Number 2 | Autumn 2010 Number 2 | Autumn CITAR Journal CITAR Number 2, umn 2010 Aut
CITAR Journal
Portuguese Catholic University CITAR | Research Center for Science and Technology of the Arts Centro de Investigação em Ciência e Tecnologia das Artes
School of Arts Rua Diogo Botelho, nº 1327 4169-005 PORTO Portugal |T| +351 226 196 200 |F| +351 226 196 291 [email protected] www.artes.ucp.pt/citarj ISBN: 978-989-95776-0-2 Interactive Generative Installation for Visual Compostion ISSN: 1646-9798 Instalação Generativa Interactiva para Composição Visual REVISTA DE CIÊNCIA E TECNOLOGIA DAS ARTES DAS DE CIÊNCIA E TECNOLOGIA | REVISTA OF THE ARTS | JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CITAR About CITAR Journal: issue 02
The 2nd issue of CITAR Journal fol- lows up on the significant effort for the dissemination of research in the field of Science and Technology of the Arts. Once again this publication brings forward different views and perspectives on Artistic practices presented from a scientific research perspective. This edition focuses on research work conducted within the frame- work of the Research Center for Science and Technology of the Arts from the Portuguese Catholic University. Attempting to provide a broad overview of the significant contributions to the filed, this issue releases recent research from the institution that publishes this Journal. The main topics addressed by issue 2 of CITAR Journal range form mu- sicological perspective on the Piano trough its performance Techniques or Historical Compositions to an in- novative approach in interactive gen- erative art or from a critical analysis of the duality Cinema/Television to the Ritual Art of the 16th Century Porto. Additionally we present an extended overview of the Sound and Music Computing Conference held in the City of Porto and a review of the re- cent publication centered on Music for the Poet Guerra Junqueiro. We hope you enjoy this 2nd issue of CITAR Journal.
Álvaro Barbosa Editor of CITAR Journal
CITAR JOURNAL 1 CITAR JOURNAL 2 CITAR Journal Number 2, Autumn 2010 Table of Contents
Editorial Notes ...... 01
Featured Articles
European Piano Schools Russian, German and French classical piano interpretation and technique (Sofia Lourenço) ...... 06
Untitled* Interactive Generative Installation for Visual Compostion (Joana Fernandes Gomes) ...... 15
Luiz Costa: In Commemoration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of His Death (Christine Wassermann Beirão and Henrique L. Gomes de Araújo) ...... 22
Cinematography and Television Differences and Similarities (Adriano Nazareth) ...... 34
Image, ritual and urban form: Porto in the 16th Century (José Ferrão Afonso) ...... 40
Reviews
From Singing Material to Intangible Poetry: The Music of Junqueiro (Henrique Manuel S. Pereira) ...... 58
“Sound and Music Computing Conference 2009” (Nicolas Makelberge, Ricardo Guerreiro and Vítor Joaquim) ...... 62
Information for Authors ...... 72
CITAR JOURNAL 3 Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts Editorial Board Revista de Ciência e Tecnologias das Artes ISBN: 978-989-95776-0-2 | ISSN: 1646-9798 Editor / Editor Portuguese Catholic University | Porto Álvaro Barbosa - CITAR/UCP [PT]
The Journal of Science and Technology of the Associate Editors / Editores Associados Arts is a peer-reviewed publication that results Daniela Coimbra - CITAR/UCP [PT] from a commitment of the Research Center for Vítor Teixeira - CITAR/UCP [PT] Science and Technology of the Arts (CITAR) to promote knowledge, research and artworks in the Editorial Assistant / Assistente de Edição field of the Arts. It covers a wide Range of topics Laura Castro - CITAR/UCP [PT] related to the study and practice of Artistic work approached through Science and Technology, Editorial Board / Conselho Editorial including: Ana Calvo - CITAR/UCP [PT] Carlos Villanueva- USC [ES] Aesthetics; Art Theory; Audiovisual Design; Claudia Gorbman - IU.Washington Tacoma [USA] Conservation and Restoration; Cultural Heritage Dimitra Kokotsaki - University of Durham [UK] Studies; Cultural Management; Digital Arts; Gonçalo Vasconcelos e Sousa - CITAR/UCP [PT] Digital Culture; Music Technology; Musicology; Joaquim Azevedo - CITAR/UCP [PT] Performance Studies; Psychology of the Arts; José Abreu - CITAR/UCP [PT] Perception and Creativity. José Augusto Mourão - UNL [PT] José Paulo Antunes - CITAR/UCP [PT] The Journal is published (in hard copy and on-line) Nicole Everaert-Desmedt - FUSL-Bruxelles [BE] by the Portuguese Catholic University, providing Paulo Ferreira-Lopes - CITAR/UCP [PT] a distinctive forum for anyone interested in the Roger Van Schoute - UC- Lovaina [BE] impact which the application of contemporary Yolanda Espiña - CITAR/UCP [PT] Science and Technology is having upon the Arts. Tomás Henriques - FCSH-UNL [PT]
Each issue of the Journal of Science and English Translation and Revision Technology of the Arts is between 80 and 130 Bergen Peck, Nina Makelberge pages long and includes: Editorial Design • Editorial Notes, letters, and discussions of Joana Fernandes Gomes recent topics; email: [email protected] • Five or more feature articles; url: http://artes.ucp.pt/citarj/ • Two or more reviews of events, initiatives and publications;
News and announcements relevant to the CITAR community.
CITAR JOURNAL 4 different research groups, representing multiple Contacts and Information about the Publisher disciplinary interests, have created a unique The Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts academic environment dedicated to envisioning is published by the Portuguese Catholic University. an interdisciplinary dialogue between Arts and Please address any inqueries or information to: Science.
Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts CITAR's mission is to develop activities R&D in Universidade Católica Portuguesa - CITAR the fields of Science and Technology of the Arts Centro Regional do Porto pursuing the following objectives: Rua Diogo Botelho, 1327 4169-005 Porto • To conduct scientific and technology PORTUGAL activity research, theoretical and experimental, in the scientific fields About the Portuguese Catholic University - Science and Technology in the Arts; School of Arts • To support bridges between the arts, The Portuguese Catholic University (Universidade humanities, and sciences; Católica Portuguesa - UCP) was established in 1967 by decree of the Holy See under Concordat • To promote and support human resources Law. UCP has been a pioneer in university formation in its activity field including development in Portugal, introducing new pos-graduated studies; areas of knowledge not previously taught (e.g. business administration and management, food • To foster interdisciplinary, particularly engineering, art and music Studies, etc.). through the development of collaboration projects with other research units; The Portuguese Catholic University was born in the North (Braga), extended to Lisbon, where • Disseminate scientific knowledge in the Rector's office is located, and continued its expertise field, namely through its expansion to Porto, Viseu, Figueira da Foz publications publishing and conference and Sintra. The Porto Regional Centre began organization; its activities in 1978 with the College of Law and comprises, at present, 22 degree programs, • Promote scientific mobility between distributed among the two campuses situated in institution and researchers, national and Porto: The Foz and the Asprela Campus. international;
Located by the “Foz Velha”, The “Foz Campus”, • To develop projects for the community. encompasses five Schools: the “College of Law” ; the “ School of Economics and Management ”, the CITAR's Website: http://artes.ucp.pt/citar/ “College of Theology” , the “School of Arts” and the “Institute of Education ” and offers 8 degree and several post-degree programs.
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About the Research Center for Science and Technology of the Arts (CITAR)
Founded in 2004, the CITAR is an academic Research Center of School of the Arts of the Portuguese Catholics University who foster interdisciplinary collaboration and promote theoretical and applied research in their creative production. The center has extended its activities in 2007 from Digital Arts towards Music Studies, Theory of the Arts and Cultural Heritage Study, Conservation and Management. These
CITAR JOURNAL 5 European Piano --- Sofia Lourenço Schools: [email protected] --- Russian, German and CITAR, Research Center for Science and Technology of the Arts Portuguese Catholic University French classical piano Superior School of Music and Performing Arts interpretation and Porto Polytechnic Institute technique ---
generations. Several studies have shown that it is possible to identify major trends in piano perfor- ABSTRACT mance. These are generally referred to as National The goal of this research is to characterize repre- Piano Schools, due to its strong correlation to par- sentative performances by famous pianists in order ticular characteristics, which seem to share com- to determine main influential trends in performance, mon features within communities of practitioners. derived specifically from traditional piano practices Facets such as aesthetics, technique, historical referred to as National Piano Schools. tradition and chosen repertoire have been studied Previous research (Lourenço, 2005, 2007) has by several researchers (Neuhaus, 1981; Kullak, 1994; shown strong musical correlation of particular char- Leimer & Gieseking, 1998; Timbrell, 1999; Lourenço, acteristics, namely the aesthetic, the technical, the 2005). Overall the main National Piano Schools con- historic and the repertoire. The concept of piano in- sist of three essential branches: the Russian school, terpretation school is a useful concept for analyzing the French school and the German school (Kaiser, the universe of piano performance. Piano pedagogy 1989; Rattalino, 2001). It is acknowledged that these literature of each European National Piano School National Piano Schools are present in most of the pi- has been analyzed together with an empirical audio ano performance practices in the twentieth century analysis of recordings through a check-list survey. and therefore its identification provides a powerful Overall the main National Piano Schools consist of framework to study, understand and raise awareness three essential branches: the Russian school; the of the Europe’s intangible music heritage. German school; the French school. The coexistence of different tendencies in the The identification of National Piano Schools provides tradition of interpretation and technique of clas- a powerful framework of study and an awareness of sical piano is clear. It is common the designation Europe’s elusive music heritage and it main influ- of “Russian School”, “German School”, “Russian ences. Technique”, in terms of defining a certain tradition Furthermore, as pianists use their whole body to en- approach. These descriptions concern preference for hance their communication of the music’s spiritual, general and specific repertoire, characteristic sonor- emotional and dramatic essence, this study also aims ity, tempo, use of pedal, different piano constructors, to contribute into research on performance practice. pedagogical methods, technical-interpretation ap- proaches (use of rubato, polyphonic clearness, etc.). Keywords: European Piano Schools, Typology The concept of piano interpretation school needs to Russian, German, French Piano Schools be questioned and discussed, in an effort of analyti- cal systematization and also as a result of the sub- 1 | Introduction jectiveness, possible within the bounds of the work Almost every pianist is satisfied with his musicality, of art. Being common the designation of “Russian but not with his technique. School”, “German School”, “Russian Technique”, in Margulis, 2006 terms of definition of a certain approach tradition of the general and specific repertoire, characteristic In the beginning of the twentieth century perform- sonority, beloved repertoire, tempo, use of pedal, ers and audiences were used to versatile piano different piano constructors, pedagogical methods, practices originated from distinct nationalities and technical-interpretation approaches (use of rubato,
CITAR JOURNAL 6 polyphonic clearness, etc.), the concept of piano in- Fantasie c-minor KV 475; Beethoven L. v. (1770-1827) terpretation school needs to be questioned and dis- Sonata n. 23 f minor op.57 “Appassionata”; Schubert cussed, in an effort of analytical systematization but F. (1797-1828), Impromptu op. 90 nº3 G flat Major; also as a result of the subjective element, possible Chopin F. (1810-1849), Nocturne in F sharp Major within the bounds of the work of art. Still concern- op. 15 n. 2; Chopin F. (1810-1849), Ballade in g minor ing the piano interpretation school, the privileged op. 23 n. 1; Schumann R. (1810-1856), C-Dur Fantasie relationship master-student (oral tradition of the in- op.17; Liszt F. (1811-1886), Sonata in h minor; Brahms dividual lesson), through the transmitting of certain J. (1833-1897) Variations on a theme by Paganini performing approaches and repertoire selections op. 35; Moussorgsky M. (1839-1881) Pictures of an and through technical resources can support the Exhibition; Albéniz I. (1860-1909), Evocación (Iberia); definition of a certain piano interpretation school. Debussy C. (1862-1918), La Cathédrale engloutie; There will be a final proposition about this concept, Scriabin A. (1872-1915), Poème in F sharp Major op.32 mainly making it more flexible. n. 1; Rachmaninoff S. (1873-1943), Étude-Tableaux The performing art of music is directly connected op. 39 n. 6; Ravel M. (1875-1937), Gaspard de la nuit; to the notation limitation on the score, and also to Prokofieff S. (1891-1953) Visions fugitives op.22 . the work itself. About musical interpretation on the The chosen pianists were Arrau (1903-1991), Backhaus piano, and as Adolph Kullak proposes, Denken und (1884-1969), Busoni (1866-1824), Casadesus (1899- Forschen – das Werk in allen seinen Atomen stud- 1972), Ciccolini, Aldo (1925), Cortot (1877-1962), ieren – alle Schönheitselemente auf bewußtes wis- Jeanne-Marie Darré (1905-1999), Feinberg (1890- senschaftliches Erkennen zurückführen – dies ist die 1962), Fischer (1886-1960), Samson François (1924- Aufgabe(Reflection and Research – get to analyse 1970), Gieseking (1895-1956), Gilels (1916-1985), the musical work in every atom (its smallest ele- Clara Haskil (1895-1960), Ingrid Haebler (1929) ments) – to look for each one of the beauty elements Josef Hofmann (1876-1957), Horowitz (1904-1989), in an organised way – this is the main task) (Kullak, Kempff (1895-1991), Alicia de Larrocha (1923-2009), 1876). In that sense we may state that the musical Vitaly Margulis (1926), Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli text doesn’t always clarify what is essential – it is this (1920-1995), Paderewsky (1860-1941), Perlemuter that a performer shall take out from the score and (1904-2002), Egon Petri (1881-1962), Rachmaninov respective notation. (1924-1970), Richter (1915-1998), Artur Rubinstein (1889-1982), Schnabel (1882-1951), Alexander 2 | Method Scriabin (1892-1915), Vladimir Sofronitzky (1901-1961). The components of expressive performance intend As discussed in the Literature Review, several piano to work as analysis criteria of the various audio ex- studies have shown that it is possible to characterize amples of piano interpretations by many pianists the major trends in musical performance, making representing the various piano schools. The selection it possible to identify three major National Piano of the main representative tendencies, their com- Schools: the German, the French and the Russian parison and consequent definition of “piano school” Schools. will be based on: repertoire, dynamics, agogic pat- Practitioners of each one of these Piano Schools terning, tempo, phrasing and articulation, accents, seem to share common features related to stylistic pedal, textures. parameters, such as tempo, dynamics (loudness), The methodology in order to obtain a Typology articulation, phrasing, among many others. In fact, a of National Interpretation Piano Schools applies a musical performance is more than a literal reproduc- check-list survey according to different musical in- tion of a musical score. If played exactly as notated terpretation components. in the musical score, a piece of music would sound The historical and theoretical context on which the mechanical and expressionless becoming both un- schools are set will be discussed. Once analysed, it is musical and physically impossible for a musician to possible to get to conclusions and objectives; apply- perform. What makes a piece of music come alive ing the same check-list, and despite the difficulties, (and what makes some performers and playing to look for the individuality of each piano interpreta- styles unique) is the art of music interpretation. In tion schools. Available recordings by 19 mainstream fact the unlimited resources for vocal and instru- piano works by 29 pianists who started their piano mental art lie in artistic deviation from the pure, the careers prior to 1950 were analysed. Following are exact, the perfect, the rigid, the even, and the precise the chosen 19 mainstream piano works: (quoted in H.G. Seashore, 1937). D. Scarlatti (1685-1757), Sonata K 322 A Major; J. Therefore, the notated music score is but a small S. Bach (1685-1750), Prelude and Fugue C Major part of the actual music performing process. Not BWV 846; Haydn Franz Joseph (1732-1809), E-Flat every intended gradation can be captured in a lim- Major Sonata, Hob. XVI/49; Mozart W. A. (1756-1791) ited formalism such as common music notation, and
CITAR JOURNAL 7 the composers are well aware of this. The perform- Dynamics Tempo Textures ing artist is a determinative part of the system, and expressive music performance plays a central role Edwin Balanced Stable Clarity in the European musical culture. Musicological re- Fischer dynamics tempo/beat individual search has gradually started to focus on (empirical) (German lines of aspects of expressive performance, since in the past school) polyphonic the vast majority of music research dealt with formal texture theories. Robert Balanced Faster Less voice 3 | Materials and Procedure Casadesus dynamics tempo, in- leading or For this research, three recordings of the 1st move- (French strumental polyphonic ment of Beethoven’s Sonata op. 57, Appassionata school) character, sonority: (specifically bars 1-50, which included Exposition- less vocal importance first and second themes) by Vladimir Sofronitzky, of clear Edwin Fischer and Robert Casadesus were used. jeu perlé Example 1. Beethoven, Sonata op. 57. Appassionata, and souple first movement: first theme (bars 1-9) piano play- ing
Table 1. Beethoven, Sonata op. 57. Appassionata, first movement
Comparing the check-list survey concerning dynam ics, tempo, voice leading, use of pedal, textures (as verified in Table 1), we come to certain conclusions concerning the inter- pretation of this part of the Beethoven piano sonata. Those conclusions can be extended to more general Figure 1. Beethoven, Sonata op. 57. Appassionata, ideas concerning the different “piano interpretation first movement: first theme (bars 1-9) schools”. The most important difference among the three The following recordings are to be used as short pianists of this sample is the result of V. Sofronitzky demonstration of the methodology applied to the (Russian school) who prefers a slower tempo, with extensive check-list survey: Sofronitzky (1901-1961); sudden allargandi (gradually slower tempo), often V. Sofronitzky vol. 7, Arlechino, 1939), E. Fischer changing tempo and making structure clearer. This (1886-1960); Edwin Fischer Plays Beethoven Piano is very clear when we compare the interpretation Sonatas, Pathétique, Appassionata, Emperor, Pearl, of the 2nd theme of the 1st Movement (b. 35 to 39) GEMM CD 9218, 1996, recorded in London, 1935, and :Example 2. Beethoven, Sonata op. 57. Appassionata, Robert Casadesus (1899-1972); Beethoven Piano first movement: second theme (bars 34-40) Sonatas, Sony Classical, SBK 46345, 1990. A sum- mary of the results is presented in Table 1.
