayaandEnvironmentalSustainabilityAStudy

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2021. Dr. Sinchini Kundu. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Indigenous Khasi Tribe of Meghalaya and Environmental Sustainability: A Study

Dr. Sinchini Kundu

Abstra ct- In the era of modernization and globalization climate natural environment for their culture, health and changes and environmental degradation are the big threat for livelihoods. Many tribal communities face difficult socio- all the species of earth and their sustainability. The indigenous economic conditions that may be exacerbated by ecological knowledge and behaviour of the tribal people climate change. Modernization, globalization and towards nature is generally based on sustainability, environmental changes are constantly changing human productivity and optimum balanced utilization of available land and other natural resource. In India the total tribal population life and their cultures. In this context, we need to value is 8.6% of which 89.97% live in rural areas. This subcontinent the tribal culture and to study the ecological culture and 2021 is the largest tribal populated country where different ethnic ecological behaviour of the khasi tribe for environmental groups co-exist in a same territory with their diversified sustainability. ear Y traditional culture. A Major portion of tribal people inhabits in the northeast part of India and Khasi is one of them. They live II. Objectives 49 in different states of India such as in Meghalaya, Assam, and • To highlight on the changing scenario of socio – Manipur but the major portion of the total Khasi population is found in north east forest region of Meghalaya. They are the economic and cultural condition of the tribal people ecological components of this forest ecology. Their intra and of the study area. interconnection with nature is always symbiotic. But due to the • To find out the new challenges in the livelihood of globalization, the influence of modern culture, intermingling the Khasi tribe due to climate change. and cultural hegemony, most of the tribal cultures are in the • To highlight on the ecological behaviour of khasi way of extinction. Rural people tend to imitate the modern tribe. culture without thinking the effects and want to get shifted in urban areas for better facilities and livelihood opportunities. III. Hypotheses For sustainable development, ecological behaviour is essential and without ecological culture, ecological behaviour is not • Value based socio-economic and cultural possible. Ecological culture is the sets of knowledge, norm conditions of Khasi tribes become changed. ) and idealism that help to interact with the environment, but • B Khasi tribes face challenges due to climate change. ( cross culture, cultural suicide, culture mixing and acculturation • Khasi tribes have their own Ecological culture. Volume XXI Issue I Version affect the tribal culture. The Khasi people have been struggling to keep their traditional. The ecological culture of khasi tribe, IV. Khasi Tribe: A Geographical Identity their eco-friendly livelihood and development is very much valuable for sustainability with climate changes and it can be In India broadly the tribal people inhabit within applied in practical life through ecological culture. two distinct geographical areas – the Central India and Keywords: globalization, modernization, climate North Eastern Area. The Khasi tribes are an indigenous - changes, ecological culture, khasi tribe, sustainable ethnic group of northeastern India. They are mainly development. found in Assam, Khasi Jaintia hills in Meghalaya, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur, and Jammu and I. ntroduction I Kashmir. They are called by the different names such as ndia is one of the colorful countries in the world where Khasi Paris, Khuchia, Khashi and Khasa. Most of the around 705 scheduled tribes are notified with their Khasi people are mainly located in the northeastern I distinct culture and as per census 2011 they part of Meghalaya with around 48% of the total constitute 8.6% of the total population. Among them, population of Meghalaya. It is said that the choices were 89.97% live in rural areas and most of them, live in hilly earliest immigrant tribes who came from Myanmar, and forest areas. They experience increased vulnerability to settled down in the plains of east Assam. Location map Global Journal of Human Social Science changing weather pattern and climate impacts due to Of the Khasi tribe and the rainfall and temperature graph loss of traditional subsistence practices. In India there of the RI - Bhoi district are shown below: are 75 vulnerable primitive tribal groups (VPTGs), declared by the government and major cause of their vulnerability is the impacts of climate change because of their dependence on and interconnection with the Author: Assistant Teacher, Raiganj University, Karandighi High School, India. e-mail: [email protected]

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Geographical-location-of-11-sampled-transects-in-Ri-Bhoi-district-of-Meghalaya- The_fig1_269697899 Figure 1 ) B

( Though the maximum rainfalls are found in the from one generation to another by oral method and play Volume XXI Issue I Version month of June, July and August but rainfalls occur more a vital role to develop ecological behaviour. or less in all the season and the difference between the highest temperature and the lowest temperature of the year is very little. Khasi tribes are the largest indigenous community with around 48% of the total population of - Meghalaya and before the arrival of the Christian missionaries they practiced indigenous tribal religion. Tribes are the worship of nature and their value based religious practices now are in the way of abolishing. Now around 85% have embraced Christianity. Very few of them still follow their age old indigenous religion. Khasi uses English and own Khasi language for communication. Society is Matri-lineal. The main occupation of Khasi tribe is agriculture and tourism but now they are migrating from their primitive habitation Global Journal of Human Social Science area to the outside places for a better job opportunity. The major crops produced by Khasi tribes are betel leaf, Areca nut, deal, local Khasi Rice, vegetables and oranges. Like other forest dweller tribes, they broadly depend on forest resources and their acquired Tribal Ecological Knowledge (TEK) over a thousand and more than a thousand years. This knowledge is transmitted