Dynamics Tempo Textures
Vladmir Unbalanced Slower Polyphonic Sofronitzky dynamics tempo,vocal sonority (Russian character, with weight School) agogic making pattern- structure ing, sudden clearer, allargandi, showin clar- tempo/beat ity individ- changes ual lines of Figure 2 Beethoven, Sonata op. 57. Appassionata, polyphonic first movement: second theme (bars 34-40)first texture movement: first theme (bars 1-9)
CITAR JOURNAL 8 We must then conclude that the transmission of predominate in the concerts and recitals’ programs the sonata form is made including tempo changes. of these pianists (Timbrell, 1999). This way, predi- Pianists of the Russian school frequently prefer to lection and specialization of this kind indicates a stand for the imaginative and improvising charac- tendency at dynamics level, of the clearness, ingen- ter of their performances, even in the classical style ious simplicity and precision, may be in prejudice of repertoire. dynamic extremes in both contrasting directions of As shown above in Table.1 analysis involved obser- dynamics, that is, in direction to the fortissimo or vation and comparison of three short examples, by to the pianissimo. Predilection and specialization of three pianists of three piano schools in particular this kind indicates a tendency of clearness, ingenious addressing expressive elements like dynamics (cre- simplicity and precision contrasting with dynamics scendo/diminuendo), tempo (use of rubato- changes contrasts (during piano performance often played of beat-, clarity of individual lines of the polyphonic fortissimo dynamics and often played pianissimo texture, agogic patterning, etc), voice leading, phras- dynamics). ing and articulation, use of pedal. Since dynamics scope of harpsichord is very lim- Synthesizing, “While the German musicians focus ited the harpsichord performing tradition has also their interest of musical performing on the side of a predominant role in French music tradition, previ- music architecture, being that their generic struc- ously influencing the dynamics performing options tures point out to a static component in the core of by keyboard music baroque composers. performance (let us think for instance of Busoni’s The option is almost radically opposed when we “architectonic” drawings to elucidate works’ archi- listen to E. Fischer, W. Kempff, or even W. Backhaus. tecture), pianists of Russian tradition have more in- Fischer follows inexorably the same movement all terest on the progress of character of music, or by along 1st movement of Appassionata, and wisely the sequence of internal events.” says Großmann respects the rhythmic units. And he even grounds (Rathert at al. 1998). his principle, since as he himself states in his writings The French school is not very far from some per- on Beethoven, Wie du die drei ersten Achtel spielst, spectives of the German school, as Marguerite Long so mußt du im Tempo weiterspielen. Das Gesetz ist (1874-1966), who was a great apologist of the “un- da schon gegeben, und die Würfel sind gefallen. conditional respect for the text” (Timbrell, 1999), had (Fischer, 1956) which means, as you play the three as main concern, pianism precision, what includes a first quavers, so you must play the rest of the work. total commitment to technical improvement. The jeu The rule has already been settled and the dice are perlé, predilection for the “subtle” pedal, as Yvonne thrown. Léfébure states, preference for a lighter and “insensi- As regards to 1st theme of Appassionata the re- tive” repertoire, are other recognizing characteristics, quest of absolute rhythmic meticulousness makes as belonging to the French piano school. As Daniel it so much more radical, since these three quavers Wayenberg states, her main concern was the pian- that E. Fischer evokes, are effectively express in a ism precision, in her book “Le Piano”, everything is q quarternote+ligature of augmentation to a e+e referred and grounded (Long, 1956). The same thing (semiquaver+semiquaver), defining the main metric can be observed in other testimonies, as for example beat proportion, 12/8. E. Fischer’s predilection for from E. Robert Schmitz “French love for rigour dif- rhythmic rigour and aversion to tempo and pulse fers from the German, as it is less massively concrete, changes, as said before, is reiterated in his writings and more logical, clearer, and easier to understand. on Beethoven, as this delay on movement of 2nd I may even state that these are the qualities that theme [of 1st movement], that is only a metamor- characterize the “French school” of piano, singing, phosis of 1st theme, doesn’t seem correct: on the composition, art, of everything that has its roots in contrary, it is here the place of the Urworten of the French heart and mentality.” (Timbrell, 1999). Goethe, of the laws we must respect and follow, in Referring to Marguerite Long, her disciple Gabriel an equilibrated way (Fischer, 1956). Tacchino states as follows: “Her technique was the Another pianist of German piano school, Wilhelm opposite of the Russian school. Little weight, little Kempff, performing this same sonata shows many sound. But she gave us precious indications on the resonant and polyphonic gradations, but always with French composers’ works.” (Timbrell, 1999). If we some contention, without great exaggerations. As report to the already mentioned “style sévère”, char- example, should be listened very attentively 3rd acteristic that may be followed by various pianists movement of this sonata in his version. The transmis- of the French tradition, from Alkan’s professor (1813- sion of sonata form is made with clarity, without ap- 1888), Zimmermann (1785-1853), to Saint-Säens pealing to great asymmetries of tempo or dynamics. (1835-1921) himself, there is a clear preference for Still in German tradition, the transmission of form works by Hummel, particularly baroque composers, in this performance by Claudio Arrau is remarkable.
CITAR JOURNAL 9 It is a fact that 2nd theme of 1st movement begins Benedetti Michelangeli, who having a musical educa- in a slow and dolce way, the same occurring, in the tion course centred in Italy, and even for the diverse recapitulation, where the 2nd theme is still exposed choice of his repertoire, is little definable as regards in a slower tempo. It seems that Arrau searches for to performing tradition, which is inevitable to ob- the symmetry between regularity and respect for serve, was relatively indifferent to him (namely in Edwin Fischer’s score, agogic and dynamics liberty the sudden changes of movement and time, difficult of Gilels and Richter. to justify out of the context, but also the nuances The number of 13 available recordings of Beethoven of a lowest subtlety). Alicia de Larrocha is also in- Sonata Appassionata op. 57 by pianists who started cluded in this group, much for her course and dif- their artistic career until 1950, and relevant anal- ferent sonorities, but above all for her predilections ysis of this research, contributed to the flexibility of repertoire, predominantly of Spanish composers. Cases become sometimes hybrid or mixed, as a L. V BEETHOVEN( 1770 - 1827) Sonata Nº 23 f mi- result of circulation, determined by various factors, nor op.57 Appasssionata (1st Movement) Tempo already referred. There are conclusions regarding Outline crossings in “Mixed German school”, “Mixed French school”, or still “Other schools” (Lourenço, 2005). This way, affinities and aesthetic influences belong sometimes to different schools, creating unexpected and unique transverse processes, disturbing statis- tics and numerical data.
5 | Conclusion The main conclusion of this work is that piano schools exist, but artistic personalities are placed above. It is possible to ground the existence of na- tional piano schools based in national tendencies of leading performing tradition, gathering pianists at the end of the nineteenth century, beginning of twentieth century. Important is, in fact, the ad- Table 2. Beethoven, Sonata op. 57. Appassionata, equate analytical exercise. Always within a certain first movement performing tradition, piano schools are important as effective model or analytical instrument, as it is in choices and consequent conclusions, because not possible to apply this generic category to each none of these important pianists failed to perform one of the pianist as a genius. Schools are generic Beethoven and provide testimony of Beethoven’s categories that have not always real existence in the music through recording. characterization of each artist. The Russian school believes, once more, in the as- In fact, there are great groups. They are made in a sertion of work’s structure, in slower movements, generic way, containing a very big group of very emphasizing a greater polyphonic clarity. All this diverse artistic personalities. On the other hand, cat- is shown by the performances of Richter, Gilels, egories are not to be mistaken with nationalities. Feinberg and Sofronitzky, in the sampling made. The When we attend a piano recital it is the individual music structure becomes much clear, when playing, artistic personality that stands out and not a certain overlapping melody. Many are the examples pointed piano school. There is still the reality circumstance of out, as for instance, the case of 2nd movement’s the individual career of each international artist, with theme, where the polyphonic line is very perceptible. frequent contact with distinct cultural influences. Example 3. Beethoven, Sonata op. 57. Appassionata, This international circulation of artists with contrast- second movement (bars 1-8) ing performing personalities, always present, also during the first half of the twentieth century, took us to another important observation, regarding the categorization and generic groups that have been referred. As an example we may quote the Russian
Figure 3 Beethoven, Sonata op. 57. Appassionata, school pianists, in their most charismatic representa- second movement (bars 1-8) tives, for instance, as regards to repertoire. While all of them dedicate themselves to the classic, romantic 4 | Discussion repertoire and to works of Russian composers, we Another group, “OTHER SCHOOLS”, includes Arturo think immediately of the name of Sviatoslav Richter,
CITAR JOURNAL 10 as a pianist of universal and eclectic taste, who plays 475, other characteristics are shown, such as the use all the repertoire, including many twentieth century of pedal by Sofronitzky, contrasting with the op- and contemporary works. tion of Gieseking, who almost doesn’t use the right Another important conclusion of this research, is pedal adept of contention in the use of right pedal. that baroque and classical repertoire reveals itself, He uses, by contrast, una corda pedal many times. generally, more defining of the performing interpre- According to pianist Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli tative direction of each pianist. In the universe of “Being a pianist and a musician, is not a profession. the comparative analysis of sampling made in this It is a philosophy, a life conception that cannot be research, it is the case of recordings of works by D. based on good intentions, or natural talent. First of Scarlatti, J. S. Bach, W. A. Mozart, L. v. Beethoven all, it is necessary to have an unimaginable spirit of and F. Schubert. sacrifice” All these great pianists and whose audio In the analysed work of Scarlatti, it is Horowitz register have been previously analysed surely go (Russian school) who chooses a slower tempo, in- with this approach of performing art and pianism spiring a more personalized conception of the work, (www.arturobenedettimichelangeli.net). and less conventional and standard in stylistic terms. Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli prefers to follow a 7 | Future Work more conservative performing style of baroque It would be interesting to study the performance music, with a faster tempo, less agogic patterning style of famous artists who clearly represent each daring and less pedal. Also voice leading is simpler one of the identified European Piano Schools and reminding the harpsichord and dance rhythms. (Lourenço, 2005), and make it available in CD audio C. Haskil stands in a compromise result, as although (or video footage) formats. However, this will depend movement is relatively quick, the agogic pattern- on the availability of computational methods for pre- ing supports, the pedal and clarity individual lines cise music information extraction from audio signals of polyphonic texture are more released and give which is still an open research problem (Tzanetakis, the performance more creativity and imagination 2004; Lagrange et al. 2008). To the present date elements. there has been little research on the subject of per- Prelude and Fugue in C major by J. S. Bach, Book formance observation and assessment, as well as on 1 has been also analysed in the check-list survey. qualitative evaluation of the elements of musical per- S. Richter’s main concern (and also of V. Margulis) formance. There is an agreement that performances is performance in the sense of form transmission. comprise both technical and aesthetic appeal, yet He gives great emphasis to structure, reaching the there are no knowledge of the source from which culminating harmonic points with allargandi or sig- this information is being drawn from when assess- nificant agogic patterning. Edwin Fischer, of German ments are made. Upon the completion of this data school, takes different options, giving more impor- acquisition stage, the objective is to continue with tance to melody and less to structure and form. Thus further research to detect patterns and regularities his preference for a faster tempo, as a slower tempo in the recorded data, that regards sound and gesture gives more clarity to polyphonic lines and structure. and their perception by human observers, which Likewise, Fugue is performed in a slower tempo by may be representative of the particular identified Richter (vocal character, voice and singing) and by European Piano Schools (Lourenço, 2005). Fischer in a faster tempo (musical instrument key- board character, harpsichord). REFERENCES Richter still gives the opportunity to the listener of [1] Barbosa, A. (2006). Computer-Supported following the clarity of individual lines of the pol- Cooperative Work for Music Applications – PhD yphonic texture of Fugue, without giving special Thesis Music Technology Group; Pompeu Fabra prevalence to the theme’s many entries. He manages University, Barcelona, Spain to outline the dialogue between the voices in an or- ganic and attractive way. It may be then remarked [2] Chiantore L. (2001). Historia de la técnica pianís- the “organ” like performance tendency by Richter, tica: un estudio sobre los grandes compositores y el “piano” like performance by Fischer and the in- arte de la interpretación en busca de la Ur-Technik. tended “clavichord voice” performance by Margulis. Madrid: Alianza editorial. Different keyboard musical instruments (organ, pi- ano, clavichord), different sonority and expression. [3] Dahlhaus Carl (1992). Die Musik des 19. Here were expressed some differences between the Jahrhundertts, Vol.6, Laaber, Laaber-Verlag, 1980, Russian school and the German school, regarding 1ª ed. (2nd ed., 1989) the preference for the structure and for the asset in the polyphonic speech. In Fantasy in C minor KV [4] Danuser Hermann (1992). Musikalische
CITAR JOURNAL 11 Interpretation. Neues Handbuch der [17] Monsaingeon Bruno (2002). Sviatoslav Richter Musikwissenschaft, Carl Dahlhaus ed., 11º vol., Laaber, Notebooks and Conversations, trad. Stewart Spencer, 1992 Princeton University Press/Princeton and Oxford, 1998, 3ª ed. [5] Fischer E. (1956). Ludwig van Beethoven’s Klaviersonaten: Ein Begleiter für Studierenden und [18] Neuhaus H. (1981) Die Kunst des Klavierspiels Liebhaber. Wiesbaden: Im Insel Verlag. (5th ed.). Köln, Germany: Edition Gerig
[6] Gondar, Maria Rosa Vilaça (2008). As raízes na- [19] Rathert Wolfgang ed. et al. (1999), Pianisten cionais na metodologia russa de ensino do piano: um in Berlin- Klavierspiel und Ausbildung seit dem 19. contributo para a busca de uma nova pedagogia em Jahrhundert, Berlin, Hdk-Anrchiv, 3º vol., Hochschule Portugal, M.Ed., UMinho der Künste Berlin, Linde Groβmann and Heidrun Rodewald [7] Kaiser Joachim (1989). Große Pianisten in unserer Zeit, Serie Musik, Piper München/Schott Mainz [20] Rattalino Piero (1992), Le grandi scuole pia- nistiche, Milano, Casa Ricordi - Bmg Ricordi S.p.A., [8] Kaiser Joachim (1979). Beethovens zweiund- ( 2ª ed. 2001) dreißig Klaviersonaten und ihre Interpreten, Frankfurt am Main, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag [21] Schnabel Artur (1935). ed. Ludwig van Beethoven 32 Sonatas for the Pianoforte, 2 vols, New York: [9] Kullak A. (1876/1994). Die Aesthetik Simon and Schuster, Inc. des Klavierspiels. Regensburg: ConBrio Verlagsgesellschaft. [22] Tzanetakis George et al. (2004). “Music Analysis and Retrieval Systems”, [10] Lagrange Mathieu, Luis Gustavo Martins, George Tzanetakis (2008), “A Computationally [23] Journal of American Society for Information Science and Technology 55(12) [11] Efficient Scheme for Dominant Harmonic Source Separation”, 2008 IEEE [24] Timbrell C. (1999). French Pianism: A Historical Perspective (2nd ed.). Portland, Oregon, Usa: [12] International Conference on Audio, Speech, and Amadeus Press. Signal Processing
[13] (ICASSP2008), Las Vegas, Nevada, USA Leimer Karl/Gieseking Walter (1931), Modernes Klavierspiel, Schott, Mainz, 1931, 1st ed., rev.1959 (28th ed. 1998)
[13] Long Marguerite (1956). Le Piano, Ed. Salabert, Paris
[14] Lourenço, S., Clemente, M., Coimbra, D., Barbosa, A. and Pinho, J.(2009) Do Pianists play with their teeth? Proceedings International Symposium on Performance Science 2009
[15] Lourenço, S. (2008) Tendencies of piano inter- pretation in the 20th Century: Concept and different types of “piano interpretation schools” in Proceedings International Symposium on Performance Science 2007
[16] Lourenço S. (2005). http://artes.ucp.pt/do- centes/slourenco/t-slourenco.pdf Margulis V. (2001). Bagatelas op. 6, Vila Nova de Famalicão, Quasi Edições.
CITAR JOURNAL 12 APPENDIX German Piano School Genealogy, Russian Piano School Genealogy and French Piano School Genealogy(after Alain Pâris, Dictionnaire des Interprètes et de l’interprétation musicale au XXe siècle, Paris, Robert Laffont, 1982 (2nd ed. 1985)
Russian Piano School Genealogy
CITAR JOURNAL 13 French Piano School Genealogy
CITAR JOURNAL 14 Untitled*
--- Interactive Generative Joana Fernandes Gomes [email protected] --- Installation for Visual Universidade Católica Portuguesa (UCP) CITAR: Research Centre for Science and Technology of the Arts, Portuguese Catho- Compostion lic University. ---
abstract The generative art changed our concepts of image habitat. But like in the living beings those rules can and art. They are so embedded in they way we can be transgressed and the process reacts in a lot of dif- create new visual artistic expression. ferent ways. This unpredictability, typical of complex This paper will present some ideas regarding gen- systems [7], gives the artist the possibility of action erative art and introduce Untitled* , piece developed and results that are beyond the ones he is capable using those principles. of comprehending through his natural systems of perception: vision, touch, smell, etc. Index Terms: generative, visuals, interaction, and col- Before digital media, Ben and John Whitney Laposky laboration. highlighted the capabilities of generative art. In digi- tal media, tools like Processing [9] (Ben Fry and 1 | Introduction Casey Reas) and openFrameworks [10] (Zachary In generative art, the artist sets tasks to the machine, Lieberman and Theo Watson) brought closer artists and establishes in the machine an extension of him/ and designers in developing such projects. Artists herself. Those extensions can be biological or psy- popularized this art through graphic works (Joshua chological [1] [2]. It provides a semi-autonomous Davis and Casey Reas), sculptures (Marius Watz) system [3] [4] where the artist can be the agent that and interactive installations / performances (Christa selects or gives a program the ability to execute a Sommerer and Laurent Mignonneau [11] [12], Golan selection through the rules he builds-in. Levin and Zachary Lieberman, Karsten Schmidt). The The relationship between art and science is very generative processes most often are not exposed close. Generative art is a discipline that values and to the eye of the beholder. Often these processes brings together art and science. From principles of are embedded in the form of interaction with the biology, where we can understand evolutionary con- artwork. Pattie Maes, Christa Sommerer, are names cepts and selection principles [5], and the acquisi- of artists who explore such issues. tion of the external process of the human compre- Thus, the processes and the relations between hu- hension, it allows the creation of artificial replicating mans and machines become closer. The interactions structures that don’t belong to the human domain. become more fluid and adapted. The intelligence Generative art is a branch of artistic practice that of some of those systems allows that each individ- uses resources from biology, mathematics, physics ual gets better responses to his/her/its and more and other scientific fields for its simulations such evolved and optimized actions that are able to generate new paradigms that until then were beyond the artist’s reach. 2 | Generative Art New characteristics such as learning, adaptation and The generative art is an art form widely known within mutations are typical of those systems. Normally, contemporary arts and has gained increasing pres- the most adapted ones perpetuate the skills more ence in the art world. Featuring works in several ar- valuable and desired for the system in that moment. eas, the generative art is still very poorly understood [6] [7] by most people, mainly because it is so comprehen- The rules are the algorithms generated by the artists sive and therefore its efficacy can be very difficult and the rules applied are the parameters that shape for a group meeting with very narrow parameters. the behavior of a certain individual, population and What is generative art? According to Philip Galanter
CITAR JOURNAL 15 “Generative art refers to any art practice where the results. Despite the author’s role to delegate tasks artist uses a system, such as a set of natural lan- to the “machine”, it ceases to have the leading role guage rules, a computer program, a machine, or for the end result. In the case of digital arts such other procedural invention, which is set into motion software becomes a kind of performative extension with some degree of autonomy contributing to or of the artist [15]. resulting in a completed work of art.” [13] This defini- Another issue that causes some controversy over the tion of Galanter was very important for generative generative art is the interest declared by some artists art and is the most accepted and current. Which to do work where the only concern is the aesthetic characteristics are different from a generative art issue. The beauty in contemporary art was eventu- work from any other computer program? Galanter ally perceived as a empty resource and devalued. argued that the difference is in the artist’s decision to The generative art found in the roots of pop art cede part of its control over the piece to an external together with electronic music the possibility to cre- system. That is why these projects will seek its roots ate objects where the primary purpose is aesthetic in the work of conceptual art. The artist transfers factor by itself. Generative art looks for natural forms the function of the construction of the object and and harmonies - where there is a return to nature. decides to give instructions. Just like in the early Already Galanter said, “the universe itself is a genera- days of conceptual art, where artists like Yoko Ono tive system.” [16] The risk of these types of pieces is and Robert Barry defined letters with instructions falling into the “Art of screen savers.” as their artistic works. Each generative work piece is unique for each per- In fact the term generative art is a definition that can formance. Artists like John Cage always incorpo- not be only related to technique. It takes more than rate such features in their work, allowing a state of the form and rules to “build” the art object: it is the constant remaking / rethinking of the work. Despite decisions of the artist on the results generated by the the work being executed for a thousand times, it algorithm developed. One of the difficulties involved always takes the form of something new. Everything in this issue is the fact that it is a technique that can depends on the purpose of the artist. be used by designers, artists, architects, scientists, etc., and so their limits are tortuous. This variety of 3 | State of the Art possibilities turns out to feed much questioning of The generative art as could be observed, is therefore some spectators. The idea of the possibility of unit- a very broad field of art. Its main feature is using ing such diverse work in one branch, lead Galanter mechanisms external to the artist to achieve partly to also realize that: “what generative artists have in autonomous tasks following a set of rules defined common is how they make their work, but not why by the author. Such concepts are not new. We can they make their work or even why they choose to see the use of generative processes already for a few use generative systems in their art practice”. [14] decades. Some works, despite being about 40 years These types of work had great importance for the already have a result very close to what is created current definition of the role of creator / artist. While nowadays on generative digital art. The contribu- developing the code that generates the construction tions of major contemporary artists, Ben Laposky of the work, their role is no longer direct and turns and John Whitney is paramount as they are consid- out to be quite distanced from the final work. As ered the “fathers” of generative art for digital artists. these systems gain their own life, the artist ends up The artist Ben Laposky (1914 - 2000), born in Chero- losing the total control over the subject, contrary to kee, Iowa, was a mathematician and an artist and a what was happening, for example, in more traditional pioneer in computer use in artwork. He was respon- forms of painting or in any other more traditional sible for creating abstract images in the first decade artistic technique. They produce, moreover, the small of the 50’s. In his first experiments he used a device contours and surprisingly unpredictable results giv- called analog oscilloscope Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). ing a special glow to the final object. The possibilities His work, called “oscillons,” were beautiful math- beyond human perception plus a few random acts ematical curves based on the waves used in analog are some of the reasons why these kind of pieces computers. The analog computers were first used in expand (rather than reduce) the role of the artist. He the 20s and were able to perform calculations much gives life to something that has a relative autonomy, faster in a very short time. The technique for building which allows the construction of an object within the the code was a continuous variation of current allow- parameters set. Despite the artist’s distance from the ing calculations in “real time” (unlike the technique work, he is it the one that defines which images are used today by digital computers that makes use of to be presented to viewers. His distant perspective, finite signals). In the 40 analog computers began almost like a god over his world, allows you to see it to be replaced by digital because digital computers and understand it, allowing the selection for its best were much more affordable. The images produced
CITAR JOURNAL 16 were photographed, resulting in a interesting work Marius Watz is a renowned creator of pieces in the both for aesthetic reasons as for technical. It became area of generative art. He began working with soft- an icon for those who appreciate the generative art ware (to create visualization with code) as early because images get organic, elegant and yet simple. as 20 years after starting the course in computer Another very important example is the American graphics. With its graphical and computational abil- animator John Whitney. He and his brother James ity he began to develop projects for Raves while started in the 40s to study moving images, and that doing design projects. was the theme that he worked with throughout his Working in different media, Watz leaves his mark life. He managed to combine success in commercial on generative art’s digital features for his aesthetic work with more experimental work. One of the best- choices and their presentations in large formats known works was the result of the introduction to (such as presented in Sao Paulo at the center “Itaú the film “Vertigo” by Alfred Hitchcock. Cultural on July 18, 2006). Marius is the symbol of In the 60s he formed a company, which specialized new artists who work with the new brushes of the in making computer animations made for commer- digital age. The line of a code gives an almost magi- cial facilities, an innovative type with an analog com- cal power to the artist that does not depend only puter. In 1966 he began working on digital computers on their drawing skills or representation. The art- in residence at IBM that lasted three years. It was ist embraces the unexpected and everything that during his entire career as constant innovator that can go beyond the human mind, resulting in works lead to increasing levels of complexity and toachiev- that are constantly changing. None of his works are ing what he called “harmonic progression.” presented twice. Every presentation is a new and Both of artists were extremely important for the unique experience. development of generative processes, as was the In “Drawing Machines 1-12” Marius shows the flow potential they could detect and use in their projects of information in the server of the Norwegian gov- that charmed digital artists. The way we studied ernment, distinguishing between micro and macro the movement and behavior of the particles was structures of information transfer. The result is a con- also essential in the study of visual processes gen- stantly changing construction with a visual result in erated through generative systems. References are 2D images. This project was developed to Odin, a important mainly for artists who seek proceeding public space, lasting two years. harmonics based particles. Particularly interested in systems creation and ma- Nowadays, artists like John Maeda, Marius Watts, nipulation of sound and image, Golan Levin creates Golan Levin, Zachary Lieberman, Ben Fry and Casey performances and innovative digital systems through Reas, Joshua Davis and many more are popularizing dialogues between man and machine. He and his these types of work. staff create highly innovative and aesthetic works, which always go beyond the expected boundaries and interlinks of digital media. A renowned artist, through the creation of many interactive and engaging works, Golan is responsible for making generative art a little more tactile and fun. With several work recognized, Levin creates projects Figure 1.: Maeda’s projects that go beyond the aesthetic, but always take into special consideration that part of the project. With John Maeda and his colleagues in the Aesthetics extremely complex interactive processes that are + Computation Group (ACG) were the first to ad- transmitted to the user in a straightforward manner, vocate the use of computers as a tool in creating without much explanation needed. objects of art and design. At that time many argued Golan creates projects that can fulfill all the points that the computer processes distort, easing through that a project should contain. It is also known for his the copy-paste and other techniques, the creation collaborations with famous artists such as Zachary process and thus generating failures caused by lack Lieberman and Fry (among many others). of process, intensity and rigor. Contrary to what the analog purists defended, the A 2003 performance, which is a collaboration of work (including Paul Rand, graphic designer) that Golan Levin, Zachary Lieberman, Jaap Blonk and the computer has brought the arts further developed Joan La Barbara, uses speech, shouts and music the processes of creation. generated by two opera singers to create interactive Some of the students of John Maeda are now very visualizations. With an extremely interesting result important. They include: Golan Levin, Jared Schiff- in terms of communication between performers, man, Casey Reas and Ben Fry. this system is a reference in the field of art. Inspired
CITAR JOURNAL 17 by the relationship between the song lyric (from which comes the name messa di you which is the name given to a singing technique where there is a gradual crescendo and decrescendo always in the same pitch) and visual creation, the performers cre- ate a variety of particles ranging in terms of size and movement, which can then be changed again according to the settings of the artist on the forms
Fig.Figure 4. Reas’s 4: Reas’s Tissue Tissue Collection Collection
Figure 2: Golan’s projects who follow this branch of the digital arts. If the digi-
tal art is itself a component that seeks new ways of presentation of artistic works, the generative art previously created. During the performance artists is the result of this arduous process. The result is were able to create different visual representations. the variation, always falling back on processes sup- This project resulted in an installation presented later ported by digital means. also called “Messa di voce”. Thus, digital generative processes support many of Casey Reas, well known designer and artist is one of those pieces that we know today. Even if they later the creators of Processing (programming software gain different means, the process always involves a for artists) and one of the pupils of John Maeda. He digital state since it is an interesting way to create studied design at the University of Cincinnati, which semi-autonomous systems. he left for MIT where he studied with Maeda and met An interesting example is the work of Casey Reas his co-worker Ben Fry. entitled “Tissue Collection”. In this work, Reas starts His work is based on the construction of art objects with generative algorithm (able to build various digi- by algorithms, i.e. art through code. Currently his tal visual representations) from which he removes works refer to works such as Sol LeWitt, search- results for printing a collection of clothes. This work ing concepts developed by the vanguards of the shows how generative art is not (nor in digital arts) 60s as minimalism and conceptualism. With work a resource used exclusively in digital media. Other (Software) Structures 2004 it relates to software art important artists of this area also explored the gen- and conceptual art. One question that arises is: “Is erative processes for the production of artifacts is the history of conceptual art relevant to the idea of Marius Watz. From a generative algorithm generated software as art?” Having built three possible struc- a set of prototypes of statues carved with Rapid tures, Reas offers new interpretations. Prototyping technology that resulted in the so-called Ben Fry in his work reflects how much he is inter- Object # 1. ested in data visualization, resulting, in general, in Contrary to what is apparent at first glance, the proposals for new forms of data presentation. generative techniques in the work of digital arts are extremely remarkable, though often other finer as- 4 | Outside of the Digital Media pects of the project disguise them.
5 | Untitled* Developed originally at Music Technology Group (Universitat Pompeu Fabra) with the creators of re- FigureFig. 3. Visualizations 3: Visualization by Ben by Fry Ben Fry acTable [17] and later at CITAR (Portuguese Catholic University of Oporto) this project is an interactive As we can see along this little analysis of generative installation based on a generative system. Through art, the context in which such projects appear is ex- movement of the user’s hands and of other objects tremely attached to the need to generate new ways visual compositions are created, which establish a of producing art objects. Contrary to what some very direct and intuitive relationship between the may believe, the generative art is not an empty form. work piece and user; very typical of a tangible in- The process observed in the vanguard of the ‘60s, terface (TUI). where artists reject everything that was perceived as Each object creates shapes / particles that reflect traditional, is one of the main justifications of those the drawing of the object placed on the table, for
CITAR JOURNAL 18 example, when the user lands one object on the according to the rotation of the object around itself. table with the shape of a square the forms gener- iii) the speed is associated with movement of the ated will be squares, circles when the generator is generator on the tabletop. In other words, when a circle, and so on. the object moves faster, the greater is the speed of In addition to producing the particles, the objects particles generated; also modify parameters of the particles. Turning the iv) lifetime (from 0u to 100u). Represented through generators around themselves alter the size of par- particle’s transparency. Each unit of life added, the ticles created; if we shake the object more or less greater becomes the degree of transparency of that quickly we change the speed of displacement of particle. When the transparency is 100 the particles the particles. dies. Another transformation possible is related to the color of objects. Each time a new object is placed on the table, a color wheel appears around it. When the user’s finger is positioned over the wheel it assigns a new color for the articles. But not all objects create forms/particles. Some shape the surface with features such as: (1) attrac- tion of particles for a given location (imam) and (2) Figure Fig. 6. Untitled* 6: Untitled* Objects/Generators Objects/Generators expulsion preventing them from moving for a given area (barrier). With the fingers on the tabletop the v) the direction is random (except when a tool or user can shape the surface causing the particles to fingers modify/define a new direction). move to a given position or in a certain direction and velocity. When the particles are within a certain TOOLS: range of the user’s finger they assume finger speed, Each tool has a function. They are: direction and position. i) the imam attracts particles to its center. They are This relationship established by the user with the inside the tools (maintaining age, speed, size and surface and the composition is even more interest- color) allowing an explosion of particles when the ing when performed in a group with multiple users object is removed from the table; (in collaboration). ii) the eraser that removes particles from the visual composition GENERATORS AND PARTICLES iii) the barrier that prevents particles from moving Generators are objects that are displaced at the to certain regions of the composition. The tool’s range of action is determined by the rota- tion of the object into itself. All work was carried out with free tools (open- source): Processing was used to create the graph- ics. TUIO [18] is the protocol and reacTIVision [19] is responsible for computer vision. This project aims to create an interesting and graphic display that results from the interaction of multiple users. Based on the established generic forms, this is another project within the generative aspect. The use of generative algorithm is serving to define the
Figure 5: Untitled* at Serralvesth on 30th July 09 characteristics of the particles by treating them as Fig. 5. Untitled* at Serralves on 30 July 2009 beings who respect some parameters such as: life- time, direction, speed, color… tabletop and that are able to generate particles. In general, each time a new generator is added: 6 | Setup i) The color is black. Can be changed through move- ment of the finger used around the object. The finger movement only changes the color of the particles generated from that moment on. The color projected onto the center of color wheel represents the color that is being assigned at that time to the particles; ii) the size of the particles changes according to the Figure 7: Image showing the tools in use sound analyzes (FFT) and is proportionally altered Fig. 7. Image showing the tools in use.
CITAR JOURNAL 19 Untitled* is based on a tabletop system. In- side the table is a sys- tem equipped with a video projector, a webcam, four sets of Figure 8: Untitled* overview infrared LEDs and a Fig. 8. Untitled* overview mirror (see Fig. 9). Developed by the reacTable Team, this systems is
optimized for a computer system software called reacTIVision which is capable of recognize the fi- ducials glued on the bottom of each object. Each fiducial retrieves for the system information about FigureFig. 4. Espaço 10: Space the object that is on top of the table. The camera behind the tabletop is cable of seeing trough the tion are being addressed in a enjoyable way. semi-transparent surface and identifies which ob- Another important aspect is that during the time ject is on the table, the rotation and position. The when people gather around the table a sort of tie information is transmitted through the application between them is created, resulting in a very interest- developed in Processing that will generate the pro- ing collaboration. jection that is presented on the surface of the table. ACKNOWLWDGEMENTS 7 | The Goal The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance The goal of Untitled* is to make a visual stimulus on and support of the advisor Álvaro Barbosa. This re- the user and call the attention to a simple way to ex- search is supported by FCT (SFRH/BD/61298/2009) periment with visual composing. The user interface and co-financed by POCI 2010 and FSE is at the same time exploring an easy and fun way to REFERENCES [1] Mcluhan, H.M. (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: The New American Library
[2] Walter, B. (2008). “The Work of Art in the Age of Technical Reproduction.” Belknap Press
[3] Todd, S. & Latham, W. (1992). Evolutionary Art and Computers. Academic Press. Figure 9: Inside the installation [4] Whitelaw, M. (2004). Metacreation, Art and Ar- experiment with this visual generative system. Due tificial Life. Cambridge: MIT Press to the possibility of connecting the particles reaction Fig. 9. Inside Untitled*: the setup with sound, this work is also oriented for live visual [5] Dawkins, R. (2006). The Selfish Gene. New York: performance in music concerts. Oxford University Press Fig. 5. Untitled* at Serralves on 30 th July 2009
8 | Experience [6] Holland, J. H. (1992). Adaptation in Natural and Over the period that this installation was presented, Artificial Systems. MIT Press different reactions from different audiences were observed. When presented in Ciclo Arte e Novas [7] Principe, J.C. Keynote speaker. Tecnologias (CANT), this work sought to draw the Gouyon, F., Barbosa, A., Serra, X. (Ed.), Proceedings attention of those who are not in contact with this of the 6th Sound and Music Computing Conference union of art and technology and to give them knowl- edge through a free and intuitive way. [8] Galanter, P. (2003). What is generative art? Com- Initially, this piece seems to be just a fun game with plexity Theory as a Context for Art Theory. New York: objects on a table. Gradually, however, the game Interactive Telecommunications Program, New York starts to become an aesthetic experience. The col- University. ors, shapes, location and movement of the particles are concerns that arise. Concepts of visual composi- [9] Processing retrieved from http://www.pro-
CITAR JOURNAL 20 cessing.org
[10] OF retrieved from http://www.openframe- works.cc
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[16] Galanter, P. (2003). What is generative art? Complexity Theory as a Context for Art Theory. New York: Interactive Telecommunications Program, New York University.
[17] Jordà, S. & Geiger, G. & Alonso, A. & Kaltenbrun- ner, M. “The reacTable: Exploring the Synergy be- tween Live Music Performance and Tabletop Tangi- ble Interfaces”, Proceedings of the first international conference on “Tangible and Embedded Interaction (TEI07). Baton Rouge, Louisiana
[18] Kaltenbrunner, M. (2009) reacTIVision and TUIO: A Tangible Tabletop Toolkit, Proceedings of the ACM International Conference on Interactive Tabletops and Surfaces (ITS2009). Banff, Canada.
[19] Kaltenbrunner, M. (2009) reacTIVision and TUIO: A Tangible Tabletop Toolkit, Proceedings of the ACM International Conference on Interactive Tabletops and Surfaces (ITS2009). Banff, Canada.
CITAR JOURNAL 21 --- Christine Beirão [email protected] --- Universidade Católica Portuguesa (UCP) Luiz Costa: CITAR: Research Centre for Science and Technology of the Arts, Portuguese Catho- lic University. In Commemoration --- Henrique L. Gomes de Araújo of the Fiftieth [email protected] --- Universidade Católica Portuguesa (UCP) Anniversary of His CITAR: Research Centre for Science and Technology of the Arts, Portuguese Catho- Death lic University. ---
abstract can this be which transforms one’s death into the This text is dedicated to the commemoration of the event of its own rebirth? It certainly does not come fiftieth anniversary of the death of the composer, from the linear, predictable organisation of physical pianist and teacher Luiz Costa (S. Pedro do Monte time. It is rather the extraordinary power of an eter- de Fralães, 1879 – Porto, 1960). The preface begins nal, circular time. Of a time which revealed itself in by clarifying the meaning of commemoration as a multiple instances of life which is now closing and, ritual. The text is divided into two parts. The first, as a result, being reborn. It is an authentic human anthropologic in nature, undertakes the problems holy manifestation with divine talents. As if, in these involved in the construction of the identity of Luiz moments, this eternal time showered itself with gifts Costa as a person and as an artist within the more in the form of blessings. Visually, these appear to general question of this construction emerging from humans – and for this reason, one part is destined the anthropological themes of birth, suffering, love to be exchanged, thus avoiding war or ending con- and death. The second, musicological part demon- flict between them, making their co-existence (co + strates that events and circumstances in the life of existence) a possibility. From the secret, mysterious an artist can leave their marks on his works. Some aspect, being divine, these gifts are holy – and as characteristic compositions of Luiz Costa are ana- such nobody should touch them so that they can lysed with the intention to gain information about be kept and, thus, transmitted in their pure form to the mind and character of the man and the artist future generations. It is this holy nature of the gifts that he was. which seals the gap between personal and com- munal memory and makes commemoration (co + Keywords: Luiz Costa; anthropology; time; gift; com- memory) necessary as a form of social group ritual. positions; artistic identity On 7th January 1960, Mestre Luiz Costa, composer, PREFACE pianist and teacher, died in his “Casa da Paz”, nº What does it mean to commemorate someone’s 53, in Porto. Today, fifty years on, the need to com- death? It means to commemorate an event: their memorate his life and work is reborn. death as a birth or, equally so, their rebirth (re+birth). Death is an inevitable fact and, in this sense, abso- PART I – The Themes of Birth and Death in the lutely foreseeable. Insomuch as it is so predeter- Construction of the Identity of an Artist mined by the laws of nature, beside its date, which is unpredictable, it contains little that is surprising, 1 | Introduction : the Anthropology of Art unexpected or transcendent. It is, in its logical ex- The point of view of this text is that of the anthro- planation, made up of the shadows and silences of pology of art or, more precisely, the anthropology its own funeral. But its rebirth, no. It is something of music. What is the objective? To clarify the sym- for which there is no guarantee, at the outset, for bolic meaning of a composer’s work, in light of the what will happen, as it does not entirely depend contexts through which his life is shaped and the upon the one who is to die. It is truly a happen- performance of the respective interpreters. ing and is, as such, made of light and of sound. It This viewpoint is not a peaceful one, in so far as that emerges, slowly or suddenly, but always unpredict- the artist himself tends to reject it. In truth, the latter ably, from the chain of predictable facts. A power perceives the anthropologist as one who underval- is born which allows it to burst forth. What power ues or even scorns his exceptional gift, his “genius”
CITAR JOURNAL 22 (greater or lesser), while “explaining it” in a simpli- jects, is there not a “cosmic time” [6], independent fied and prosaic manner, from the context of the of this same consciousness? production and fruition of the work. However, the And will it not be between these two times – the epistemological reality is something else. “lived” and the “cosmic” - that is generated the ten- If it is true that anthropology possesses the analyti- sion which enables “the music to open into the mys- cal, digital, diachronic and syntactical language of terious” [7] and that in it “we hear the unspeakable science, it is also more and more evident that it is relating to us and the world”? [8] also gifted with the synthetic, analogical, synchronic It is not in this tension that music exists as a pro- and metaphorical language of art. The former, domi- jection of timelessness and duration “where music nant in anthropological history, tends to create an exists as a being-in-the-world, being-with-other and “objective” view of the artist as a social actor taken being-in-the-face-of-mystery? [9] Does it not offer as a “distant“ and different other. The latter, as in- us “a (mysterious) order between us and time” [10] , novator, seeks to create a comprehension (com + time “which destroys us and invents us”? [11] prehension) of the human being – which the artist The hypothesis formulated here is that the power of is also – as someone “close”. the artist in the creative process and in the construc- tion of his identity together with the interpreters In summary: anthropology is not only a social and and the listeners, resides in eternal time (outside of cultural science, but is, of itself, art [1]. “cosmic” and “lived” time) that, thanks to his creative gifts and to the work of composition and interpre- 2 | Time, Music and the Temporality of its tation, is present in the instance of every moment Contexts within the creation of his musical work. [12] The theoretical problem arising is that of the process By which processes can the construction of the iden- through which one may construct the identity of a tity of a composer from Porto and the Baixo-Minho, musician, as a human being and as an artist. As a as is the case of Luiz Costa in the first half of the human being, it is constructed using the four great twentieth century, be verified? This is the concrete anthropological themes present in the members of set of problems of this text. any culture and in any historical time: birth, suffer- Critics and musicologists seem to converge on one ing, love and death. As a musician, the identity is point: the “bucolic”, “nostalgic” or “melancholic” na- constructed – together with the interpreters of his ture of much of the pure music and programme of works and the listeners – thanks to the specific ar- Luiz Costa, discussing the love of the composer for tistic gifts which are present in the instant of each nature as the source of inspiration for his work. This moment of creation of his works. is their point of arrival. What distinguishes this analogic “double” – human / As an anthropologist, this is, for me, the departure musical being – from others, is that of the intimacy of point for a more general question: how does the mu- the resonant language as emotional language of the sic of Luiz Costa acquire direction for its interpreters human being (and of its communities) with the musi- and listeners? Only through his love for the nature cal language of the composer and their interpreters. of his native land? It is, thus, musical time, simultaneously mathemati- cal and sensitive, to which we are now drawn into 3 | The Theme of Birth in the Construction listening [2]. I mean by this that it is not only the of the Identity of Luiz Costa composer, the interpreter and the listener as social A family memory tells us that, one autumn morning, actors that are in play in the construction and deci- the boy Luiz was being driven by his father António pherment of the musical sense of a musical piece of Ferreira da Costa, Jr., while being held in the arms work. It is also them as human beings, more instinc- of his arms of his mother Adozinda Amélia from the tively, with their own language – temporal, intrinsic house of Quinta da Porta in the Baixo-Minho(where to themselves as beings: the language of sounds. on 25 September 1879 he was born), to the parochial Thus, would not Heidegger, say, on the subject of church of St Peter do Monte de Fralães to be bap- musical time, that, this is also a how (Wie), a change tized ‘Luiz António Ferreira da Costa’. [13] The ox that happens in the being there (Dasein) of each cart which carried them passed over neighbouring of the actors, all of them beings-in-the world (In- lanes, winding over the hillsides. It was here that he der-Welt-sein) and, in this sense, beings-with-one- would return all through the rest of his life. In Ger- another (Mit-einander-sein)? [3] many he continued his studies at the expense of his We face three forms of “time lived” [4], as they uncle Miguel Joaquim Gomes Pinto, [14] who had a pass by the composer, the interpreter(s) and the house in the neighbouring district of Viatodos. And, listener(s) [5]. Furthermore, beyond this mathemati- whether in his native land, or in Germany, he would cal time lived through the consciousness of the sub- take long walks through nature. He grew both as an