2021

Plate 1: and Plate 2: epict the changing house pattern of Khasi Tribes. ear Y

During Survey, it is found that the indigenous changes in the Meghalaya forest region. Due to 51 building techniques and house pattern of Khasi tribes migration and cultural contact with modernized and which are directly connected with nature and climatic globalized Earth, they have lost their moral values, condition are now replaced by modern building pattern beliefs and ecological culture. “Ecological culture is a and techniques. It is said by a village council member survival ethical and moral imperative of ecological that in his childhood days during summer monsoon, it commandments for society as a whole and the rained at least once for nine days and nine nights individual in particular. It provides support through the without a break and he has an opinion that the change process of the formation of ecological world view of in rainfall affects the quality and quantity of crops. every human, his/her self improvement (change the Orange is no longer sweet as it was. Meghalaya is a inner nature of the individual) as ecologically conscious part of the Indo- Burma biodiversity and most and ecologica l social attitude towards nature.” threatened hot spot areas in India due to climate (N. Ridei, Yuliya Rybalko, Yuliya Kycherenko, Svitlana change. It is the critical or endangered or vulnerable rain Palamarchuk, 2013: p14-23). The conjunction and forest so the tribes, trees and wild animals who are the filtering process of cultural ecosystem, ecological ) B part of this ecosystem are also threatened. According to behavior (ethics, moral values, rituals, etc.) ( 2017 Indian Institute of Technology declared that the and ecological culture (education, awareness, Volume XXI Issue I Version average temperature rose 0.031 degree C every year consciousness), of Khasi tribe that help to protect the over 32 years. This is very much significant for the environment)”

ECOLOGICAL CULTURE - ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION ECOLOGICAL CONCIOUSNESS ECOLOGICAL AWARNESS The continuous process of learning, Relationship and linkage between The knowledge of the laws of nature and training and development. environment and society in the modern the integrity of the system of laws. era. The ecological behavior and techniques that and there, in every small Khasi shop or besides the they follow in their livelihood, thousands of years, help to roads people can watch their handmade eco-friendly dustbins. grow their ecological culture. In the modern world it is necessary to discuss their ecological culture in the context of environmental degradation and environmental

sustainability. Wrapping and taking of food, vegetables Global Journal of Human Social Science in newspaper is a common practice in India. According to Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) the printing ink causes of cancer, severe health problem. Wrapped aluminium foil has more illness causing bacteria like Staph and Bacillus Cereus which are rapidly growing on open air. The tribal people like choices use tree leaves to give food in the replacement of unhygienic newspaper or foil paper. Where most of the people are habituated to throw waste materials here

Plate 3: Khasi woen are busy to selling

2021 Plate 4: Khasi women serve food in a tree leave in out of their foods in left hand side. eco - friendly, handmade dustbin besides shop. ear

Y Living Root Bridge in Meghalaya is a simple the temperature of the earth, they produce greenhouse

52 suspension bridge, constructed trough rubber plant and gases. The hanging root bridge is the symbol of by using ecological knowledge. At the age of traditional tribal Ecological knowledge, and it is modernization and Globalization, when people destroy necessary to imply these technologies more and more forests to build cultural landscape and help to increase in development and constructional field.

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Plate 5 and 6: The Famous living root bridge in Meghalaya, denotes the ecological technique of khasi tribes. There is a belief among khasi tribes that God Earth and destroying nature and trees means severing had originally distributed the human race in 16 heavenly our ties with the Divine. The Cleanest Village

families. However, seven out of these 16 families are Mawlinnong in Asia is also introducing the Ecological stuck on earth while the other 9 are stuck in heaven behaviour and Ecological Culture of Khasi Tribe and the

because a heavenly ladder resting on the sacred forest village is instance of value based culture of tribes in the

mountain area (located in the present-day Ri-Bhoi whole world. district). They are enabled people to go freely and

Global Journal of Human Social Science frequently to the heaven whenever they pleased until one day they were tricked into cutting a divine tree which was situated at Lum Diengiei Peak, a grave error which prevented them access to the heavens forever. They were tricked into cutting a divine tree which was situated on Lum Diengiei Peak, a grave error which prevented them access to the heavens forever. This mythological story is often seen as a metaphor of how nature and trees, in particular, are the manifestation of the divine on

Plate 7 and Plate 8: Depicts the scenario of the cleanest village of Mowlinnong.

2021 V. Conclusion 8. India's endangered tribal groups see rise in

population. ear

Khasi village areas, living root bridge, and Y http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013- beautiful scenario of Meghalaya attracts tourists, but 08-25/news/41445973_1_population-tribe-census 53 due to lack of ecological culture and behaviour forest 9. N. Ridei,Yuliya Rybalko,Yuliya Kycherenko, Svitlana region and climate are badly affected by their activity. Palamarchuk,2013: p 14-23). The environment is also affected by unethical behaviour 10. Shakuntala Banaji (1st April 2010). South Asian and development of tourism without following ecological media cultures. Anthem Press. pp. 48–. ISBN 978-1- culture. So it is necessary to aware the tourists as well 84331-842-2. as modern people of the whole world about indigenous culture and technologies of different tribes. In this field the engagement and guidance of tribes may create job opportunity for tribes in Meghalaya as well as a community based activity for developing ecological behaviour make a positive impact on environmental changes and help to change the behaviour of all people in India. It’s also necessary to protect the Indigenous ) B tribal culture as well as their Ecological technique has to ( be followed in the modern construction. The mechanical Volume XXI Issue I Version system of famous living root bridge is must be used in building construction. It’s the duty of the all people to protect and follow the tribal ecological culture for the sustainability of the environment as well as for the - sustainability of Human civilization.