CITAR JOURNAL 23 artist and as a human being during his many strolls my family, used to go to Caldas das Taipas in the thought both the German forests and the Minho summers of the fifties and sixties (how he felt the countryside. Minho countryside to be “humble” (sic)) – which, said The figure of the composer walking in and with the by the author of Selva gives us one more compara- countryside, condenses into a triple visual and sound tive means of expression. image: that of the “iconic and sonorous countryside”, One thing stands out from this countryside, thus whose shapes and sounds are generated by mul- diversely described: its place in time is not only tiple movements of objects both inanimate (slow) geological, biological, historical, economic and so- and animate (rapid, including human beings); that of cial, but also religious. Incorporated within are not the artist himself, repeatedly crossing this seasonal only ordinary shapes (homes, threshing-floors, etc) scene, [15] observing it and listening to it; and that and sounds (bleating, birdsong, singing, etc.), but of his music, whose shapes and melodies eventually also sacred shapes (churches) and sounds (church express the order of play, between the composer bells, etc.), values and symbols (crosses, etc.) The and time, that this “iconic and sonorous countryside” resonance of this countryside in the composer, is has inspired in him. In other words: the composer intimately impregnated with biblical metaphors of transposes, in his own way, into musical expression water, bread, vines and wine, which inform his reli- the resonance [16] that the countryside reverberates gious education. within him. A former musical student, [17] one day wrote the 4 | The Theme of Death in the Construction following testimony: “(Luiz Costa) nurtured in us a of the Identity of Luiz Costa deep respect for nature. He advised his students to In 1934 his only male offspring, Luíz, took his vows go for long walks in the woods and fields, listening in the Companhia de Jesus. Totally dedicated, after to the wind in the cornfields, the singing of the birds, a certain point in time, to the cause of the sancti- the murmur of streams and all the sounds of the fication of the Beato João de Brito, he contracted countryside, which, as they cross over mountains exantematous typhoid in the Alentejo, dying , in 1939, and valleys, feed the artistic imagination.” in the Brotéria, in Lisbon. What kind of countryside was this, the Baixo Minho From the Cartas de um Religioso [23] published by (Lower Minho), from the end of the nineteenth cen- the family in 1940, there are three examples which tury to the middle of the twentieth century? It was a serve as keys to the understanding of the resonance land of water, cornfields and vines. [18] It was sung of this “double death” in the work of Luiz Costa. In about by poets such as António Correia de Oliveira, the first, written from Porto in 1932, “Despedida”, [19] it was described by writers such as Antero de Luiz Moreira de Sá e Costa writes: Figueiredo [20] who left us, when speaking of the Minho at about the time of 1918, “inner” portraits I have just had dinner – the last with my own before such as this: “The Minho, small and gentle (---) is soft leaving all this… with the green of the cornfields, the beanfields, the On the outside – they were all most heroic. vegetable gardens, the damp meadows soaked in On the inside – we cried a great deal. slithers of water, smooth and shiny, like silver plat- The cross weighs heavy; nobody can imagine how ters (…) On the small farms can be seen, among the heavy it is – those who stay and who goes… grapevines, the whiteness of modest homesteads, But it is the Lord who puts it there, we follow the with threshing-floors in the sun, beside stacks of path. corn, wheat and barley, with their tops of thatched And in the end it is this cross which will surely give crosses, which, with the granite on top of the bas- Happiness to whomsoever goes and stays. kets and doors of the roofs with the two waterways, I write in haste, but with all my heart. I am thinking protect the Christian household – people and cattle.” of you all. [21] Miguel Torga spoke, by way of contrast, at the end of the XX century as the Tras-os-Montes man In the second, addressed to his parents, “Aos Pais”, he was, of this “Green bower, where alone is born in the same year, but from the Mosteiro (Monastery) and where grows the modest praying mantis inca- de Alpendurada, he writes: pable of conceiving of the forms of rebellion (…) and of the reality of a small dancing neighbour, limited Everything I imagined to be good about the religious physically and psychologically by the garden walls. I life, I have found here, becoming greater than I could would like to show him to the country free of distrust, ever have imagined! rumour and meanness. I would like him uncommonly The horizons are full of purity, expanding indefinitely grand in body and soul.” [22] I am reminded of Fer- before us. We have the sensation of a new clarity and reira de Castro who told me – the person who, with it is not clear where this is leading. (…)
CITAR JOURNAL 24 The power of prayer is awesome, before which all concerts of the Orpheon Portuense during the time the armies of the Earth are nothing (...). of his post as director of this institution. There is Therefore, I ask them that, remembering this, if they praise of the great service Luiz Costa has rendered shed tears, they shall be ones of contentment and his country as a piano teacher, being Professor at remembrance. the Oporto Conservatoire which his father-in-law, Bernardo V. Moreira de Sá, had founded in 1917, and The third, entitled “Entrevista com a Rainha Senhora which he presided in 1933/34 as its director. Finally, D. Amélia”, from 1937 and also written to his parents, there are mentioned the compositions of Luiz Costa. “Aos Pais” from the Jesuits residence in Paris, tells But only in a few cases, some distinguishing ob- of the reception that he was given, at his request, in servations concerning the works have been made: the Château Bellevue in Le Chesnay, near Versailles. in 1999 by Sérgio Azevedo, [24] in 2000 by Bruno In a form of preamble, he says: Caseirão, in his text written for a CD of the pianist Bruno Belthoise, [25] and in 2009 by João-Heitor On my journey, thinking of the extraordinary good Rigaud [26] and by Bruno Belthoise. [27] that She (the Queen) has done in Portugal (…), in her great work in aiding tubercolosis, in her protection 2 | What we know about the Life and Nature of artists, in her personal visits to the slums, during of Luiz Costa the calumny, on the assassination of her Husband, There is nothing to blame about the biographic of her Son, on the fall of the throne, in exile, on the sketches in CD booklets and articles. We do not have sudden death of the last remaining Son. any monograph written about Luiz Costa, most of his works are unpublished and, consequently, only And at the right moment, he tells his parents: a few of them have been recorded. The main sources giving information about the (The Queen) wanted to tell me of her vocation, if life and nature of this important artist of Northern she was happy; then it was my turn to speak of my Portugal are the articles of his former pupil Luís justice: I was in my element as apostulate: I spoke d’Albuquerque Couto dos Santos, [28] published with enthusiasm. When I said: I was right! (…). She, in 1950, and that of his friend the doctor Hernâni then (…) said vaguely and longingly: “That’s it! You Bastos Monteiro, [29] published in 1960. In an essay were right! How happy I am and how good it feels to from 1994, containing suggestions how to familiar- hear it! And then: “but your Parents! Your Parents!” I ize middle school students with the composer Luiz told her then that I was the only son. She raised her Costa, José Manuel Freitas [30] has enriched those hands to her head and said: “Ah! My God! The only informations by an impressive amount of source ma- one! That really hurts! terial. Most interesting is the essay of Couto dos At that, I told her of my parents’ generosity, of their Santos, who not only describes the musical situation accompanying me at my Novitiate, of how much the in Porto at the time to underline the significance separation hurt them, but they never tried to stop of Luiz Costa as an artist, teacher, composer and me; and She repeated: how beautiful, how beautiful! cultural manager, but also tries to draw a picture of his character. He mentions his patiency, competence What most strikes one when he is remembered is, and efficiency as a teacher, his selflessness, modesty nevertheless, that he is present by his absence in and honesty, his calm serenity, profound serious- all the biographical notes of his father, Luiz Costa. ness and radiant kindness. We understand that the pianist, with all the qualifications necessary for mak- PART II – What Works can tell about their Creator ing an international career, sacrificed this chance in favour of his country and his family. In 1926 he also 1 | Introduction: Sources about the Life and turned down an invitation to teach at the College Personality of Luiz Costa of Music of Cincinnati. But – so we may interject as The informations given in booklets of CDs containing critical readers – how do we know that it was indeed works of Luiz Costa, or those about his life and work, a sacrifice which Luiz Costa offered his music-loving seem to have been taken from one or two sources compatriots, when he decided to set up a home, a only. All these texts tell us about his studies with family and a piano class? Was it really selfless to stay Bernardo Valentim Moreira de Sá in Porto, and with at home, to continue the work his father-in-law had Ansorge, Busoni, Vianna da Motta, and Stavenha- begun and to compose more than a hundred pieces gen in Berlin and Munich. They mention his playing of music? The life of Luiz Costa as an internationally as a soloist as well as together with famous artists well-known artist would have included exhausting in Portugal, Spain and England, and his invitations travels through the world, having to stay far from of many artists, even more famous, to play in the home for weeks or months. He would have had to be
CITAR JOURNAL 25 tough and sometimes insensitive against hostile crit- – ‘Though clearly influenced by the French impres- ics or malevolent audiences. Possibly he had thought sionist school, many passages in Luiz Costa’s music of all this. Or perhaps, on the contrary, he had felt are deeply imbued with nature, particularly the Min- clearly that his mission was to set up a piano school ho region […], giving his music a distinctive identity and to develop further the idea of creating a national with highly individual characteristics’. [38] style in musical composition, as Bruno Caseirão [31] We must admit that we do not learn much from such assures us that this was one of the principal concerns information about the exact individual character of the composer attended to. Luiz Costa’s music. But since neither do we know Having to admit that we know little about the man much about the ideas and ambitions of the com- Luiz Costa, what information about his works do poser himself, we nevertheless have to resort provi- we have? sionally to his works to find out something about the way he thought and felt. (The artist’s estate, which 3 | What we know about the Compositions includes his personal documents, is still waiting to of Luiz Costa be analysed and – possibly – edited.) I am convinced On the occasion of the festivity on May 8th, 1950, that his works do not only reflect the frequently when Luiz Costa received the Goldmedal of Artistic mentioned scenery of the region of Minho, where Merit by the City of Porto, the young critic Fernanda he was born, but also the character and mind of Cidrais wrote in a published commentary: ‘Art with- the composer. out great surprises, rather reflecting a contemplative soul, absorbed in the calmness of a lake of clear and 4 | Some outstanding Works still waters, sometimes slightly ruffled by a breeze The life of Luiz Costa seems to have passed, to a which arises to give its customary periods of rest great extent, in a fortunate way; alternating between more solemnity. Of this kind are the compositions industrious work and the pleasant hours and days of Luís Costa.’ [32] Even if we take into account that spent with his family. The daughters, Helena and Fernanda Cidrais at that time had only just begun Madalena, well-known musicians like their parents, to write notes on music and that she probably did confirm this in their respective memoirs. [39] In the not know more compositions by Luiz Costa than rough sketch of the course of his life that we are able had been performed at the event, those words can to draw only few sad events stand out: the death of nevertheless be taken for what they were intended his father António Ferreira da Costa (1912), that of to be: a rough summarizing view on the (at that time his father-in-law Bernardo Valentim Moreira de Sá not quite complete) works of the composer. (1924), of his mother Adosinda Amélia Gomes Pinto As late as 1995, Maria Teresa Macedo, having studied da Costa (1926) and, the most terrible blow for the piano first with Luiz Costa and later with his daugh- whole family, the death of his son Luís (1939). ter Helena Sá e Costa, has written in the booklet of At least two of those incidents [40] seem to have a CD with music of Luiz Costa: ‘His musical dialect found their reverberation in the musical works of is smooth and without too sharp turns. The inti- Luiz Costa: in 1925 he composed Canção Triste, for mate lyricism and serene poetry that flows from his piano, and probably in 1939 or 1940 the third move- compositions are not immune to dash, splendour ment, ‘Adagio’, of the Sonata op. 11 for Violoncello and drama on many occasions.’ [33] In addition to and Piano. These compositions stand out in the list these words, the booklet includes a short descrip- of works – being two of the few pieces with unam- tion concerning the sequence of subjects in every biguously sad contents. single movement of the works recorded on the CD. There are a lot of pieces sounding melancholy or In general, all the short texts in the CD booklets and nostalgic, like ‘Pelos Montes fora’, ‘Solidão dos Cam- the prefaces to editions of musical scores use the pos’, ‘Cantares ao longe...’, and many more; but only same vocabulary to characterize Luiz Costa’s music: Canção Triste is bearing already in its title a clearly – ‘an extensive, bucolic, nostalgic lyricism, very near sad connotation. The little piano piece of only 22 the most profound roots of lusitanism’; [34] bars was published in O Commercio do Porto Il- – ‘some influence of French impressionist school’; lustrado of the year 1925, the Christmas edition of [35] O Commercio do Porto. These special issues of the – ‘the ambience of the north of Portugal … [influ- newspaper, that existed until 2005, generally con- enced] the titles and sonorities’; ‘rural atmospheres tained a short, simple piece of music. Neither this re- […] are present in many pieces in an intimate way quirement nor the seasonal/religious aspect (Christ- and described with profound lyricism and nostalgic mas) would have prompted a composer to write a flavour’; ‘as a sound painter of the environments of ‘canção triste’. So it seems quite probable that Luiz his land, Luiz Costa was also a patriot’; [36] Costa composed it in memory of his father-in-law. – ‘sound patterns from country life’. [37] The Adagio of the Sonata op. 11, so I was told by
CITAR JOURNAL 26 Madalena Sá e Costa, was created shortly after the jor, but with the third already, when the cello enters, totally unexpected death of her beloved brother harmony changes to G minor. Luís, in 1939 or 1940, whereas the rest of the Sonata The cello begins with a D lying below the piano is dated 1938. I do not know if any other work of Luiz chord, so that its harmonic basis loses ground. The Costa took one or two years to be completed. As far melody developing from the D tone, at first seem- as I can ascertain on the basis of the composer’s es- ing to hesitate to go on, is perhaps one the most tate, there has not been a further case, but not all of ingenious ideas that Luiz Costa has committed to the existing manuscripts are dated and – obviously paper. First it ascends in the ambitus of a minor sev- – some of the manuscripts have disappeared. Why enth, falls down again, then ascends a second time had the work on the Sonata been interrupted for in the same ambitus, but startingfrom C, a whole such a relatively long time? Perhaps the publication tone lower than before. The third ascent, this time of the correspondence and of other documents of supported by the bass notes of the piano, leads into the composer will enable us later to find an answer the most characteristic motif of the whole move- to this question. In July 1939 his only son Luís died ment, consisting of the intervals second – fourth of typhoid which he had caught on a trip to Alentejo, – second – second: giving there lectures on the life of João de Brito. That was the second and, of course, incomparably greater grief the family felt for their son and brother respectively, the first one having been his joining the Figure 1. Luiz Costa, Sonata para Violoncelo e Piano Jesuit Order at the age of twenty-two. op. 11, Adagio, bars 13-16, part of violoncello (manu- Compared with the remaining three movements of script, property of Madalena Sá e Costa, Porto). the Sonata op. 11 on the one hand and with the Ada- gio of the Trio with Piano op. 15 (composed in the With the B flat in bar 13, the highest note of the thirties as well) as an example on the other hand, previously described second ascent of the melody is the altered ‘tone’ in the Adagio of the Sonata is ob- repeated, and the C in bar 15 is the repetition of the vious. First of all, it is a highly expressive tone that highest note of the first melodic ascent. In this way cannot be found in the earlier works of Luiz Costa. the melody of the beginning, that seemed wander- Whereas in the Sonata for Violoncello and Piano it is ing aimlessly about, is getting its sense in retrospect. perceptible only in the third movement, the Sonata The melodical construction can be put on a level with for Piano in F sharp minor (composed in 1940) is a Beethovenean idea. In the form of three variants, affected by a clearly lugubrious tone in all its parts, two of which can be seen in the music example, the even in the ‘Scherzo’. The Quintet with Piano op. 12 characteristic motif appears six times in the cello (composed in the first half of the forties) has again and twice in the piano part. an ‘Adagio’ as its third movement that obviously is a After this first melodical and rhythmical culmination, funeral march: it is written in C minor (a key that in the following musical occurrences are coming more the 19th century was traditionally used for pathetic closely one after the other: a variant of the cited mo- or tragic ideas), with a middle section in A flat minor tif is followed by one of the rare chromatic passages; (like the ‘Marcia funebre’ in Beethoven’s Sonata op. a few bars later the cello climbs up to a two-line 26), and its thematic rhythm is nearly identical with D; with another chromatic motif, reinforced by the that of the ‘Marche funèbre’ in the Sonata op. 35 by piano, the transition to a concealed recapitulation Frédéric Chopin. of the main subject begins. It must be emphasized It seems that in the following works Luiz Costa found that it is very rare in the works of Luiz Costa to not his way back to a certain serenity, even in the slow have a clear recapitulation of the first part or main movements, which naturally most likely may tempt theme. In the Adagio of Opus 11, the music is sliding the composer to express his grief and sorrow. Since nearly unnoticed into the recapitulation of bars 8 to it is equally tempting for anyone listening to a piece 15, with bar 14 in a varied form. of music to hear what he or she wants to hear, I will Quite different from the melody composed in a attempt a description of the compositional means Beethovenean way, the treatment of the piano part which transmit the grief, the desperation and final and the harmonics show a clear connection with resignation expressed in the Adagio of the Sonata French music. Partly, the harmonies are recalling op. 11. Debussy, as is the case in a lot of Luiz Costa’s com- The piano has to play, nearly without interruption positions. What is surprising in the Adagio, is the throughout the whole movement, chords in the harmonic similarity of some parts of it with certain rhythm of slow quavers, changing harmonies at works composed at about the same time by Ol- crotchet intervals, that is, with every beat (the time ivier Messiaen, which can be explained by his use being 3/4). The first two quiver chords are in G ma- of chords, where the fifth is a bass note to let the
CITAR JOURNAL 27 harmony ‘hang’, and the parallel shifting of seventh but not destroying love, hope, and joy, tries to burst chords to heighten the expressive tension. our breasts with a full-voiced general cry from all the A very specific similarity is to be found in the setting passions, do we live on and are captivated beholders of the slow movement from Luiz Costa’s Sonata and of the spirits.’ [44] Apart from the experienced pro- the likewise slow movement ‘Louange à l’Éternité fundity which rises the Adagio of the Cello Sonata de Jésus’ from Messiaen’s Quatuor pour la fin du above all previous works of Luiz Costa, it seems to Temps. It is the fifth movement, out of eight, written be also one of his most personal compositions. for violoncello and piano. Like in Luiz Costa’s Ada- gio, the cello has to play an expressive melody and 5 | The Cycles of characteristic Piano Pieces is accompanied by repetitive chords; in this case, in Listening to the early characteristic piano pieces, the rhythm of very slow semiquavers from the piano. the preludes and studies, the songs for solo voice or The frequency of change of harmony varies between choir, or the early works of chamber music, one has that which remains unchanged throughout a whole the impression of receiving vivid pictures, being told bar (that may contain up to 17 semiquavers) and that stories or simply enjoying well devised musical con- which changes with every semiquaver at the point structions. The funereal incident of 1939, however, of highest tension. What is so amazing about the seems to have got the composer to bring his senti- parallels between the two pieces is the fact that two ments to bear even in the cycles of little piano pieces composers who very probably did not know each which describe the landscape and the country life other and each other’s (latest) compositions, [41] of the region of Minho, the place where he was born have found a similar and absolutely unusual way of and where he returned to every summer. They are musical expression in a situation of great distress at entitled Poemas do Monte op. 3, Telas Campesinas about the same time. (Messiaen had composed his op. 6 and Cenários op. 13 – three cycles consisting work during the winter of 1941/42, being a prisoner of four pieces each. of war in a Silesian camp.) While Messiaen gives the Opus 3 was composed during the first half of the interpreters and listeners a hint of the contents of his twenties. The four compositions, [45] three of which composition by its poetic title, the slow movement in are written in major keys, can be described as being Luiz Costa’s Sonata is simply entitled ‘Adagio’. Mes- of a serene, partially dreamy, but not even melan- siaen explains in the foreword to his work: ‘Jésus est cholic character. ici considéré en tant que Verbe. Une grande phrase, Considering the numbers of Poemas do Monte op. infiniment lente, du violoncelle, magnifie avec amour 3, the listener will reckon with pieces of a similar et révérence l’éternité de ce Verbe puissant et doux, character in the cycle Telas Campesinas op. 6. The ‘dont les années ne s’épuiseront point’. Majestueuse- first number of it (‘Solidão dos Campos’, in A major, ment, la mélodie s’étale, en une sorte de lointain composed in 1924) conveys indeed the same atmo- tendre et souverain.’ [42] What Messiaen mentions sphere. The following, though, ‘Luar nos Açudes’, here explicitly, one can hear as well in the Adagio is not a dreamy moonlight idyll, as one might have by Luiz Costa: The composer relieves the music of expected, but rather has something of a dance of Time and raises it to Eternity. The slow pace, the nightly demons in it. The third number, ‘Cantares ao uniform rhythmical foundation, frequent changes longe…’ does not remind one of the famous sing- of time, a melody that does not have a conclusive ing by the grape harvesters in Minho; what we hear, development nor does it demand a conclusion at the sounds rather sad and forlorn. In the last piece, ‘Roda composition’s end – these are the means used by o Vento nas Searas’, there must be imagined a quite both composers to have the listener lose conscious- strong wind whirling across the fields. What much ness of time and to open the music into Eternity. contributes to the lugubrious and autumn-like atmo- As I have mentioned, compositions of such a pro- sphere of the three last numbers of Opus 6 is the found emotional meaningfulness are rare in Luiz fact that all of them are written in minor keys. They Costa’s works. Being of a patient, peaceful, modest, are dated 1941 and 1945 respectively. serious, serene character, the death of his son had The last cycle of characteristic piano pieces, Cenári- gravely upset his equilibrium and, on the other hand, os op. 13, likewise composed in the forties, consists enabled him to venture into musical regions where of three numbers [46] written in minor keys and the listener ‘leaves behind all the feelings which are only one, the last number, written in a major key. determinable by concepts in order to devote him- In this cycle, all the pieces in minor keys have to be self to the unsayable’. [43] Ernst Theodor Amadeus played in a slow tempo (‘lentamente’ or ‘lento’). Their Hoffmann, the Romantic author of these lines, has character can be described as oppressive, ponder- also stressed the necessity of suffering great pain ous, melancholic. They are followed by the piece to be elevated into these regions: ‘only through this in B major (‘Cachoeiras da Serra’), with the tempo pain [of endless longing], which, while consuming indication ‘vivo’, which is of a surprisingly merry and
CITAR JOURNAL 28 lively character. It is indeed a bit shocking for its un- Heidegger says, in its temporality” (Carl Dahlhaus, expected high spirits. It does not, however, convey O que é a Música? Ed. Texto & Grafia (2001) 2009, the serenity of the early compositions. pp. 131-135).
CONCLUSION [3] ‘Das Dasein als dieses In-der-Welt-sein ist in eins Commemorating the anniversary of the death of a damit Mit-einander-sein, mit Anderen sein: mit An- person does mean, above all, remembering his or deren dieselbe Welt dahaben, einander begegnen, her life and the deeds accomplished during this life. miteinander sein in der Weise des Für-einander- By this social ritual the person is reborn, as has been seins.’ (M. Heidegger, Der Begriff der Zeit / O Con- said in the Preface. To commemorate a composer, it ceito de Tempo. Ed. by Max Niemeyer Verlag / Ed- appears to be an appropriate way to speak about his ições Fim de Século: Tübingen / Lisboa (1989) 1995 works and let the works speak about their creator. / 2003, p. 36.) Music critics and writers who have been writing hith- erto about the music of Luiz Costa, agree in the point [4] Jean Ladrière, “Approche Philosophique du Con- that its character is bucolic, nostalgic or melancholic, cept de Temps – Le Temps Cosmique et le Temps explaining this fact with the composer’s love for the Vécu”, Temps et Devenir (Ed. Presses Universitaires nature of the region where he was born, which he de Louvain-la-Neuve: Louvain-la-Neuve, 1984, pp. used as a source of inspiration. Speaking of birth and 293-329). birthplace, with its visual and acoustic surroundings, is one of the four main topics in the biography of [5] Undoubtedly we can perceive this according to anyone. But we would not answer our purpose of the individual dimension (“psychological time” and commemorating an artist also as a human being, if “biographical time”) and in a sociological and his- we cut out the remaining three biographical topics toricql dimension (“family time”, “social time” and – the suffering, the love and the death. “historical time”). But it is more important to un- As has been demonstrated by the analyses of some derstand, a little like Franco Ferrarotti that “social” of Luiz Costa’s compositions, these topics have left and “historical” time is interiorized, destructured and their marks in the works as well. There has been no- restructured in the “psycological” and “biographi- ticed a clear change of ‘tone’ in the music composed cal” time of each subject (Franco Ferrarotti, His- after the death of his son. So the ‘bucolic, nostalgic toire et Histoires de Vie. La méthode biographique lyricism’ is only part of the musical identity of Luiz dans les Sciences Sociales. (Ed. Librairie des Meri- Costa, and, although the decisive cause for the other diens: Paris (1983) 1990, p. 50). A question arises: part was a dreadful one, this has been much to his how this change from first to second is processed? artistic advantage. If the early characteristic piano By means of two axes, would be my reply, as sug- pieces and songs are imbued with his love of na- gested by Victor Turner (Victor Turner, The Ritual ture, particularly that of his birthplace, the region of Process. Structure and Anti-Structure. Ed. Penguin Minho, the works composed since 1939 are enriched Books: Hammondsworth, 1969, p. 193): the vertical, by the experiences of suffering and death. These bio- “structure” (musical harmony as an analogy) and graphical topics are not only a background against the horizontal, “community” (musical melody also which we might look at the actually important char- as an analogy). And why these two axes? Because acteristics of the artist, but they are essential parts they are structural elements in all cultures and in all of the artistic identity of Luiz Costa. languages (Edmund Leach., ob. cit., p. 124).
REFERENCES AND CITATIONS [6] Jean Ladrière, ob. cit. [1] Edmund Leach, “Cultura / Culturas”, Enciclopédia Einaudi, vol 5, 1985, pp. 123-124, 132-133. [7] Fernando Gil, “Exemplos Musicais”, A 4 Mãos. Schumann, Eichendorff e Outras Notas (Ed. Imp- [2] The pages of Carl Dahlhaus are clairvoyant refer- rensa Nacional - Casa da Moeda, 2005, p. 22). ring to the musical perception of a piece of work. The experience of this system can be verified according [8] Lourenço, E., “Da Música”, Trabalhos de Antro- to two axial dimensions: the experience of a shape pologia e Etnologia, 46, pp. 191-193. or structure (atemporal) and the experience of a process or duration (temporal). According to him, [9] Enrique Emery, Temps et Musique (Ed. L’Age d’ “the centre of gravity can dislocate itself from the Homme, 1998, p. 6). structural towards the processual and vice-versa”, in that “dislocations of accent belong to the criteria [10] idem, p. 643. through which musical styles are distinguished, as
CITAR JOURNAL 29 [11] Lourenço, E., ob. cit., p. 192. [21] Antero de Figueiredo, Jornadas em Portugal, [12] Is it not here that the subjective consciousness ob. cit., p.13. of time rests, which, according to Carl Dahlhaus, “mi- grates, so as to speak, from actual instant to actual [22] Miguel Torga, Portugal (Ed. Publicações Dom instant” through the duration of the composition ( Quixote: Lisboa, (1950) 2007, p.13). Carl Dahaus, ob. cit., p. 135)? [23] Luiz Moreira de Sá e Costa, Cartas de um Reli- [13] Always the best ways – it’s good to remember gioso (Ed. Família: Porto, 1940, pp. 11, 12, 13, 167-169). –, on the pilgrimage to Senhora da Saúde, on the fifteenth of August of every year. [24] Sérgio Azevedo, “Partituras de Luiz Costa”, Arte Musical, IV Série, N.o 15, Abril/Junho 1999, pp. [14] Known in the city of Porto by its “rasgos de 102-103. caridade e filantropia” (Francisco Ribeiro da Silva, O Hospital da Irmandade da Lapa. Ed. Venerável Irman- [25] Le piano portugais – O piano português: Luiz dade de Nossa Senhora da Lapa: Porto, 2005, p. 18). Costa (CD Disques Coriolan, COR 330 0001, 2000).
[15] Tim Ingold, The Perception of the Environment. [26]João-Heitor Rigaud, “Luiz Costa: um mestre Essays in Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill (Ed. Rout- compositor musical”, Artigos Meloteca 2009. ledge: London, 2000, pp.198 – 201). [27] Bruno Belthoise, “Luiz Costa, un musicien à [16] Ingold defines the concept of “resonance as the l’aube du 20ème siècle”, Trabalhos de Antropolo- rhythmic harmonisation of mutual attention” (ob. gia e Etnologia, Vol. 49, Fasc. 1-4, 2009, pp. 187-193. cit., p.199). [28] Luís d’Albuquerque Couto dos Santos, Algumas [17] Prof. Maria Teresa de Macedo, currently acessora palavras sobre Mestre Luiz Costa no serão de hom- da Escola das Artes do Centro Regional do Porto da enagem havido no Porto (Bertrand Irmãos: Lisboa, Universidade Católica Portuguesa. 1950).
[18] Joaquim Leite de Vasconcelos, Etnografia Por- [29] Hernâni Monteiro, Luís Costa, Separata Arte tuguesa (Ed. Imprensa Nacional – Casa da Moeda Musical (Lisboa, 1960). , Lisboa, vol. III, pp. 54-56); Alberto Sampaio, Estu- dos Históricos e Económicos “As vilas de Portugal”, [30] José Manuel Freitas, Luís Costa, o encontro Revista de Sciencias Naturaes e Cociais, vol III, Por- com o meio. Elementos para o estudo de um com- to:1895; Orlando Ribeiro, Portugal. O Mediterrâneo e positor local junto dos alunos do 2.º Ciclo do Ensino o Atlântico (Ed. Editora Sá da Costa: Lisboa, (1947) Básico. Trabalho realizado no âmbito de um DESE 1986, pp. 11-114); François Guichard, Geographie du em Educação Musical, Braga: CEFOPE, Universidade Portugal. (Ed. Masson: Paris, 1990, p. 92); the soci- do Minho, 1994. ologist Karin Wall characterized well the change in the two districts of the Baixo Minho (Gondifelos e [31] Cp. the text by Bruno Caseirão for the CD Le Lemenhe), in the middle of the twentieth century piano portugais (see note 25). (Wall, Karin, Famílias no Camp, Ed. Publicações Dom Quixote (col. Portugal de Perto): Lisboa, (1985) 1998, [32] Quoted from Hernâni Monteiro, Luís Costa. p. 13), near those quoted above. (Transl. by C.B.)
[19]Roda do Moinho, op. 4 (1915), O Sobreiro, op. [33] Luiz Costa. Música de Câmara. Text by Maria 4 (1915) e Os Salgueiros, op. 7 (anos 30), works by Teresa Macedo (CD Numérica, NUM 1036, 1995). the composer for song and piano, with words by this poet who was a friend, were edited by Fermata [34] Romantismo e Pós-Romantismo na Cidade do Editora (Porto) in 2001 . Porto. Música para Piano. Text by Manuel Ivo Cruz (CD DAD, 1991). (Transl. by C.B.) [20] Antero de Figueiredo, as well as Carlos Ramos (uncle), Joaquim Costa, director of the Biblioteca [35] Compositores Portugueses Contemporâneos. Municipal do Porto, João Barreira and his wife, from Piano Solo. Text by Sofia Lourenço (CD Numérica, Lisbon, or even Maria Elisa de Sousa Pedroso, also NUM 1077, 1999). from Lisbon, were evening visitors of the family.
CITAR JOURNAL 30 [36] Luiz Costa. Obras para Piano. Text by José Man- [46] ‘Serranias brônzeas’, ‘Sobre as Cumeadas reina uel Freitas (CD Numérica, NUM 1099, 2001). a Paz’ and ‘Nuvens no Vale’.
[37] 20th Century Iberian Piano Works. Text by Ma- BIBLIOGRAPHY ria Teresa Macedo (CD memórias, CDM 021, 2008). BIOGRAPHIC [1] Arquivo de Família Moreira de Sá e Costa. [38] Luiz Costa, Prelúdios opus 9, and Luiz Costa, Es- tudos em oitavas opus 10, Preface to musical scores [2] Albuquerque Couto dos Santos, Luís d’: Algumas (no author’s name given), both of them edited by palavras sobre Mestre Luiz Costa no serão de hom- Meloteca: Lisboa, 1996. enagem havido no Porto (Bertrand, Irmãos: Lisboa, 1950). [39] Helena Sá e Costa, Uma Vida em Concerto. Hel- ena Sá e Costa – Memórias (Campo das Letras: Por- [3] Monteiro, Hernâni: Luís Costa, Separata Arte Mu- to, 2001); Madalena Moreira de Sá e Costa, Memórias sical (Lisboa, 1960). e Recordações (Edições Gailivro: Vila Nova de Gaia, 2008). [4] Moreira de Sá e Costa, Madalena: Memórias e Recordações (Edições Gailivro: Vila Nova de Gaia, [40] Very probably, all of them have left their mark 2008). in the compositions, as an artist in some way as- similates the events of his life in his works; but part [5] Sá e Costa, Helena: Uma Vida em Concerto. of the manuscripts are not dated, so that only in a Helena Sá e Costa – Memórias (Campo das Letras: few cases there can be stated correlations between Porto, 2001). certain works and events. Entries in: [41] Until May 1951, the only composition by Messiaen [6] Borba, Tomás e Lopes Graça, Fernando: Di- that was performed in the concerts of the ‘Orpheon cionário de Música, Editorial Cosmos: Lisboa, 1956. Portuense’ (by the French pianist Henriette Roget) was the last of his Préludes, composed in 1928/29, [7] The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musi- ‘Un reflet dans le vent’. Luiz Costa himself wrote the cians, ed. by Stanley Sadie, Macmillan Publishers following words about the composer: ‘Organista e Limited, London: 1980. compositor de carácter místico e tendências muito modernas. Compôs além de 8 Prelúdios dedicados – general: a Henriette Roget, obras para órgão: […].’ (Sexto [1] Azevedo, Sérgio: “Partituras de Luiz Costa”, Arte Suplemento aos Anais do Orpheon Portuense, Porto Musical, IV Série, N.o 15, Abril/Junho 1999, pp. 102- 1952, p. 151.) 103.
[42] Olivier Messiaen, Quatuor pour la fin du Temps [2] Belthoise, Bruno: “Luiz Costa, un musicien à (Durand & C.ie: Paris, 1942), p. II. l’aube de 20ème siècle”, Trabalhos de Antropologia e Etnologia, Vol. 49, Fasc. 1-4, 2009, pp. 187-193. [43] ‘eine Welt, […] in der er alle durch Begriffe bestimmbaren Gefühle zurücklässt, um sich dem [3] Dahlhaus, Carl, and Eggebrecht, Hans: O que é a Unaussprechlichen hinzugeben.’ (E.T.A. Hoffmann, Música? (Ed. Texto & Grafia: Lisboa, 2009). Review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, in: Allge- meine Musikalische Zeitung, July 1810, column 631.) [4] El-Shawan Castelo-Branco, Salwa, and Freitas Branco, Jorge de: Vozes do Povo. A folclorização [44] ‘nur in diesem Schmerz [der unendlichen em Portugal (Ed. Celta Editora: Lisboa, 2003). Sehnsucht], der Liebe, Hoffnung, Freude in sich verzehrend, aber nicht zerstörend, unsere Brust mit [5] Emery, Enrique: Temps et Musique (Ed. L’Age d’ einem vollstimmigen Zusammenklange aller Leiden- Homme: Lausanne, 1998). schaften zersprengen will, leben wir fort und sind entzückte Geisterseher!’ (E.T.A. Hoffmann, op. cit., [6] Ferrarotti, Franco: Histoire et Histoires de Vie. La column 633.) méthode biographique dans les Sciences Sociales (Ed. Librairie des Meridiens: Paris, (1983) 1990). [45] ‘Pelos Montes fora’, ‘Murmúrios das Fontes’, ‘Ecos dos Vales’ and ‘Campanários’. [7] Figueiredo, Antero de: Jornadas em Portugal (Ed. Aillaud: Lisboa, 1918).
CITAR JOURNAL 31 Lisboa, 1933-1985). [8] Freitas, José Manuel: Luís Costa, o encontro com o meio. Elementos para o estudo de um composi- [21] Lourenço, Eduardo: “Da Música”, Trabalhos de tor local junto dos alunos do 2.º Ciclo do Ensino Antropologia e Etnologia, vol. 46, 2007. Básico. Trabalho realizado no âmbito de um DESE em Educação Musical, Braga: CEFOPE, Universidade [22] Moreira de Sá e Costa, Luiz: Cartas de um Re- do Minho, 1994. ligioso (Edição da Família: Porto, 1940).
[9] Gil, Fernando: “Alguns Exemplos”, A 4 Mãos. [23] Ranita Nazaré, João: Prolegomenes à Schumann, Eichendorff e Outras Notas (Ed. Im- l’Etnomusicologie de la Musique (Ed. Centre Culturel prensa Nacional – Casa da Moeda: Lisboa, 2005). Portugais: Paris, 1984).
[10] Gomes de Araújo, Henrique Luís: “Music and [24] Ratzinger, Joseph – Bento XVI: Jesus de Nazaré Utopia”, Nascimento, Sofrimento, Amor e Morte (Ed. (Ed. Esfera dos Livros: Lisboa, 2007). Sociedade Portuguesa de Antropologia e de Etno- logia: Porto, 2006). [25] Ribeiro da Silva, Francisco: O Hospital da Irman- dade da Lapa (Ed. Venerável Irmandade de Nossa [11] Goody, Jack: The Logic of Writing and the Orga- Senhora da Lapa: Porto, 2005). nization of Society (Ed. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1986). [26] Ribeiro, Orlando: Portugal: O Mediterrâneo e o Atlântico (Ed. Editora Sá da Costa: Lisboa (1947) [12] Guichard, François: Geographie du Portugal (Ed. 1986). Masson: Paris, 1990). [27] Rigaud, João-Heitor: “Luiz Costa: um mestre [13] Heidegger, Martin: Der Begriff der Zeit / O compositor musical”, Artigos Meloteca 2009. Conceito de Tempo, (Ed. Max Niemeyer Verlag / Edições Fim de Século: Tübingen / Lisboa (1989) [28] Sampaio, Alberto: “As Vilas do Norte de Por- 1995, 2003). tugal”, Revista de Sciencias Naturaes e Cociais, vol III, Porto:1895. [14] Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor Amadeus: Review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, Allgemeine Musi- [29] Sexto Suplemento aos Anais do Orpheon Por- kalische Zeitung, July 1810, columns 630-642 and tuense (Porto, 1952). 652-659. [30] Torga, Miguel: Portugal (Ed. Publicações Dom [15] Ingold, Tim: The Perception of the Environment. Quixote: Lisboa, (1950) 2007). Essays in Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill (Ed. Rout- ledge: London, 2000). [31] Turner, Victor: The Ritual Process. Structure and Anti-Structure (Ed. Penguin Books: Hammond- [16] Iturra, Raul, Resenha crítica sobre The Logic of sworth, 1969). Writing and the Organization of Society de Jack Goody, Ler História, N.o 12, 1987. [32] Wall, Karin: Famílias no Campo (Ed. Publica- ções Dom Quixote (col. Portugal de Perto): Lisboa [17] Ladrière, Jean: “Approche Philosophique du (1985) 1998). Concept de Temps – Le Temps Cosmique et le Temps Vécu”, Temps et Devenir (Presses Universitaires de DISCOGRAPHY Louvain-la-Neuve: Louvain-la-Neuve, 1984). [1] Intervalo Musical: Prelúdio op. 9, n.o 4; interpreter: Helena Sá e Costa. Zyma Nyon (Valentim de Carv- [18] Lambin, Eric: Une Écologie du Bonheur ( Édi- alho). (N.d.) tions Le Pommier: Paris, 2009). [2] Music of Portugal: Prelúdios op. 9, n.os 1, 2, 3, 4, [19] Leach, Edmund: “Cultura / Culturas”, Enciclopé- 6; “Cachoeiras da Serra” from Cenários op.13; “Roda dia Einaudi (Ed. Casa da Moeda – Imprensa Nacional: o Vento nas Searas” from Telas Campesinas op. 6; Lisboa, 1985). “Pelos Montes fora” and “Campanários” from Po- emas do Monte op. 3; Estudos (Oitavas) op. 10, n.o 2; [20] Leite de Vasconcelos, Joaquim: Etnografia Por- interpreter: Helena Sá e Costa. Sonatina para Flauta tuguesa (Ed. Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda: e Piano op. 23; interpreters: Luís de Moura e Castro
CITAR JOURNAL 32 and Ralph R. Guenther. Variações e Fuga op. 16; in- terpreter: Luís de Moura e Castro, Califórnia: Educo, Lisboa: Gulbenkian Foundation. (N.d.) [3] Romantismo e Pós-Romantismo na Cidade do Porto. Música para Piano: “Campanários” from from Poemas do Monte op. 3; interpreter: Joel Bello Soares. DAD, 1991.