References Références Referencias

1. Aurelius Kyrham Nongkinrih (2002). Khasi society of Meghalaya: a sociological understanding. Indus

Publishing. pp. 130–131. ISBN 978-81-7387-137-5. 2. Census of India 20121statistical profile of Schedule

Tribes in India p.124-130. 3. Census187 wikipedia.org,/wiki/1871 India census.

4. Gunn. C. Michel. (1980). Cultural Ecology: A Brief Global Journal of Human Social Science

Overview, volume 5. 5. Gupta Ramkrishn (1980). Tribal contemporary issues Appraisal and intervention: The problematic of tribal

identity, P 41-43. 6. http://www.ecoindia.com/ 7. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Geographical- location-of-11-sampled-transects-in-Ri-Bhoi-district- of-Meghalaya-The_fig1_269697899

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Publishing Articles & Books Earn 60% of sales proceed s Associates can publish articles (limited) without any fees. Also, they can earn up to 30-40% of sales proceeds from the sale of reference/review books/literature/publishing of research paper. Exclusive Financial Reviewers Get a remuneration of 15% of author fees Associate members are eligible to join as a paid peer reviewer at Global Journals Incorporation (USA) and can get a remuneration of 15% of author fees, taken from the author of a respective paper.

Financial

And Much More Get access to scientific museums and observatories across the globe All members get access to 2 selected scientific museums and observatories across the globe. All researches published with Global Journals will be kept under deep archival facilities across regions for future protections and disaster recovery. They get 5 GB free secure cloud access for storing research files.

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All members get access to 2 selected scientific museums and observatories across the globe. All researches published with Global Journals will be kept under deep archival facilities across regions for future protections and disaster recovery. They get 5 GB free secure cloud access for storing research files.

Associate Fellow Research Group Basic

$4800 $6800 $12500.00 APC lifetime designation lifetime designation organizational per article

Certificate, LoR and Momento Certificate, LoR and Certificates, LoRs and GJ Community Access 2 discounted publishing/year Momento Momentos Gradation of Research Unlimited discounted Unlimited free 10 research contacts/day publishing/year publishing/year 1 GB Cloud Storage Gradation of Research Gradation of Research GJ Community Access Unlimited research Unlimited research contacts/day contacts/day 5 GB Cloud Storage Unlimited Cloud Storage Online Presense Assistance Online Presense Assistance GJ Community Access GJ Community Access

Preferred Author Guidelines

We accept the manuscript submissions in any standard (generic) format. We typeset manuscripts using advanced typesetting tools like Adobe In Design, CorelDraw, TeXnicCenter, and TeXStudio. We usually recommend authors submit their research using any standard format they are comfortable with, and let Global Journals do the rest. Alternatively, you can download our basic template from https://globaljournals.org/Template.zip Authors should submit their complete paper/article, including text illustrations, graphics, conclusions, artwork, and tables. Authors who are not able to submit manuscript using the form above can email the manuscript department at [email protected] or get in touch with [email protected] if they wish to send the abstract before submission. Before and during Submission Authors must ensure the information provided during the submission of a paper is authentic. Please go through the following checklist before submitting: 1. Authors must go through the complete author guideline and understand and agree to Global Journals' ethics and code of conduct, along with author responsibilities. 2. Authors must accept the privacy policy, terms, and conditions of Global Journals. 3. Ensure corresponding author’s email address and postal address are accurate and reachable. 4. Manuscript to be submitted must include keywords, an abstract, a paper title, co-author(s') names and details (email address, name, phone number, and institution), figures and illustrations in vector format including appropriate captions, tables, including titles and footnotes, a conclusion, results, acknowledgments and references. 5. Authors should submit paper in a ZIP archive if any supplementary files are required along with the paper. 6. Proper permissions must be acquired for the use of any copyrighted material. 7. Manuscript submitted must not have been submitted or published elsewhere and all authors must be aware of the submission. Declaration of Conflicts of Interest It is required for authors to declare all financial, institutional, and personal relationships with other individuals and organizations that could influence (bias) their research. Policy on Plagiarism Plagiarism is not acceptable in Global Journals submissions at all. Plagiarized content will not be considered for publication. We reserve the right to inform authors’ institutions about plagiarism detected either before or after publication. If plagiarism is identified, we will follow COPE guidelines: Authors are solely responsible for all the plagiarism that is found. The author must not fabricate, falsify or plagiarize existing research data. The following, if copied, will be considered plagiarism: • Words (language) • Ideas • Findings • Writings • Diagrams • Graphs • Illustrations • Lectures