[4] Luiz Costa. Música da Câmara: Sonata para Vio- loncelo e Piano op. 11; Sonatina para Viola e Piano op. 19; Trio para Piano, Violino e Violoncelo [op. 15]; interpreters: Anabela Chaves, Frank Reich, Gerardo Ribeiro, José Augusto Pereira de Sousa, Olga Prats, Pedro Burmester. Numérica, 1995.
[5] Compositores Portugueses Contemporâneos: Prelúdios op. 9, n.os 1, 3, 4; interpreter: Sofia Lou- renço. Numérica, 1999.
[6] Le Piano Portugais – O piano português: Luiz Costa: Fiandeira op. 2; Drei Klavierstücke op. 1; Po- emas do Monte op. 3; Danças Rústicas op. 17; Telas Campesinas op. 6; Prelúdios op. 9; Cenários op. 13; interpreter: Bruno Belthoise. Disques Coriolan, 2000.
[7] Encontro – Música Portuguesa per a Flauta i Pia- no: Sonatina para Flauta e Piano op. 23; interpreters: João Pereira Coutinho and José Bon de Sousa. La Mà de Guido, 2000.
[8] Música Portuguesa: Sonatina para Flauta e Piano op. 23; interpreters: Luís Meireles and Eduardo Re- sende. Numérica, 2000.
[9] Luiz Costa. Obras para piano: Três Peças op. 1; Fiandeira op. 2; Poemas do Monte op. 3; Oito Prelú- dios op. 9; Sonata in F sharp minor; interpreter: Luis Pipa. Numérica, 2001.
[10] Compositores do Porto do séc. XX. Canto e Piano: Canção Marinha op. 8, n.o 1; O Sobreiro op. 4, n.o 3; interpreters: Jaime Mota et al. Fermata, 2002.
[11] Bamboleio: Pelos Montes fora op. 3, n.o 1; in- terpreter: Bruno Belthoise. Disques Coriolan, 2004.
[12] Peças portuguesas e japonesas para piano solo: Roda o Vento nas Searas op. 6, n.o 4; interpreter: Yuki Rodrigues. Numérica, 2006.
[13] 20th Century Iberian Piano Works: Três Danças Rústicas op. 17; interpreter: Manuela Gouveia. CDM, 2008.
[14] Página esquecida: Sonata para Violoncelo e Pi- ano op. 11; interpreters: Bruno Borralhinho and Luísa
CITAR JOURNAL 33 Cinematography and Television: Differences and Similarites
--- Adriano Nazareth [email protected] --- Universidade Católica Portuguesa (UCP) School of the Arts, Portuguese Catholic University ---
1 | Introduction er has to make the big decision. Moral and ethical Television and Cinema present specific behaviour conflict as an integral part of the human condition, and language in relation to reality. If film focuses on represented metaphorically or dramatically, is able its proximity to artistic practices, and this reflects the to raise empathy and communication. viewer’s relationship with the film, television, in turn, Not unrelated to this reality, professional politicians seeks in directness or the transposition of the real to use television to make press conferences and me- the imaginary, the key to its success, the audience. dia releases coincide with news services. One may We all see the possibilities that television has for speak of an a-culturation of the viewer, an increase viewers. Even those most aware of the various con- of passivity and indifference to the content he or straints, and who claim themselves to be not in- she watches. fluenced, come under the hypnotic power of the In the search for something new, there’s “zapping”, television screen. The quality of the programming which is nothing but the search for redundancy. continues to decline, succumbing to the claim that Someone once said that the cinema stirs the imagi- television channels have to get into the audience nation, whereas television exerts a hypnotic effect. “ratings”. Television must take into account many factors if it Given day-to-day hardships, television can distance is to achieve its desired success. From the statisti- people from their own problems by showing the cal study of potential audiences divided into vari- struggles of others, their relative happiness, a lack of ous categories of viewers, through to the detailed concern, a series of problems solved without having study of the tools and steps needed to produce a to deal with them. TV sub-product of proven success, as is the case Recently, the so-called “reality shows” have achieved of soap operas, in which the script is of paramount extraordinary record audiences. The most compel- importance to capture an audience. Here, the top ling example is that of Big Brother. A house that priority is the target audience, and to make sure that encloses a group of young people, chosen according it stays, follows and becomes familiar with the story. to selection criteria that follow stereotypes compat- The first episodes are of the utmost importance, ible with the dreams of the masses; A programme and the action and suspense at the beginning and that does nothing to encourage analysis or a spirit the end of each episode should have high points, of observation, and contributes nothing to increased directed at high audience peaks and therefore its levels of knowledge. The viewer is limited to immedi- loyalty to the show. ate assimilation, feeding only on the feeling that he Music also occupies a prominent place not only as or she has for each of the participants. an aid to express and support the action, but also Always having audiences as a target to be achieved, to help fill the dead spots, as an emotional means of some television stations use a different strategy: holding the viewer. Thus, the basis of communication moral and ethical issues. Transgression as an con- is guaranteed scious reflection on the viewers’ own frustrations and repressions, enhancing the power that the view-
CITAR JOURNAL 34 2 | Television development between the 50’s contribute to an increased audience. and 90’s Audience surveys (audiometry), do not try to de- Likewise, there are profound differences between termine viewers’ interests or tastes, but only who is the television of the 1950s and the present. In ear- viewing and what is seen in the programming. Based ly television, up to the 1980s, the idea would be ... on these studies, the heads of stations choose what Educate, entertain and inform. With the passage of to broadcast so as to increase and hold their audi- time, this maxim has given way to... The individual ences, which in turn means increasing the value of no longer cultivates himself. At best he is cultivated.1 their advertising space. Production is divided into three phases (pre-pro- Between fiction and nonfiction, television broadcast- duction; production and post-production) and, once ers have built a by-product that has led audience again, the economic factor is omnipresent in the vari- ratings: ”reality shows” and “real-life soap opera.” It ous surveys conducted, which determine the cost began in Portugal with Ponto de Encontro, and this that a project may entail. In pre-production, there was followed by shows with a similar orientation. is already a thorough study of the needs and costs Public preference requires the stations to transmit that the narrative itself involves, and there is also a such programming with the aim of speculating with need on the part of the general-interest television the feelings of others, pacing the drama, a key in- stations to continually satisfy the average spectator, gredient for success. which results in cost containment. Faced with this combination of factors, television is 3 | Television Crisis in 90’s poor in content, politically correct, lacking a criti- In the early 1990s a screenwriters/scriptwriters crisis cal sense, and does not stimulate the viewer to go began that almost did away with scripts and texts for beyond the limits of mediocrity. Millions of people drama series. There was a need to find alternatives. simultaneously hear the same joke, their existence Would it be possible to replace one of these shows being no less solitary. with a documentary or good quality feature film, or In comparative terms, while television develops this by a cultural programme followed by discussion? kind of low creativity and absolutely standard inflex- Maybe, it happened for the first and last time, or ibility, cinema seeks to be innovative in its narratives, maybe not. Taste, like the palate, is educated, refined increasingly using the imagination to reach the ideal or it is ruined... that it is geared to: transfiguration. In this context, reference to the American TV show Film gives us an illusion with a more intense consist- industry, which invented a cheap product with re- ency than the representation of life on stage or in duced production costs and guaranteed success, everyday life. If, on the one hand, it has an obvious is almost inevitable. Anonymous members of the irreality, its space and time differ profoundly from public relate their stories, their fears and traumas ordinary perception. All this is explained by a strange and, for a few minutes, are guaranteed their mo- phenomenon of belief on the part of the viewer. ment of glory. Television is defined as a reproductive, not selec- Ultimately, the structural basis of soap operas and tive, practice, linking the real to the plausible, while reality TV is the same. At the beginning of each story, insisting on the first. Using a much more persuasive the pairs are all changed, getting to meet and stay dynamic narrative, it stops connecting shot to shot, together through secondary characters. The formula sequence to sequence, resulting in a more realistic stays the same, the time is reduced, actors are re- and symbolic language and, alongside the central placed by ordinary people, with an interesting life, theme of the story, imposing other parallel themes who start out as spectators and end up starring as in order to enhance the effect on the viewer or his the character the public demands. emotions, that is, television extends the audiovisual Some critics, as well as some people with common spectrum but takes the mystery out of filmmaking. sense, raised their voices and a series of opinion Unlike television, film turns the plausible into truth, articles emerged which led the Ethics Council of while reality stems from the imaginary, because, for the Journalists’ Union to organise debates, pointing the duration of the film, the existence of the specta- out the dangers of the shows in question, emphasis- tor is transformed into countless other possible lives ing the baseness or even certain sordid details that that the filmic narratives inspire. viewers were subjected to for a handful of pennies, The scenario that the television stations follow boils from undressing in public to eating spiders, amongst down to “the more the screen is filled, the better.” other trickery. Of course they relied, a lot, on Andy This picture, full of “embellishments,” accompanied Warhol’s “fifteen minutes of fame”. by intense and disperse camera movements, is While in Big Brother almost anything was possible, sometimes followed by the miserabilism of specu- in May 2001 the broadcaster SIC presented TV Bar, lative news, not as exposure but as a show that will where during a family disagreement, a contester
CITAR JOURNAL 35 argues with her parents, who tried to dissuade her first and foremost on a deep remodelling of tech- from joining in the show. The producer, Ediberto nique and its use, but also on a change of univer- Lee, serves as an intermediary, but emotions and sal values that are no more than the glorification of affection are explored in an undignified manner and mediocrity measured by imposed standardisation. broadcast live throughout the country. Such an at- The cinematographic work, while in our home, comes titude led the Commission on Rights, Freedoms and mutilated and altered in the physical sense of the Guarantees to invite the High Authority to go to term, due for a start to the framing of the TV screen Parliament to make the following statement: “The (4:3). Another observation is that instead of film in ethical and legal parameters that aim to protect the which the image is projected from behind the viewer, image of the person and privacy of personal life have on television it is reflected in the viewer’s face. Also, been seriously infringed.” And we, by analysing the it is not a gregarious activity and the aesthetic of statistics, see that the audience rose and, for the first the shot is adulterated, going from the general and time in months, SIC overtook TVI and its Big Brother medium shots in cinema to close-ups and wide shots II by more than 4%, reaching an audience of 50.7%. on television, due in part to the size of the screens. An observation made by Guilherme de Oliveira The cinematographic narrative itself - what to tell Martins (2001) comes to mind: “The cavalcade of and how to tell it - although partially accepted by the grotesque and of voyeurism can have unforeseen the television industry, is diverted to produce emo- consequences in terms of indifference and draining tion at any price. The broadcaster/receiver relation- of civic and ethical values.” Indeed, the ratings dem- ship is controlled by audience ratings, hence by the onstrate the preferences of the public, but also reveal dictatorship of the sponsor. The formative role is the cultural level of the viewers. Between the lines, disregarded in favour of the informative. one finds the need of the TV viewer to be educated With the advent of high definition, the frame is re- and informed. placed by a similar scale to that of the cinema. With Journalism is also part of the television scene. In this the end of kinescope, the use of LCD and plasma context, truth, accuracy and impartiality are called screens brings the television screen even closer to for. Transforming TV news into soapboxes of opinion, the cinema screen. The advent of broadcasters of supporting politicians or sports personalities accord- thematic and regional channels brings with it, un- ing to the whim of the sponsors of the moment, is a doubtedly, the dissemination of specific cultures, betrayal of the basic principles of authentic journal- and there is a greater formative exchange, rather ism. Given the current landscape, and referring to the than mass dissemination, promoting the exchange Presidential elections, Emídio Rangel said he could of cultural values based on equality, which makes put into power whoever he wanted to. the difference. If film, as a language, can sometimes produce artis- Cinema will maintain its position as the vehicle for tic messages, television, as a reproducer of reality, audiovisual communication independent of televi- does not yet have a language. The precondition for sion, and a degree of responsibility falls to each of the identification of a language is the recognition them. of a system of signs and the ability they possess to transform reality. 4 | The New Cinema and Television Adapta- If it is true that there are differences between film tion and television, it is also true that on occasion there Cinema will not have to adapt to the television in- may be a certain similarity between the two media. dustry, as is the case of the great contemporary By way of example, if television broadens the audio- American and European cinema, nor does television visual, cinema should use this capability to promote have to play second fiddle to the cinema. Each has itself using co-production, a compromise between its own aesthetic and narrative. Ultimately, it would the two media that would benefit both. Film has be fitting to match the role of Lumière2 to televi- the ability to construct narratives and television to sion and that of Méliès3 to cinema, independently disseminate filmic objects with artistic messages. of whether they can mix in certain areas of speech However, although film and television have content, or even complementary forms of narrative. they rarely manage to reconcile them. They prefer However, there appears to be a mutual interest be- to navigate the limbo of ambiguity, or, what is more tween cinema and television. In terms of joint pro- facile, let themselves descend into a sort of apologia duction, television broadcasters and film production- for violence with the creation of superheroes, the related bodies have found common ground, man- paradigm of the dreams and frustrations of a ma- aging added value: low production/direction costs; jority, who find empathy in these figures of “writing institutional and private funding; the opportunity to in motion”. create video-film products that guarantee the best The survival of film-video-graphic narrative relies of both forms of communication in terms of sound
CITAR JOURNAL 36 and image. tion resulted in a script Some television benchmark works were made by that focuses on the figura- directors who work mainly in the field of cinema- tive without changing the tography. That is the case of David Lynch and Peter literary content. Greenaway. In the script of As Fúrias David Lynch is known in cinematography for his di- there were points that were rection of works like The Elephant Man (1980); Dune duly detailed, such as: the (1984) and Blue Velvet (1986). In terms of television plot, the characters and he was the director of the successful quality series the unfolding. The script – Twin Peaks and Fire Walk With Me (1992). being the key element in Figure 1: Ofélia Another example to be taken into consideration filmmaking, it should not is from 1991, on the bicentenary of the death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, when various televi- sion broadcasters joined in the co-production of a project on the theme of Mozart. Several directors were commissioned to make films on the same topic, among them Peter Greenaway. Greenaway4 is a producer, director, scriptwriter and current representative of British art cinema. His participation in this project took on a distinctive character because the whole staging of Not Mozart was based on dance, whose movements give rise to body positions, always aided by the written and Figure 2: Ofélia and Arminda spoken text, superimposed on the image clarifying the meaning of the words. In this work, it is therefore possible to see that the scenography enhances the be forgotten either that this is a working tool that narrative, building on the set of real and graphic is absolutely essential for the filmic construction. images in constant movement, on the written word, In this particular case, the planning should be noted, spoken and performed in the musical structure sys- not just the script, because the final plan has all the tematically and obsessively repeated, in an image full basic elements, and is the most detailed, not only of elements that complement each other, words that dramatically but also technically. The story-board, overlap, wide shots of the characters who sing and the organisation of the sets, the technical script, all interpret the text. Constantly evolving lines, sketch- contributed equally to make this project viable in a es, shapes and colours, recreating and alternating with the narrative, show man and his potential. It makes various men arise from different substances, from flour, iron, water, and puts them aside. What remains, in the end, is only man with a set of joints, bones, fluids, who needs to be taught to move, to understand, to know himself. This brief reference supports what we wanted to emphasise when we approached the question of co-production, of the benefits and advantages that could bring an improvement in the final product, reflecting an increased opportunity for creators, a greater exchange of experiences and even an in- crease in funding.
5 | Adaptation to Television Given the complexity of the production/direction process, those involved should display a reflective, attentive spirit. An example of this is the adapta- tion of a literary work by Agustina Bessa Luís for television, entitled As Fúrias5. A new version of the theme came from the suggestions proffered by the Figure 3: The Story Board producer and the director. This fruitful collabora-
CITAR JOURNAL 37 Figure 4: Construction Stages of “lancha Poveira” world in which all elements are interdependent and try to keep alive some of its symbols, testimonies of equally important. joys and sorrows, of the lives of one of the areas in The principles set out or accepted to lead to a film Portugal with a great fishing tradition. or television production/direction are identical. It is This documentary sought the dynamic narrative, only the means required to achieve the specific aims thus avoiding days and hours, but always breaking that differ. Film deals with the content, the narrative, with the present/past, mixing them, developing a the composition of the image, the soundtrack and parallel story (additional educational information, the setting differently to television. As Fúrias as a like doing something and why it was done), combin- television series would be about ten hours long. In ing the scientific rigour of research cinema, which cinema, it would last about two hours. in this case, should be the attraction, the adventure Another practical example, this time an anthropo- made documentary. logical/cultural documentary, is Lancha Poveira do The dynamics used in the development of this doc- Alto6. umentary did not overlook space/time: variation Begun in 1990 with the pre-production of a television of angles, variation between scenes and settings, programme, this is based on a reconstruction of a graphics, museum artefacts, the reconstruction of fishing vessel common in Póvoa do Varzim until the the boat; and variation in the time sequence. 1950s, when it was replaced by safer, larger, motor- The editing, in the narrative dynamic, generates vari- ised boats able to go further in the pursuit of fishing. ous circumstantial associations, and gives credibility The first phase of the project was to study this type to the representation, so that each new image is as- of vessel in detail, from its origin, to arrive at its tech- sociated with those immediately preceding and fol- nical characteristics and the socio-cultural implica- lowing it, giving it continuity. To divert attention, so tions that a boat can have in a region dedicated to that the image sequences can be part of the viewer’s fishing as a source of income for a significant portion memory. The cuts follow a logical reasoning without of the population. interrupting the continuity of the narrative, avoiding The main aim of the reconstruction of this boat was false relations with previous sequences. to be a testimony for current and future generations of one of the ways in which the fishermen of Póvoa drew their sustenance from the sea. The estimated time for the construction of this ves- sel was more than a year, divided into phases. Two or three days per month were set aside to monitor the construction until completion. Meanwhile, it was necessary to provide the graphic Figure 5: Ala Arriba designers with additional elements for the documen- tary – the history, origin of the vessel, complemen- To summarise, after an analysis of what television tary construction stages (prints and drawings used is today, we wanted to close on a suggestive and in the identification of boats), in order to produce a somewhat challenging tone, with two separate set of auxiliary designs for the narrative. examples that reveal a television with a range of The research considered it essential to use images contingencies as well as strengths. A television with from the 1942 film Ala Arriba , by Leitão de Barros. programmes and content that do not underestimate We stress this interesting point: a documentary be- the intelligence of the viewer nor their own potential, ing based on the visual anthropology of another film in contrast with what is roughly the image we have when the Póvoa boats still roamed the high seas off of the current state of television, in that while film the coast of Póvoa. conveys poetic art and imagery, television is a vehi- The final sequence of this documentary mixes the cle for mass communication, calling for the opacity present of a ship being launched with the past of of the viewer8. Thus limiting itself to serving as a Ala Arriba. The vessel that gave rise to this narrative vehicle in a non-selective reproductive practice, not remains the main character more than the people of possessing its own language, i.e. not changing reality Póvoa, particularly its fishermen who, then as now, in a different sense of what it represents.
CITAR JOURNAL 38 REFERENCES [1] Fréderic Bichon – Diário Notícias 1994-04-01.
[2] LUMIÈRE (Louis) – Inventor of cinematography, first films made (documentaries) – “Workers leaving the Lumière factory” – “Baby’s Breakfast” – “Arrival of a Train”, 1885.
[3] MÉLIÈS (Georges) – “Creator of the mise en scène” – director from 1886/1914 – “Card Party” – “The Ballet Master’s Dream” – “A Trip to the Moon” – “Gulliver’s Travels” – “The Impossible Voyage”.
[4] GREENAWAY (Peter) – “The Cook, the Thief, his Wife & her Lover”, 1989 – “TV Dante”, 1989 – “Prospero’s Books” – “The Baby of Macon”, 1993.
[5] Directed by Adriano Nazareth.
[6] Idem.
[7] Film financed by SPN, a remake of Maria do Mar by the same director.