X • Printed material • Graphic representations • Computer programs • Electronic material • Any other original work Authorship Policies Global Journals follows the definition of authorship set up by the Open Association of Research Society, USA. According to its guidelines, authorship criteria must be based on: 1. Substantial contributions to the conception and acquisition of data, analysis, and interpretation of findings. 2. Drafting the paper and revising it critically regarding important academic content. 3. Final approval of the version of the paper to be published. Changes in Authorship The corresponding author should mention the name and complete details of all co-authors during submission and in manuscript. We support addition, rearrangement, manipulation, and deletions in authors list till the early view publication of the journal. We expect that corresponding author will notify all co-authors of submission. We follow COPE guidelines for changes in authorship. Copyright During submission of the manuscript, the author is confirming an exclusive license agreement with Global Journals which gives Global Journals the authority to reproduce, reuse, and republish authors' research. We also believe in flexible copyright terms where copyright may remain with authors/employers/institutions as well. Contact your editor after acceptance to choose your copyright policy. You may follow this form for copyright transfers. Appealing Decisions Unless specified in the notification, the Editorial Board’s decision on publication of the paper is final and cannot be appealed before making the major change in the manuscript. Acknowledgments Contributors to the research other than authors credited should be mentioned in Acknowledgments. The source of funding for the research can be included. Suppliers of resources may be mentioned along with their addresses. Declaration of funding sources Global Journals is in partnership with various universities, laboratories, and other institutions worldwide in the research domain. Authors are requested to disclose their source of funding during every stage of their research, such as making analysis, performing laboratory operations, computing data, and using institutional resources, from writing an article to its submission. This will also help authors to get reimbursements by requesting an open access publication letter from Global Journals and submitting to the respective funding source. Preparing your Manuscript Authors can submit papers and articles in an acceptable file format: MS Word (doc, docx), LaTeX (.tex, .zip or .rar including all of your files), Adobe PDF (.pdf), rich text format (.rtf), simple text document (.txt), Open Document Text (.odt), and Apple Pages (.pages). Our professional layout editors will format the entire paper according to our official guidelines. This is one of the highlights of publishing with Global Journals—authors should not be concerned about the formatting of their paper. Global Journals accepts articles and manuscripts in every major language, be it Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, French, German, Dutch, Italian, Greek, or any other national language, but the title, subtitle, and abstract should be in English. This will facilitate indexing and the pre-peer review process. The following is the official style and template developed for publication of a research paper. Authors are not required to follow this style during the submission of the paper. It is just for reference purposes.

XI Manuscript Style Instruction (Optional) • Microsoft Word Document Setting Instructions. • Font type of all text should be Swis721 Lt BT. • Page size: 8.27" x 11'”, left margin: 0.65, right margin: 0.65, bottom margin: 0.75. • Paper title should be in one column of font size 24. • Author name in font size of 11 in one column. • Abstract: font size 9 with the word “Abstract” in bold italics. • Main text: font size 10 with two justified columns. • Two columns with equal column width of 3.38 and spacing of 0.2. • First character must be three lines drop-capped. • The paragraph before spacing of 1 pt and after of 0 pt. • Line spacing of 1 pt. • Large images must be in one column. • The names of first main headings (Heading 1) must be in Roman font, capital letters, and font size of 10. • The names of second main headings (Heading 2) must not include numbers and must be in italics with a font size of 10. Structure and Format of Manuscript The recommended size of an original research paper is under 15,000 words and review papers under 7,000 words. Research articles should be less than 10,000 words. Research papers are usually longer than review papers. Review papers are reports of significant research (typically less than 7,000 words, including tables, figures, and references) A research paper must include: a) A title which should be relevant to the theme of the paper. b) A summary, known as an abstract (less than 150 words), containing the major results and conclusions. c) Up to 10 keywords that precisely identify the paper’s subject, purpose, and focus. d) An introduction, giving fundamental background objectives. e) Resources and techniques with sufficient complete experimental details (wherever possible by reference) to permit repetition, sources of information must be given, and numerical methods must be specified by reference. f) Results which should be presented concisely by well-designed tables and figures. g) Suitable statistical data should also be given. h) All data must have been gathered with attention to numerical detail in the planning stage. Design has been recognized to be essential to experiments for a considerable time, and the editor has decided that any paper that appears not to have adequate numerical treatments of the data will be returned unrefereed. i) Discussion should cover implications and consequences and not just recapitulate the results; conclusions should also be summarized. j) There should be brief acknowledgments. k) There ought to be references in the conventional format. Global Journals recommends APA format. Authors should carefully consider the preparation of papers to ensure that they communicate effectively. Papers are much more likely to be accepted if they are carefully designed and laid out, contain few or no errors, are summarizing, and follow instructions. They will also be published with much fewer delays than those that require much technical and editorial correction. The Editorial Board reserves the right to make literary corrections and suggestions to improve brevity.

XII Format Structure It is necessary that authors take care in submitting a manuscript that is written in simple language and adheres to published guidelines. All manuscripts submitted to Global Journals should include: Title The title page must carry an informative title that reflects the content, a running title (less than 45 characters together with spaces), names of the authors and co-authors, and the place(s) where the work was carried out. Author details The full postal address of any related author(s) must be specified. Abstract The abstract is the foundation of the research paper. It should be clear and concise and must contain the objective of the paper and inferences drawn. It is advised to not include big mathematical equations or complicated jargon. Many researchers searching for information online will use search engines such as Google, Yahoo or others. By optimizing your paper for search engines, you will amplify the chance of someone finding it. In turn, this will make it more likely to be viewed and cited in further works. Global Journals has compiled these guidelines to facilitate you to maximize the web- friendliness of the most public part of your paper. Keywords A major lynchpin of research work for the writing of research papers is the keyword search, which one will employ to find both library and internet resources. Up to eleven keywords or very brief phrases have to be given to help data retrieval, mining, and indexing. One must be persistent and creative in using keywords. An effective keyword search requires a strategy: planning of a list of possible keywords and phrases to try. Choice of the main keywords is the first tool of writing a research paper. Research paper writing is an art. Keyword search should be as strategic as possible. One should start brainstorming lists of potential keywords before even beginning searching. Think about the most important concepts related to research work. Ask, “What words would a source have to include to be truly valuable in a research paper?” Then consider synonyms for the important words. It may take the discovery of only one important paper to steer in the right keyword direction because, in most databases, the keywords under which a research paper is abstracted are listed with the paper. Numerical Methods Numerical methods used should be transparent and, where appropriate, supported by references. Abbreviations Authors must list all the abbreviations used in the paper at the end of the paper or in a separate table before using them. Formulas and equations Authors are advised to submit any mathematical equation using either MathJax, KaTeX, or LaTeX, or in a very high-quality image.