[8] MOSCARIELO (Angelo): “Como Ver Um Filme” – Translation: Conceição Jardim and Eduardo Nogueira – Editorial Presença, Lda., Lisbon, 1985.
CITAR JOURNAL 39 Image, Ritual and Urban --- Form: Porto in the 16th José Ferrão Afonso --- [email protected] Century --- Universidade Católica Portuguesa (UCP) CITAR: Research Centre for Science and Technology of the Arts, Portuguese Catholic University. ---
Abstract fore, the late Middle Ages, which Huizinga classified In the early 17th Century, the Spanish painter as deeply iconophile , in which image and ritual were Francisco Pacheco railed against his apprentices, put at the service of the reformulation of a State be- telling them that the image should stand out of the coming increasingly centralised and interventionist, picture1 . The topic was the one most debated in the whose action extended to the sphere of the Church: art of the Counter-Reformation, whose main direc- with King João II, and especially King Manuel I, the tives, outlined in the Council of Trent, would be put in Crown was an active sponsor of religious reform that motion simultaneously with urban “Christianisation”. was pursued with redoubled energy and systema- They presupposed a social contract, established be- tisation, from the reign of “the Pious”, then already tween producer and receiver, implying maximum within the political system of close bilateral coop- clarity of the message, which involved an ambiguous eration that was designated the Confessional State. grey area that would be reserved for the outside of We therefore believe that this type of approach to the focus. In painting, which sacrificed everything anthropological and symbolic components, which that was incidental or extraneous to the story, show- seeks to take into account the increasing importance ing the essential and neglecting the accessory, the that is given in contemporary research on the city’s binary radicalism of the concept became more ex- history, can be very fruitful. plicit, through the Caravaggian illumination or in the case above, the Spanish tenebrism of Velásquez, to 1 | Porto at the end of the Middle Ages: from whom Pacheco’s admonition was addressed. absolute space to the city of the King In our Doctoral Thesis presented at the School of The city in the High Middle Ages was identified with Architecture in Barcelona2 , we sought to demon- its own symbol. For the Neoplatonic tradition, which strate that the Plastic Arts were not the only field for dominated the cultural landscape of the Christian the application of Luminist principles. In this article West until the 13th Century, there was not a city we aim to summarise this thesis by exposing the but “the city”, or Celestial Jerusalem. This objec- important relationships between image, ritual and tive identification was still present in Roman Porto, urban form in 16th Century Porto, after a time, there- sheltered behind its ring of walls, that Bishop Hugo and his immediate successors developed after 1120. However, the demographic and economic progress associated with political change would bring into question, especially after the crisis of 1190-1210, the absolute, theological and symbolic space of the Roman town. The main agents of this argument were 1 According to tradition, this was the advice given by Francisco the Mendicants, who arrived in Porto in the third Pacheco to his apprentice Velásquez (FOUCAULT, p. 64). decade of the 13th Century, and settled in the far 2 AFONSO, José Ferrão. A imagem tem que saltar ou o rebate dos west of the peripheral belt that they helped define, signos. A cidade episcopal e o Porto intramuros no século XVI. west of the Roman walled acropolis of Penaventosa, Propriedade, ritual, representação e forma urbana (1499-1606). covering the lower part of the Rio da Vila valley. [Roneoed text]. 3 vols. Barcelona, 2008. Dissertation (PhD in the The Mendicant convents and their enclosures helped Theory and History of Architecture). School of Architecture, Bar- celona, UPB. HUIZINGA, p. 147.
CITAR JOURNAL 40 to determine the administrative boundaries of the ond route developed from it: starting from Cruz do ecclesiastical “Civitate” of the 13th Century. The Souto, in axial continuity with Rua Escura, it crossed strength shown by the “Civitate” and their mas- the Rio da Vila valley, climbed the Olival hill, the old ters the Bishops was expressed, for example, in “Mons Menendi Olarii”, reaching the Roman roads the creation of the orthogonal extensions of Lada from Braga and Vila do Conde on the plateau. This and Miragaia, true “new towns”, and in the admin- was named “Karraria Antiqua”. [6] istrative and sacramental affirmation of an urban In Rua Direita, the static Episcopal Civitate gained a territory. They contributed decisively to the latter dynamism that accompanied the economic devel- by implementing more efficient taxation, and the opment and cultural and political transformations. division of properties between Mitra and Cabido This right of way was for tradesmen and merchants; occurred c.1200. These developments, however, and the latter, especially, would form an urban elite postponed affirmative urban action on the part of who would find in the Mendicants, especially in the the Mendicants, so only from the early 14th Century Dominicans, their ideologues and preferred allies. In (the Dominicans, for example, only completed their Rua Direita, the market, originally associated with convent in 1320) was there a significant decryption ecclesiastical seigniorial power, descended the of the symbol and with it of the absolute space of Penaventosa hill, departing from the sacred. The the episcopal seigniory’s city. The new urban ideol- street and the urban landscape it ran through there- ogy of the Common Good, based on Aristotle and fore became inseperable from a slow but inexorable refined by Thomas Aquinas and his disciples, played deepening of the decline of the Episcopal seigniory an important role in this transformation, and there- and, at a later stage, the entry in force in the city of fore became associated with the slow emergence of a new urban protagonist: the Crown. an urban landscape, with the fullness of morphologi- The new urban plan affected the spatial organisa- cal, social, stratigraphic and symbolic meaning with tion of the episcopal “Civitate”, still anchored in the which it is connoted. sacredness of a network of small nuclei, clustered In terms of morphological plan, the urban land- around chapels and their cemiteriae which, in turn, scape of the 14th Century resulted in the gradual was structured in a close relationship with the ancient urbanisation of the waterfront, between S. Nicolau, long and medium range territorial Roman roads: S. Barredo and Lada, and the development of the ar- Nicolau, Miragaia, Santo Ildefonso, the Cathedral - terial route which we shall designate “Rua Direita” preceded by a pre-Roman chapel - the “ecllesia” (Straight Street). Taking as its basis ancient lay- in the Rio da Vila valley that preceded the convent outs, among which is the Roman road through of S. Domingos, perhaps the chapel of Santa Cruz, Amarante/Penafiel/Porto/Lordelo/Matosinhos/Vila located on the site where the Carmelite convent do Conde [5] it goes around the Roman borough of would be built, next to the Roman “Karraira Antiqua” Penaventosa. Successive sections formed its main and that of S. Miguel, also bordering the Roman road branch which, from the eastern plateau, skirting the from Braga [7] . The road system that, from the 14th episcopal city radially, extended to the riverfront and the Douro: these were the streets called Cimo de [6] The Roman road that joined Lisbon and Braga, via Coimbra, Vila, Chã, Escura, Bainharia and Mercadores. A sec- crossed the Douro at Castelo de Gaia, in the place where Senhor da Boa Passagem is today. At the opposite bank, the alighting point was at Monchique in Miragaia, at the foot of the pathway [5]The street, which in Lordelo ran to Matosinhos, was an old Ro- of the same name, which climbed the slope of Monte dos Judeus man road. It entered the Roman enclosure, originating in Penafiel along the route of present Rua da Bandeirinha. In Viriato square and after passing by the fortress of Vandoma, Valongo da Estrada it veered towards the north, to Carregal, which it reached after and the pre-Roman church of Santo Ildefonso, by the Vandoma crossing Rua de Cedofeita, Rua Mártires da Liberdade and thence gate. Inside the Roman walls, in the Low Middle Ages, it was called to the north, to Braga (cf. AFONSO, José Ferrão. A Praça da Ri- Rua do Redemoinho and Rua das Aldas; leaving the lower area beira (1st part). Revista Mvseu (at press). of the enclosure by the Souto gate, later known as Santana and, [7] Starting from Miragaia, the “Via Vicinal”, coming from Lisbon after crossing the Rio da Vila valley, skirting the convent of S. Do- and Coimbra, and going on to Braga, climbing the Monchique mingos - and the chapel which preceded it – it climbed the Olival path (a name that may be associated with Mont Juif and was al- hill by the so-called S. Domingos path. After passing the point ready in use at least by the middle of the 14th Century; the settling where the Virtudes wicket gate was, it ran along the valley of the of the Jews along the route may have been due to its commercial Rio Frio in Miragaia to be joined, in the Viriato square, by another significance. Nearby, on the site where today stands the Palácio Roman road, which started from the banks of the river Douro on das Sereias, on the Quinta da Bandeirinha, stood the Jewish cem- the Monchique path. It continued westward along the Sobre-o- etery or Estrepão), Bandeirinha and Carregal until it reached the Douro road, and then via Massarelos, Arrábida and Lordelo (see current Rua dos Mártires da Liberdade and, from there, the North- note below). ern interior; from S. Nicolau, there was an extension of it, climbing
CITAR JOURNAL 41 Century, would be complemented and interconnect- knights, and if the idea of a unitary image of the city ed by a finer network, that was more responsive is dominant, he also states that its specific compo- to the local economy and the route to the sea. Its nents should be respected, insofar as they contribute development was initially allowed by the greater to the communitas. (Figure 2 e 3) security of the coast after the conquest of Lisbon, The city of the Common Good was short-lived. The which facilitated the reuse of the Roman coast road arrival of the Crow in Porto occurred in 1325, with the from Lisbon to Braga. (Figure 1) construction of the Customs House in Ribeira, and The close articulation of the new road network the Episcopal seigniory lost, effectively, all its powers formed a new urban capillarity. With this, the uni- in 1343, shortly after the Borough obtained, in 1316 versal ubiquity of the Penaventosa acropolis gave and 1331, the ownership of incipient but strategic way to a locus associated with an incipient but ef- public spaces of the Episcopal seigniory, some of fective form of representation of the space, creating them probably considered under the “protection” a material, active and industrious centrality in the of the Church. Particularly notable among them was Dominican convent in the Rio da Vila valley. In the the Olival, very important because of the various vicinity of Pregadores, Rua Direita led to Ribeira, Roman roads that crossed and intersected on it and, near Barredo, contributing to the displacement of due to its mercantile relevance, the Ribeira with its the old bolt crossing point, originally between Gaia rossios. The weakness of the Borough, however, was and Miragaia, then between Gaia, Vila Nova and S. that it was powerless to create a consistent pub- Nicolau, to the east. In this way, it articulated with lic space and the urban planning that went with it. the development of new routes at the opposite bank: This role was reserved for the Court, which quickly Rua Direita in Vila Nova, extended in a southerly integrated into its circles the elite urban merchants direction, Rua Direita in Porto. from whom it had sought support in order to obtain The 14th Century plan, anchored in traditional princi- results in relation to the Episcopal seigniory. ples such as the circle and the cross, which informed In 1405, under King João I, the long agony of the the urban symbolic forms of the High Middle Ages, Episcopal seigniory came to an end with its ac- and after them, the geometry and layout of regu- quisition by the Crown. In practice, however, the lated urbanism, had in S. Domingos a moral epicen- new restricted Borough, consequent to the Law of tre of order, social identity, harmony and Christian Municipal Powers (1391) that substituted it, made it values. Socially and politically, this nucleus was em- into a true urban collective seigniory which saw its bodied and strengthened in the alliance with men territory successively enlarged by King Fernando I of the Borough. It was the incarnate image of the and by the Lord of Avis. In one gesture, at once of Common Good, which the theological tradition of symbolic-spatial appropriation and challenge, the the late Middle Ages identified with the city itself. Borough erected its new municipal building on the The Common Good, however, was not egalitarian. Roman wall of the Bishopric, next to the Cathedral Its two fundamental ideas were that the whole is towers. The new Town Hall therefore coincided greater than its parts and that the originality of these with the final extinction of Episcopal power. It re- should be respected. For Thomas Aquinas there was used, however, the crenellated tower that was its one law for the merchants and quite another for the significant morphology. A novelty was introduced, however: the square tower gave way to a structure Belmonte between the walls of the Mendicant convents, then the that adopted the rectangular shape of the long and Olival hill, continuing via “Karraria Antiqua” – later Rua de Cedofei- narrow bourgeois plot that had developed from the ta –to the Ave, intersecting with the former near the present Largo 14th Century in Rua Direita. The formal invariability, de Carlos Alberto. The Cathedral and Santo Ildefonso were bor- characteristic of the objectivity of absolute space, dered by the Vila do Conde/Matosinhos/Lordelo/Penafiel road, gave way, little by little, to the variability of subjec- which was linked, in Massarelos, with another access road to the tive representation. Ave, the “Via Veteris”: this joined the “Karraria”, after passing the The city of the King would be the fragmented, nom- Colegiada de Cedofeita, at Padrão da Légua and, on Olival, inter- inalist and exclusive city of the late Middle Ages. sected with the road coming from S. Nicolau near the western end Representation, which was its main driving force, of the Calçada de S. Domingos, after rounding, where the Men- was expressed in the restrictive social topography dicant convent was built in the 13th Century, another old chapel. of the levelling urban layout of Rua Nova and the Finally, the Alfena/Guimarães road left from the Vandoma Gate Jewish quarter, and in the market in the newly cre- in the Roman wall taking a course that, before reaching the shal- ated Ribeira plaza. King Afonso V compared Rua lows known as “portu de Carros”, was named Rua de Carros (Cf. Nova to his palace: “... the street was the saloon AFONSO. A Praça…). On the Roman road from Vila de Conde, the and the houses the chambers, the monastery was “Via Veteris” and the “Karraria”, also see: ALMEIDA, p. 167 et seq; FREITAS, p.50 et seq. and ALMEIDA, Brochado de, p.155 et seq [8] BARROS, p. 38.
CITAR JOURNAL 42 the chapel and the plaza the garden ...”[8] The city, indeed like the house, no longer coincided with a universal symbol, being understood as a collection of private spaces. In Rua Nova and the Jewish Quarter, these were exponents of regulated planning that the Borough had not been able to undertake throughout the century, since, in 1316, King Dinis had supported its claims to the public squares of the episcopal city. However, in Praça da Ribeira, a space for royal representation delegated in the municipal power, the councillors were unable to build a consistent morphology. Figure 1: Porto in the 15th Century Throughout Europe, the aristocratic vertical- ity of Arèvalo succeeded the horizontal and mendi- cant communitarianism of Eiximenis , and the 14th Century city displayed inside its walls three divisions of landscape with very different nuclei of property, social and economic components, stratigraphies, morphologies and meanings: Ribeira, with Rua Nova and the square of the same name, the Olival with the Jewish Quarter, and the eastern part of the city with its sacred Roman nucleus. This city, however, resulted directly from the city of the Common Good that preceded it. Thus, the royal wall that encircled Porto in the 15th Century, with its gates and two convents - Santa Clara and Santo Elói – which were erected inside it in the 15th Century, as part of the first movements of the Reformation, still depended on the plan centred on S. Domingos (fig. 1, 2, 3). The dysfunctionality of the 14th Century town, however, was felt from early on and the image used by the Figure 2: Old porch of the Convent of São Domingos “African” implied a desire for social aggregation that would be the hallmark of the Renaissance city. It would then be the appropriate time for Alberti to revisit and update an old idea of Isidore of Seville: …If (as the philosophers maintain) the city is like some large house, and the house is in turn like some small city, cannot the various parts of the house— atria, xysti, dining rooms, porticoes, and so on—be considered miniature buildings?.[9] The main agents of the aggregation of the city from the late Middle Ages were, however, neither archi- tects nor urban planners: This role was, in some way, played by ritual. The procession of “Corpus Christi”, whose first record dates it back precisely to Porto in the reign of 1417, would help identify society, morphology and symbol around a sacred image. Its iconic language offered citizens a very special intimacy with the saints and relics, and through it, a foretaste of a desired and promised collective future salvation. Images and relics had intensely meaningful relationships with urban spaces, not just because devotees wanted to see and touch them, but also Figure 3: City plan in the 14th century [9] ALBERTI, Leon Battista. De re aedificatoria, 1.9.Apud FRU- GONI, p.4.
CITAR JOURNAL 43 because parading them around the city celebrated, social, or “external”; in the latter case they had the like the Mendicant plan, the “communitas”, bring- ability to transfer power to the institutions that pos- ing the urban space close to man. The processions sessed and worshipped them, and also to the whole transformed the city of the late Middle Ages into a of society. In this sense, the interest of the Crown place of continuous moralising representation. At can be understood, and the important role it played the same time, they were supposed to contribute in encouraging the cult of St. Pantaleon. In fact, it to the affirmation of a public space which their per- was King João II (1481-1495) who made a decisive sistent parading helped design. Moreover, and no contribution to establishing the Pantaleon follow- less important, their ability to invest the city with ing. In his will, dated 1495, he gave detailed orders meaning could condition it socially and therefore for the construction of a silver chest for the relics, morphologically. and it may be that the monarch visited them in the At the end of one era or, if you like, at the beginning church of Miragaia when he was in Porto between of another, the processions also served to affirm November 1483 and January 1484, since a cult of S. the supremacy of the Cathedral in the urban space; Pantaleon in the parish church is documented as therefore to displace there a centrality that the Common Good concentrated in S. Domingos. The entrance of Porto into 15th Century Modernity coin- cided, therefore, with an event of major urban con- sequence: the transfer of the icon of St. Pantaleon, mysteriously borne away in 1453 to the outskirts of Miragaia, to the Cathedral. Thus, a ‘natural’ order was reinstated: the route from one peripheral point to a central and definitive place, culminating in an exemplary way the rite of passage that had begun in Constantinople.
2 | St. Pantaleon The image of the mystical body, created by St. Paul and then combined with the ancient organicism in Polycraticus of John of Salisbury (1159) was, from the 14th Century, also applied to the political com- munity. While it had already informed the Dominican centrality of the 14th Century urban plan, in the 16th Century it would be one of the recurring metaphors Figure 4: Reliquary of São Pantaleão to signify the order and harmony of the republic, with the King at its head. It would also be crucial existing since 1478 (fig. 4) in the urban reformulation which then took place. The concern of King João II and the care with which, On 12 December 1499, Bishop Diogo de Sousa, in his last will, he referred to the construction of the in solemn procession, transferred the relics of St. silver chest surprise the researchers. Such atten- Pantaleon, deposited in the parish church of S. Pedro tion may even mean that the King was involved in de Miragaia, to the Cathedral [10]. Relics are instru- the mysterious arrival of the sacred relics in Porto, ments of power, both immanent or “internal” and at a time when, after the fall of Byzantium in 1453, Europe was beset by reports of sacred spoils com- [10] CUNHA, vol. 2, p182, NOVAIS, part 2, vol. 3, p. 223-234. Re- ing from New Rome, the former Constantinople, and cent historiography does not question, in general, this repatria- that the crusade against the Turks was the issue of tion; the same is not the case, however, with the solemn proces- the day. It is no surprise, therefore, that it was Diogo sion through which, according to D. Rodrigo da Cunha and Pereira de Sousa, Bishop of Porto from 1495 to 1506, who de Novais it would have been carried out (MACHADO, A., p. 199). had been Dean of the Chapel of the “Perfect Prince” Resende Mendes suggests that it may have been done, not in the in Évora, and was sent by him as ambassador to pompous ceremony mentioned by the two 17th Century authors, Rome, who ordered the transfer of the body to the but in “...a discrete and economical act–that of making use for the Cathedral. The prelate would have been well aware benefit of a cathedral without relics of any significant value of of the power of relics: in Braga, already raised to an the bones of the thaumaturge, which were marginally worshipped Archbishopric, he would continue this policy, and it in a church outside the city walls...”(MENDES, p. 135-136).Carlos was not by chance that he was associated with an Azevedo, however, classifies it as “pure historical truth”(Azevedo, ambitious urban renewal plan. p.104). At the end of the Middle Ages, as stated by St.