Tables, Figures, and Figure Legends Tables: Tables should be cautiously designed, uncrowned, and include only essential data. Each must have an Arabic number, e.g., Table 4, a self-explanatory caption, and be on a separate sheet. Authors must submit tables in an editable format and not as images. References to these tables (if any) must be mentioned accurately.

XIII Figures Figures are supposed to be submitted as separate files. Always include a citation in the text for each figure using Arabic numbers, e.g., Fig. 4. Artwork must be submitted online in vector electronic form or by emailing it. Preparation of Eletronic Figures for Publication Although low-quality images are sufficient for review purposes, print publication requires high-quality images to prevent the final product being blurred or fuzzy. Submit (possibly by e-mail) EPS (line art) or TIFF (halftone/ photographs) files only. MS PowerPoint and Word Graphics are unsuitable for printed pictures. Avoid using pixel-oriented software. Scans (TIFF only) should have a resolution of at least 350 dpi (halftone) or 700 to 1100 dpi (line drawings). Please give the data for figures in black and white or submit a Color Work Agreement form. EPS files must be saved with fonts embedded (and with a TIFF preview, if possible). For scanned images, the scanning resolution at final image size ought to be as follows to ensure good reproduction: line art: >650 dpi; halftones (including gel photographs): >350 dpi; figures containing both halftone and line images: >650 dpi. Color charges: Authors are advised to pay the full cost for the reproduction of their color artwork. Hence, please note that if there is color artwork in your manuscript when it is accepted for publication, we would require you to complete and return a Color Work Agreement form before your paper can be published. Also, you can email your editor to remove the color fee after acceptance of the paper. Tips for writing a good quality Social Science Research Paper Techniques for writing a good quality homan social science research paper: 1. Choosing the topic: In most cases, the topic is selected by the interests of the author, but it can also be suggested by the guides. You can have several topics, and then judge which you are most comfortable with. This may be done by asking several questions of yourself, like "Will I be able to carry out a search in this area? Will I find all necessary resources to accomplish the search? Will I be able to find all information in this field area?" If the answer to this type of question is "yes," then you ought to choose that topic. In most cases, you may have to conduct surveys and visit several places. Also, you might have to do a lot of work to find all the rises and falls of the various data on that subject. Sometimes, detailed information plays a vital role, instead of short information. Evaluators are human: The first thing to remember is that evaluators are also human beings. They are not only meant for rejecting a paper. They are here to evaluate your paper. So present your best aspect. 2. Think like evaluators: If you are in confusion or getting demotivated because your paper may not be accepted by the evaluators, then think, and try to evaluate your paper like an evaluator. Try to understand what an evaluator wants in your research paper, and you will automatically have your answer. Make blueprints of paper: The outline is the plan or framework that will help you to arrange your thoughts. It will make your paper logical. But remember that all points of your outline must be related to the topic you have chosen. 3. Ask your guides: If you are having any difficulty with your research, then do not hesitate to share your difficulty with your guide (if you have one). They will surely help you out and resolve your doubts. If you can't clarify what exactly you require for your work, then ask your supervisor to help you with an alternative. He or she might also provide you with a list of essential readings. 4. Use of computer is recommended: As you are doing research in the field of homan social science then this point is quite obvious. Use right software: Always use good quality software packages. If you are not capable of judging good software, then you can lose the quality of your paper unknowingly. There are various programs available to help you which you can get through the internet. 5. Use the internet for help: An excellent start for your paper is using Google. It is a wondrous search engine, where you can have your doubts resolved. You may also read some answers for the frequent question of how to write your research paper or find a model research paper. You can download books from the internet. If you have all the required books, place importance on reading, selecting, and analyzing the specified information. Then sketch out your research paper. Use big pictures: You may use encyclopedias like Wikipedia to get pictures with the best resolution. At Global Journals, you should strictly follow here.

XIV 6. Bookmarks are useful: When you read any book or magazine, you generally use bookmarks, right? It is a good habit which helps to not lose your continuity. You should always use bookmarks while searching on the internet also, which will make your search easier. 7. Revise what you wrote: When you write anything, always read it, summarize it, and then finalize it. 8. Make every effort: Make every effort to mention what you are going to write in your paper. That means always have a good start. Try to mention everything in the introduction—what is the need for a particular research paper. Polish your work with good writing skills and always give an evaluator what he wants. Make backups: When you are going to do any important thing like making a research paper, you should always have backup copies of it either on your computer or on paper. This protects you from losing any portion of your important data. 9. Produce good diagrams of your own: Always try to include good charts or diagrams in your paper to improve quality. Using several unnecessary diagrams will degrade the quality of your paper by creating a hodgepodge. So always try to include diagrams which were made by you to improve the readability of your paper. Use of direct quotes: When you do research relevant to literature, history, or current affairs, then use of quotes becomes essential, but if the study is relevant to science, use of quotes is not preferable. 10. Use proper verb tense: Use proper verb tenses in your paper. Use past tense to present those events that have happened. Use present tense to indicate events that are going on. Use future tense to indicate events that will happen in the future. Use of wrong tenses will confuse the evaluator. Avoid sentences that are incomplete. 11. Pick a good study spot: Always try to pick a spot for your research which is quiet. Not every spot is good for studying. 12. Know what you know: Always try to know what you know by making objectives, otherwise you will be confused and unable to achieve your target. 13. Use good grammar: Always use good grammar and words that will have a positive impact on the evaluator; use of good vocabulary does not mean using tough words which the evaluator has to find in a dictionary. Do not fragment sentences. Eliminate one-word sentences. Do not ever use a big word when a smaller one would suffice. Verbs have to be in agreement with their subjects. In a research paper, do not start sentences with conjunctions or finish them with prepositions. When writing formally, it is advisable to never split an infinitive because someone will (wrongly) complain. Avoid clichés like a disease. Always shun irritating alliteration. Use language which is simple and straightforward. Put together a neat summary. 14. Arrangement of information: Each section of the main body should start with an opening sentence, and there should be a changeover at the end of the section. Give only valid and powerful arguments for your topic. You may also maintain your arguments with records. 15. Never start at the last minute: Always allow enough time for research work. Leaving everything to the last minute will degrade your paper and spoil your work. 16. Multitasking in research is not good: Doing several things at the same time is a bad habit in the case of research activity. Research is an area where everything has a particular time slot. Divide your research work into parts, and do a particular part in a particular time slot. 17. Never copy others' work: Never copy others' work and give it your name because if the evaluator has seen it anywhere, you will be in trouble. Take proper rest and food: No matter how many hours you spend on your research activity, if you are not taking care of your health, then all your efforts will have been in vain. For quality research, take proper rest and food. 18. Go to seminars: Attend seminars if the topic is relevant to your research area. Utilize all your resources. Refresh your mind after intervals: Try to give your mind a rest by listening to soft music or sleeping in intervals. This will also improve your memory. Acquire colleagues: Always try to acquire colleagues. No matter how sharp you are, if you acquire colleagues, they can give you ideas which will be helpful to your research. 19. Think technically: Always think technically. If anything happens, search for its reasons, benefits, and demerits. Think and then print: When you go to print your paper, check that tables are not split, headings are not detached from their descriptions, and page sequence is maintained.

XV 20. Adding unnecessary information: Do not add unnecessary information like "I have used MS Excel to draw graphs." Irrelevant and inappropriate material is superfluous. Foreign terminology and phrases are not apropos. One should never take a broad view. Analogy is like feathers on a snake. Use words properly, regardless of how others use them. Remove quotations. Puns are for kids, not grunt readers. Never oversimplify: When adding material to your research paper, never go for oversimplification; this will definitely irritate the evaluator. Be specific. Never use rhythmic redundancies. Contractions shouldn't be used in a research paper. Comparisons are as terrible as clichés. Give up ampersands, abbreviations, and so on. Remove commas that are not necessary. Parenthetical words should be between brackets or commas. Understatement is always the best way to put forward earth-shaking thoughts. Give a detailed literary review. 21. Report concluded results: Use concluded results. From raw data, filter the results, and then conclude your studies based on measurements and observations taken. An appropriate number of decimal places should be used. Parenthetical remarks are prohibited here. Proofread carefully at the final stage. At the end, give an outline to your arguments. Spot perspectives of further study of the subject. Justify your conclusion at the bottom sufficiently, which will probably include examples. 22. Upon conclusion: Once you have concluded your research, the next most important step is to present your findings. Presentation is extremely important as it is the definite medium though which your research is going to be in print for the rest of the crowd. Care should be taken to categorize your thoughts well and present them in a logical and neat manner. A good quality research paper format is essential because it serves to highlight your research paper and bring to light all necessary aspects of your research. . Informal Guidelines of Research Paper Writing Key points to remember: • Submit all work in its final form. • Write your paper in the form which is presented in the guidelines using the template. • Please note the criteria peer reviewers will use for grading the final paper. Final points: One purpose of organizing a research paper is to let people interpret your efforts selectively. The journal requires the following sections, submitted in the order listed, with each section starting on a new page: The introduction: This will be compiled from reference matter and reflect the design processes or outline of basis that directed you to make a study. As you carry out the process of study, the method and process section will be constructed like that. The results segment will show related statistics in nearly sequential order and direct reviewers to similar intellectual paths throughout the data that you gathered to carry out your study. The discussion section: This will provide understanding of the data and projections as to the implications of the results. The use of good quality references throughout the paper will give the effort trustworthiness by representing an alertness to prior workings. Writing a research paper is not an easy job, no matter how trouble-free the actual research or concept. Practice, excellent preparation, and controlled record-keeping are the only means to make straightforward progression. General style: Specific editorial column necessities for compliance of a manuscript will always take over from directions in these general guidelines. To make a paper clear: Adhere to recommended page limits.

XVI Mistakes to avoid: • Insertion of a title at the foot of a page with subsequent text on the next page. • Separating a table, chart, or figure—confine each to a single page. • Submitting a manuscript with pages out of sequence. • In every section of your document, use standard writing style, including articles ("a" and "the"). • Keep paying attention to the topic of the paper. • Use paragraphs to split each significant point (excluding the abstract). • Align the primary line of each section. • Present your points in sound order. • Use present tense to report well-accepted matters. • Use past tense to describe specific results. • Do not use familiar wording; don't address the reviewer directly. Don't use slang or superlatives. • Avoid use of extra pictures—include only those figures essential to presenting results. Title page: Choose a revealing title. It should be short and include the name(s) and address(es) of all authors. It should not have acronyms or abbreviations or exceed two printed lines. Abstract: This summary should be two hundred words or less. It should clearly and briefly explain the key findings reported in the manuscript and must have precise statistics. It should not have acronyms or abbreviations. It should be logical in itself. Do not cite references at this point. An abstract is a brief, distinct paragraph summary of finished work or work in development. In a minute or less, a reviewer can be taught the foundation behind the study, common approaches to the problem, relevant results, and significant conclusions or new questions. Write your summary when your paper is completed because how can you write the summary of anything which is not yet written? Wealth of terminology is very essential in abstract. Use comprehensive sentences, and do not sacrifice readability for brevity; you can maintain it succinctly by phrasing sentences so that they provide more than a lone rationale. The author can at this moment go straight to shortening the outcome. Sum up the study with the subsequent elements in any summary. Try to limit the initial two items to no more than one line each. Reason for writing the article—theory, overall issue, purpose. • Fundamental goal. • To-the-point depiction of the research. • Consequences, including definite statistics—if the consequences are quantitative in nature, account for this; results of any numerical analysis should be reported. Significant conclusions or questions that emerge from the research. Approach:

o Single section and succinct. o An outline of the job done is always written in past tense. o Concentrate on shortening results—limit background information to a verdict or two. o Exact spelling, clarity of sentences and phrases, and appropriate reporting of quantities (proper units, important statistics) are just as significant in an abstract as they are anywhere else. Introduction: The introduction should "introduce" the manuscript. The reviewer should be presented with sufficient background information to be capable of comprehending and calculating the purpose of your study without having to refer to other works. The basis for the study should be offered. Give the most important references, but avoid making a comprehensive appraisal of the topic. Describe the problem visibly. If the problem is not acknowledged in a logical, reasonable way, the reviewer will give no attention to your results. Speak in common terms about techniques used to explain the problem, if needed, but do not present any particulars about the protocols here.

XVII The following approach can create a valuable beginning:

o Explain the value (significance) of the study. o Defend the model—why did you employ this particular system or method? What is its compensation? Remark upon its appropriateness from an abstract point of view as well as pointing out sensible reasons for using it. o Present a justification. State your particular theory(-ies) or aim(s), and describe the logic that led you to choose them. o Briefly explain the study's tentative purpose and how it meets the declared objectives. Approach: Use past tense except for when referring to recognized facts. After all, the manuscript will be submitted after the entire job is done. Sort out your thoughts; manufacture one key point for every section. If you make the four points listed above, you will need at least four paragraphs. Present surrounding information only when it is necessary to support a situation. The reviewer does not desire to read everything you know about a topic. Shape the theory specifically—do not take a broad view. As always, give awareness to spelling, simplicity, and correctness of sentences and phrases. Procedures (methods and materials): This part is supposed to be the easiest to carve if you have good skills. A soundly written procedures segment allows a capable scientist to replicate your results. Present precise information about your supplies. The suppliers and clarity of reagents can be helpful bits of information. Present methods in sequential order, but linked methodologies can be grouped as a segment. Be concise when relating the protocols. Attempt to give the least amount of information that would permit another capable scientist to replicate your outcome, but be cautious that vital information is integrated. The use of subheadings is suggested and ought to be synchronized with the results section. When a technique is used that has been well-described in another section, mention the specific item describing the way, but draw the basic principle while stating the situation. The purpose is to show all particular resources and broad procedures so that another person may use some or all of the methods in one more study or referee the scientific value of your work. It is not to be a step-by-step report of the whole thing you did, nor is a methods section a set of orders. Materials: Materials may be reported in part of a section or else they may be recognized along with your measures. Methods:

o Report the method and not the particulars of each process that engaged the same methodology. o Describe the method entirely. o To be succinct, present methods under headings dedicated to specific dealings or groups of measures. o Simplify—detail how procedures were completed, not how they were performed on a particular day. o If well-known procedures were used, account for the procedure by name, possibly with a reference, and that's all. Approach: It is embarrassing to use vigorous voice when documenting methods without using first person, which would focus the reviewer's interest on the researcher rather than the job. As a result, when writing up the methods, most authors use third person passive voice. Use standard style in this and every other part of the paper—avoid familiar lists, and use full sentences. What to keep away from:

o Resources and methods are not a set of information. o Skip all descriptive information and surroundings—save it for the argument. o Leave out information that is immaterial to a third party.

XVIII Results: The principle of a results segment is to present and demonstrate your conclusion. Create this part as entirely objective details of the outcome, and save all understanding for the discussion. The page length of this segment is set by the sum and types of data to be reported. Use statistics and tables, if suitable, to present consequences most efficiently. You must clearly differentiate material which would usually be incorporated in a study editorial from any unprocessed data or additional appendix matter that would not be available. In fact, such matters should not be submitted at all except if requested by the instructor. Content:

o Sum up your conclusions in text and demonstrate them, if suitable, with figures and tables. o In the manuscript, explain each of your consequences, and point the reader to remarks that are most appropriate. o Present a background, such as by describing the question that was addressed by creation of an exacting study. o Explain results of control experiments and give remarks that are not accessible in a prescribed figure or table, if appropriate. o Examine your data, then prepare the analyzed (transformed) data in the form of a figure (graph), table, or manuscript. What to stay away from:

o Do not discuss or infer your outcome, report surrounding information, or try to explain anything. o Do not include raw data or intermediate calculations in a research manuscript. o Do not present similar data more than once. o A manuscript should complement any figures or tables, not duplicate information. o Never confuse figures with tables—there is a difference. Approach: As always, use past tense when you submit your results, and put the whole thing in a reasonable order. Put figures and tables, appropriately numbered, in order at the end of the report. If you desire, you may place your figures and tables properly within the text of your results section. Figures and tables: If you put figures and tables at the end of some details, make certain that they are visibly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw facts. Whatever the position, each table must be titled, numbered one after the other, and include a heading. All figures and tables must be divided from the text. Discussion: The discussion is expected to be the trickiest segment to write. A lot of papers submitted to the journal are discarded based on problems with the discussion. There is no rule for how long an argument should be. Position your understanding of the outcome visibly to lead the reviewer through your conclusions, and then finish the paper with a summing up of the implications of the study. The purpose here is to offer an understanding of your results and support all of your conclusions, using facts from your research and generally accepted information, if suitable. The implication of results should be fully described. Infer your data in the conversation in suitable depth. This means that when you clarify an observable fact, you must explain mechanisms that may account for the observation. If your results vary from your prospect, make clear why that may have happened. If your results agree, then explain the theory that the proof supported. It is never suitable to just state that the data approved the prospect, and let it drop at that. Make a decision as to whether each premise is supported or discarded or if you cannot make a conclusion with assurance. Do not just dismiss a study or part of a study as "uncertain."

XIX Research papers are not acknowledged if the work is imperfect. Draw what conclusions you can based upon the results that you have, and take care of the study as a finished work.

o You may propose future guidelines, such as how an experiment might be personalized to accomplish a new idea. o Give details of all of your remarks as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms. o Make a decision as to whether the tentative design sufficiently addressed the theory and whether or not it was correctly restricted. Try to present substitute explanations if they are sensible alternatives. o One piece of research will not counter an overall question, so maintain the large picture in mind. Where do you go next? The best studies unlock new avenues of study. What questions remain? o Recommendations for detailed papers will offer supplementary suggestions. Approach: When you refer to information, differentiate data generated by your own studies from other available information. Present work done by specific persons (including you) in past tense. Describe generally acknowledged facts and main beliefs in present tense. The Administration Rules Administration Rules to Be Strictly Followed before Submitting Your Research Paper to Global Journals Inc. Please read the following rules and regulations carefully before submitting your research paper to Global Journals Inc. to avoid rejection. Segment draft and final research paper: You have to strictly follow the template of a research paper, failing which your paper may get rejected. You are expected to write each part of the paper wholly on your own. The peer reviewers need to identify your own perspective of the concepts in your own terms. Please do not extract straight from any other source, and do not rephrase someone else's analysis. Do not allow anyone else to proofread your manuscript. Written material: You may discuss this with your guides and key sources. Do not copy anyone else's paper, even if this is only imitation, otherwise it will be rejected on the grounds of plagiarism, which is illegal. Various methods to avoid plagiarism are strictly applied by us to every paper, and, if found guilty, you may be blacklisted, which could affect your career adversely. To guard yourself and others from possible illegal use, please do not permit anyone to use or even read your paper and file.

XX CRITERION FOR GRADING A RESEARCH PAPER (COMPILATION) BY GLOBAL JOURNALS Please note that following table is only a Grading of "Paper Compilation" and not on "Performed/Stated Research" whose grading solely depends on Individual Assigned Peer Reviewer and Editorial Board Member. These can be available only on request and after decision of Paper. This report will be the property of Global Journals

Topics Grades

A-B C-D E-F

Clear and concise with Unclear summary and no No specific data with ambiguous appropriate content, Correct specific data, Incorrect form information Abstract format. 200 words or below Above 200 words Above 250 words

Containing all background Unclear and confusing data, Out of place depth and content, details with clear goal and appropriate format, grammar hazy format appropriate details, flow and spelling errors with specification, no grammar unorganized matter Introduction and spelling mistake, well organized sentence and paragraph, reference cited

Clear and to the point with Difficult to comprehend with Incorrect and unorganized well arranged paragraph, embarrassed text, too much structure with hazy meaning Methods and precision and accuracy of explanation but completed Procedures facts and figures, well organized subheads

Well organized, Clear and Complete and embarrassed Irregular format with wrong facts specific, Correct units with text, difficult to comprehend and figures precision, correct data, well Result structuring of paragraph, no grammar and spelling mistake

Well organized, meaningful Wordy, unclear conclusion, Conclusion is not cited, specification, sound spurious unorganized, difficult to conclusion, logical and comprehend concise explanation, highly Discussion structured paragraph reference cited

Complete and correct Beside the point, Incomplete Wrong format and structuring References format, well organized

XXI

Index

A P

Abundant · 56, 72 Perceived · 45 Auspicious · 4, 56 Permanence · 2 Piercing · 16, 18 Prevailing · 16, 56, 67 B Preventive · 32, 33, 42

Buried · 12, 13, 16, R

C Relevant · 4, 5, 8, 9 Revealed · 12, 59, 65, 68 Ritual · 14, 15, 55, Cassava, · 2, 7, 62, 74 Combustion · 30, 67 Constitute · 47, 49, 50, 81 S Cultivating · 1, 55

Sewage · 6, 73 D Speculation · 1 Stammering · 2 Stunning · 57 Dep rived · 12, 16, 22, 51 Desertification · 5 Devastation · 2, 6 T Devoid · 72 Discursive · 1 Tabulated · 47 Terrible · 5, 6 E

Evacuated · 30 V Exacerbated · 51, 81 Vague. · 29 Vulnerability · 81 H

Habituated · 70, 83

Immolated · 12, 14 Intellectuals · 1, 2, 3, 4, Intuitive · 38, 41, 42

M andatory · 32, 44