CITAR JOURNAL 44 Bernardine of Siena, it was the objects, not the plac- of King Manuel, due to the particular circumstances es, that were sacred. The centre, a space at once surrounding his ascent to the throne. The new po- mental and social, had become extremely volatile litical cycle and new iconography also assumed a and the supernatural power of the relics once more new type of relationship between the Crown and the deposited in the Cathedral would contribute to its Church; it was, in the 16th Century, and following a fixation. The anthropomorphic theory, which had trend that came from the past, different from what already served the Mendicant plan, was now put was practised in the Middle Ages. If the Portuguese at the service of the State, so that the interest of monarchy did not have a tradition of the sacred- the Crown in the development of the Pantaleon cult ness of royal munus, with King Manuel, if it was not would not peter out with King João II. His successor, completely assumed, it was at least strongly sug- King Manuel I, when he passed by the city on his way gested. The Church was duty bound to the will of to Compostela in late 1502, ordered the completion the Christian monarch, or at least should cooperate of the chest, but slightly altered the last wishes of with him in the plans to reformulate the State. To this his predecessor. He ordered that the chest should end, royal power extended its remit to ecclesiastical display, on the external face: reform and control of the clergy, while the inclusion “…Images of his Martyrs and Passion, those that rea- of the sacred in the political would have been a sine sopnably fitted around his tomb on the outside face, qua non condition for the survival of the Church as since it shall have no silver or images against the an institution. In Porto, this political alignment of the wall…”[11] clergy was facilitated, in the first half of the century, . What was actually made under the orders of the by the fact that there was a succession of courtesan “Fortunate” is described in the Catálogo dos Bispos bishops holding office. We have already referred to do Porto: D. Diogo de Sousa and the important part he played “…On it can be seen the arms and designs of the in the transfer of the relics, but others followed: D. two Kings who commissioned it to be made, the Diogo da Costa, D. Pedro da Costa, D. Frei Baltasar five shields of Portugal being on one side, and on Limpo and D. Rodrigo Pinheiro. The removal of the the other the Pendant of King João the Second, a remains of the Holy Martyr to the Cathedral was not, Symbol with which he wished to demonstrate the therefore, associated only with the establishment of love that he had for his people. In the middle of the a new urban centre. It was an essential part of the two insignia is the image of the glorious Martyr, the construction of a cultural system, equally “central”, patron and protector of the City…” [12] with renewed religious, symbolic, ideological and Devotees could not ignore the royal heraldry when morphological values. A system that would, through they were praying in the Cathedral, or saw the sacred the sacred, be able to influence the behaviour of icon in procession through the streets of Porto, and the people, and whose model can be found in the St. Pantaleon was not the only case in which the “Roma triunphans” of Nicholas V. The city of the advent of relics was associated with the emergence popes was therefore reinvented according to a set of a new cycle of political power. While, under King of rituals, liturgical revitalisation and works directed João II, the beginnings of a Modern State in Portugal at both the spiritual and the temporal, which would were put in place, this plan was be continued and be crowned by the affirmation of the centrality of even intensified institutionally with the ascension of St. Peter’s in the Vatican. Manuel I to the throne. His key idea was to convert In this way, the intense urbanistic activity that oc- the old fragmented mediaeval country into a unified curred in the first half of the 1500s in Porto is indis- national territory. Bearing in mind this aim, which sociable from the Pantaleon traslatio and its sig- was far from being achieved, the visibility of the King nificance. Both were instrumental in the programme in the land was essential. This, however, could not undertaken by the Crown, which relied on the close be done only with his physical presence, so other cooperation of the Church and its Bishops. Both means were also employed through his symbolic were also efficient and highly elaborate forms of representation. representation and, as such, overcame the limita- The marked tendency to embody thought in images, tions of an ineffectual State apparatus that, rather which was a feature of Western culture from the 15th than being the motor, was often an obstacle to the Century and one of the structural characteristics of political aims of the State. Another form of repre- the mindset of the time, was accentuated in the case sentation, equally complementary to the State ap- paratus, was the construction of formally regular, or [11] SOUSA, D. António Caetano de. Provas da história genealógi- regularised, urban landscapes. The development of ca da Casa Real Portuguesa. Coimbra : Atlântida – Livraria Editora, the Pantaleon cult was therefore accompanied in 1947, book 22, part, p. 210. Apud MACHADO, p.195. Porto by the remodelling and regularisation of the [12] CUNHA, vol. 2, p. 184-185. daily Market Square in Ribeira, commissioned by
CITAR JOURNAL 45 King João II after a fire there in 1491. “cittadelle sacrée” of royal origin, was founded in 1518 Thus, the affirmation of the central sacred space to host female members of the urban aristocracy, through the repatriation of the relics had a paral- in an area of gardens and orchards belonging to lel in the royal redefinition of a secular centre for the Bishop, next to the Carros wicket gate, near the the city which, due to the contingencies of local old “portum de rriuo de Carros” river crossing and history and the premature assertion of the market, the road from Guimarães, in front of the Santo Elói unlike what happened in most Portuguese towns, monastery. The location of the convent therefore had prematurely separated itself from the religious followed the dual tradition of urban convents: the core. This parallelism was common in European cities sacralisation of the city gates and their proximity to towards the end of the Middle Ages. Other interven- important thoroughfares. tions occurred at the same time: there were works to Rua das Flores, which linked the two intramural hills extend and regularise the facades on Rua das Eiras of Olival and Penaventosa and, at the same time, (1495), near the entrance to the cathedral close, as balanced the city from Ribeira to the North, used a a result of the opening of a route that connected written, semi-orthogonal topography which included it to the Santa Clara wicket gate, where the Santo cross-streets and service roads. It also incorporat- António do Penedo Chapel was erected. Shortly af- ed into its peripheral system new streets like Ponte terwards, when he passed through the city in 1502, Nova, Calçada dos Canos, Calçada da Cividade and King Manuel ordered the facades of the houses in Rua de Carros, later Rua Nova de S. Bento, now Rua Nova to be regularised. Rua do Loureiro and squares such as Largo de S. The renovations undertaken by the Crown did not Domingos, Largo da Cividade and Largo de S. Bento. signify a revolution, however. In fact, they took place On the Southeast, the articulation of the system with following the appropriation of local practices and the episcopal city, Rua Nova and Ribeira was also prerogatives that had often been granted as a privi- implemented through the great activity that the lege by the rulers. This was the case with economic Dominicans built up during the first quarter of the regulation, tax collection and the exercise of Justice; century in the environs of their monastery, succes- from the 14th Century, through its progressive con- sively parcelling out the banks of Rua da Ponte de trol, the State began to expand its functions. The S. Domingos (1514), Rua de S. Domingos (1514) and practice of regulated town planning was also part of the upper part of Rua das Congostas (ca.1524). Not this process. It came to a climax with King Manuel, only the Convent of S. Bento da Avé-Maria, but the with a profusion of laws and regulations, particu- whole new road system that made up the Manueline larly in the street layout of Lisbon. In Porto, with its plan for urban expansion, including Rua de Belmonte rules about frontages and materials, there were also from east to west, and Rua da Ferraria, Rua da Rosa examples of this process, first in Rua de Belmonte, and Rua das Flores [13] in the north-south direction, then in Rua das Flores. Rua de Belmonte, between S. Domingos and the [13] The layout, along Rio da Vila, between S. Domingos and the monument of the same name, was built by Royal Carros wicket gate was divided into two segments at the end of Decree in 1503, straight after the visit of Manuel the Middle Ages. The first, to the south, between the Dominicans “the Fortunate” to the city. It was the first of a se- and Rua do Souto (now Rua dos Caldeireiros) was occupied in ries of interventions that focused on the belt of old the 16th Century by the Rua das Flores proper; despite there be- Mendicant convents, most of which were ecclesi- ing documentary records of another path, earlier than this road, astical property. This was followed by the link from it was of very little importance, pedonal and practically private. S. Domingos to the riverfront, effectively using a This, however, was not the case between Souto and the wicket route that substituted the old Roman road which, gate, the route taken in the 16th Century by Rua dos Canos. This from S. Nicolau, climbed the hill to the S. Domingos was an important, public route, because it linked, at the right bank road, which, as we have seen, was a stretch of of the Rio da Vila, the old “Portu de Carros” and the road from the Amarante/Penafiel/Porto/Matosinhos/Vila do Guimarães that passed there, with the episcopal city, through Rua Conde road. This route included two streets, initially do Souto. It should be noted, however, that the use of the Carros called Rua Nova de S. Francisco (ca. 1520) and Rua wicket gate in the 15th Century was intermittent, and it is possible da Rosa, or Rua das Rosas (1523). The former, which that the nearby Santo Elói or the Fonte da Arca wicket gates, met King João’s Rua Nova, was carved out of the replaced it for traffic from the Guimarães road. The construction enclosure of the Franciscan convent; the latter, as inside it of an inn, and the location of the Rocamador Hospital well as Rua de Belmonte, out of the Dominican veg- nearby point to this possibility. However, none of this stopped the etable gardens. general south-north direction that the link between S.Domingos The new street met the new Rua das Flores which, and the Guimarães road took being important in the formatting heading North, joined S. Domingos at the Benedictine of the 14th Century city and walls. This, however, was only com- convent of S. Bento da Avé-Maria. This convent, a pletely acknowledged with the building of Rua das Flores in 1521
CITAR JOURNAL 46 as well as their intersection opposite S. Domingos, State was endeavouring to implement, of which were offset by the main drivers of the 14th Century urban planning was one mechanism, would not plan. It therefore continued to be the most powerful be totally effective if it did not also try to achieve formative element in the intramural urban landscape emotional identification with its subjects. New cults in the 1500s (fig.5). were therefore instituted: the dynastic around King Manuel and, in the case of Porto, of St. Pantaleon, stand out amongst them. The same aim of a direct link to the subjects, accompanied by the shaping of the image of the ideal prince, determined the elaborate entrance of “the Fortunate” into the city in 1502. This emotional identification also relied on an appropriation of sacred ritual. While it explained the political component since the Middle Ages, the novelty in the 16th Century was a change in the out- look of this component. In this way, instances of royal interference would follow, at the beginning of Figure 5: Urban expansion during the 1st half of the the century, in the city’s main celebration, that of 16th Century “Corpus Christi”. If, in the past, and particularly for the great importance the Borough had in the or- However, it would be wrong to confuse the urban ganisation and financing of the festivities, it took on creation of the time in the Rio da Vila valley with many of the relevant aspects of a civic religion, with what preceded it. If they have points in common, if the community element that the term supposed, both followed the plans, controlled by the political then royal supervision, which would be implemented power, which exhausted their capacity for organicity, with Bishop Baltasar Limpo (1537-1550), with the in the 1500s the planning techniques that this power active collaboration of the bishopric, would tend to had were more refined, for the ability to measure devalue this character. While, formally, it continued space, the intensification of the regulations and their with the hierarchical participation of the clergy, the application, for the spatially expressed will to create elite and the master tradesmen, it would be toned social topographies and for the conditioning of the down in terms of a general meaning in which the relationship between architecture and the surround- rite tended to be increasingly institutionalised, with ings. There was, therefore, in the 16th Century plan- increasing signs of royal meddling in it. ning of the valley, an implicit connection between the power, the architecture and the urban space. 4 | Baltasar Limpo However, unlike what happened in the absolute It is possible to divide 16th Century Porto into two space of the 13th Century Civitate, for example in distinct periods, separated by the figure of the Lada or Miragaia, it required effective external codes, Carmelite Bishop Baltasar Limpo. In the first, which iconographic or linguistic, so that the integrity of covered the reign of King Manuel and the first part their spatial experience was completely grasped. of the reign of his successor, King João III, the city The Royal arms were therefore placed on the Gate was developed and expanded through the devel- of Miragaia, while an inscription in Latin referring to opment of the Rio da Vila valley. “The Fortunate” the opening of Rua das Flores by King Manuel was was also concerned with improving navigational and engraved on the New Gate of Carros, and Rua das access conditions in the Douro: the Marca Tower Flores and Rua dos Canos, destined respectively for was erected in a place, Cristelo, where there was the aristocracy and the master tradesmen, were the already an Arab “almear”, the fishery grounds were object of various façade rules, more extensive in the removed, a jetty was constructed and improvements former. It is therefore in King João’s Rua Nova and were made to the entrance to Ribeira, making it an its innovative capacity of representation that we important axis for drainage formed by Rua Nova de should look for the immediate precedents of 16th S. Francisco, Rua da Rosa, Rua das Flores and Rua Century developments, because its houses had to dos Canos which intersected with the old Braga, Vila display icons depicting the various holders of the do Conde and Guimarães roads. direct control of housing, especially the Bishopry, In a second phase, and pursuing this policy, Porto the Chapter and S. Domingos. Thus, social identi- was also preoccupied, as a result of the initiative ties were created and conditioned, also, through the of the Bishop of Viseu, D. Miguel da Silva, with the perfect and precise embodiment ability with which improvement of its outlet to the sea, which led to the image was already at that time invested. the creation, in Foz do Douro, of an elaborate hu- But the ideological programme that the Modern manist, urban and architectural programme carried
CITAR JOURNAL CITAR JOURNAL 47 47 out by D. Miguel’s private architect, Francisco de merchants seem plebeian. Cremona, following his return to Portugal in 1525. In The bishopric of D. Baltasar Limpo coincided with Foz, the speed of Mercury rode the fluidity of the these transformations. At the start, the Carmelite Neoplatonic “chõra”. was also associated with a neoplatonic and human- The friendship of D. Miguel da Silva with the city’s ist programme, that of the Serra do Pilar monastery New Christian converted Jesus circles which, lit- (begun 1537). With its dual Augustinian rotunda, tle by little, were replacing the old patrician elite the monastery was also conceived to act as an im- in mercantile activity, increasingly associated with portant landmark for navigation approaching the the landowners’ and tenants’ lifestyle of the gentry, river port of Ribeira. Later, he collaborated with the suited well their construction policy and the dem- reformer Friar Brás de Barros, a key figure in the onstration of the capacity for individual initiative construction of the Serra monastery. Together with that they assumed. In fact, it is highly probable that him, they commissioned in 1540 the same Diogo de Porto suffered at the start of the 16th Century from Castilho who was in charge of the Serra works, along the concentration of an overseas trade monopoly with João de Ruão, to construct a college in Rua da in Lisbon, a phenomenon that was one of the key Sofia in Coimbra, originally intended for the diocesan themes in the development of the capital city of the clergy of Porto and eventually allocated to members territorial State at the start of the Modern Era. During of their Order, works that were associated with the this period, therefore, the international maritime new concept of city that Baltasar Limpo upheld and trade of the city went through a phase of strategic to the renewed role of guide and reformer that its adaptation and reformulation, which entailed the pastor should perform. These principles were clearly creation of new destinations for its ships. The New expressed at the time of his solemn entrance into Spanish Christians, coming from Castile and arriv- Porto on 24 May 1537. ing in Porto in 1491, played an essential role in these For the ceremony, Baltasar Limpo chose not the transformations. Simultaneously, they contributed New Gate, where royal entrances were usually made, to the growing social complexity of the city, form- but the parish church of S. Pedro, in the suburb of ing an important group capable of competing in Miragaia. He disembarked from a skiff on the sandy economic terms with an urban elite in which there shore in front of the temple, equipped and adorned were visible signs of crisis. With their access to inter- with flags by the Borough and, after entering the national contacts, they created powerful commercial church, took the relic bust of St. Pantaleon which companies and participated, firstly in trade with the contained the remains of the martyr into his hands. Portuguese islands in the Atlantic, a key step in the Beneath a canopy supported by six clergymen, he economic revival of the city, then, in a second phase then carried the relics in solemn procession to the in mid-century, with Brazil, the Indies of Castile and Cathedral. Flanders. Thus, while the traditional elite, on becom- Through the invocation of a founding myth, Baltasar ing dependent on the Crown, became associated Limpo stressed the continuity of the History of the with a parasitical economy, the entrepreneurial in- Christian city, since the church of S. Pedro was, dividualism of the New Christians put the city at the according to the tradition of which D. Rodrigo da centre of the dynamic landscape of urban networks. Cunha tells us about 90 years later, the temple that The activity and success of the New Christians, housed Porto’s first Cathedral, whose first Bishop however, contributed reactively to the progressive would have been St. Basil. D. Rodrigo da Cunha rea- institutionalisation and embedding of the central dopted a mediaeval tradition, published for the first cultural, economic and social place to which we re- time in 1513, but then adapted to the saga of St. ferred above. Increasingly dependent on the Crown, Pantaleon. According to this memory, it was Roman the old elite was shut out - from the 1550s, for exam- Christians, carrying with them the remains of St. ple, the institution of entailments banned marriages Pantaleon, who were the founders of the riverside with New Christians - and their actions against the temple and, therefore, of the city itself. converts were not more significant only because the It is possible, in accordance with the humanist notion Atlantic free trade practised by them propelled the of “reformatio”, according to which the eternal truths city into an era of progress which obviously bene- of medieval culture, the “deformatio”, should be fited it. Porto society, therefore, became much more considered ephemeral and debatable, that Baltasar complex than in Mediaeval times. As if this were not Limpo had intended to question the memory of the enough, it had to cope with newcomers who were origin of the city, and relocate it to the Cathedral. wealthier, better educated and better integrated into If that was so, he will have prematurely understood already modern, wider, more responsive and effec- that the ritual could rewrite the urban tradition, and tive commercial networks. The somewhat mysteri- therefore be a key element in a strategy whose aim ous activities in which they engaged made the old was to strengthen the centrality and authority of
CITAR JOURNAL 48 the Cathedral. After three decades and two Bishops for structuring a community were applied, stand- (the brothers D. Jorge and D. Pedro da Costa) whose ards that, as such, would condition the existence tenure was marked by abandonment and neglect in of the city and, more than this, of the State itself. pastoral affairs, that authority had been seriously Processions brought a degree of mystical commun- undermined, making it urgent to continue the work ion to the public space, capable of making it rise to begun by D. Diogo de Sousa, for its definitive conse- a kind of independent purity. The monarch of the cration as a place of symbolic preeminance. The im- confessional State could be proud of being their portance of ritual in the genesis of the city had been source, since not only the general laws regulating established at least since Ancient Greece. Baltasar the street but also, frequently, those that drove its Limpo, on the eve of the Council of Trent and the representation through ritual, emanated from him. Counter-Reformation, of which he is considered a The effectiveneess of these actions, however, was precursor, at a time of deep transformations and far from being absolute, just as the power of the intense ideological and religious debate, invested it Modern State and its urban intervention were far not only with its traditional role of urban unifyer, but from being absolute. Nostalgia for the expansive also with an innovative capacity for steering the city and fluid mediaeval space was long-lasting and had in a new direction. enough repercussions and strengths to muddy the Baltasar Limpo understood that ritual had become discriminating purity. Once again, these symptoms a major form of integration and ideological control. erupted in the ritual. Thus, in the 17th Century, the In this sense, he was also amongst the first to real- “Corpus Christi” procession would cease to pass ise the necessity to discipline its iconography. His through Rua dos Mercadores because the residents Constitutions, following those of D. Miguel da Silva, would place chairs in front of their houses to watch insisted, based on a concept of Erasmus, “…because the cortège. In fact, it would take some time before external things give a signal and understanding of the the street stopped being regarded as the front patio virtue and honesty within…”[14] on the importance for each house. of the public image of the clergy. The same principle The process, therefore, was slow and not without gave rise at this time to the removal of non-religious contradictions, but the new dynamic relationship activities from the cathedrals, and led Baltasar Limpo between urban space and power would accentu- to purge the profane from the procession of “Corpus ate something that survived from as early as the Christi”. Subsequently, since ritual would be taken as Middle Ages, but was now systematised: the first a decisive element in “Christianisation”, understood would be the privileged stage to enact the second, as the dynamic re-sacralisation of the urban space, an enactment that would be done not only through the Council of Trent would examine the issues re- ritual, but also by the increasingly intense use of the lated to the reinstatement of outward observances, medium of architecture with which it was closely as- thus clarifying the public image of the clergy. Thus, sociated. There was, in effect, an explicit relationship a series of prohibitions and the strict regulation of between both: Alberti, in the church of Sant’Andrea processions would be formalised in the Constitutions of Mantua, had already explored the rhetoric capac- of Friar Marcos de Lisboa (1585). They had a particu- ity of architecture, in its interaction with the urban lar focus on the public image of the clergy and, in landscape, through its localisation in a point of great the Statutes of the Chapter House, published under ritual density. Bishop D. Jerónimo de Meneses, the notion of de- The plaza in front of the porch of S. João, inside the corum in the public place in which the procession Vandoma Gate, and the churchyard in front of the would take place, was also emphasised, with bans Cathedral adjacent to it, were places used since the falling on the dress of participating canons as well. Middle Ages for the departure and return of pro- All this regulation resulted, largely, from the increase cessions and ceremonial parades for the entrance in ritual arising from “Christianisation”. It had its par- of monarchs and ecclesiastical dignitaries, and nat- allel in the clarifying directives on religious art is- urally had identical capacities. It was here, where sued by Trent and incorporated in the Constitutions regulations and restrictions relating to the vicinity of Friar Marcos de Lisboa, occurring alongside an of the sacred, to the symbolism of the gates and the intensification in the production of municipal by- solemn, slow pace of arrivals and departures, that laws. Regulations, rituals, and municipal bylaws the secular building of the City Hall was erected in were responsible for significant changes in the way the early 15th Century. In the 1500s, the roles were of looking at the street, which was now seen as a reversed and it was the turn of the renewed reli- fundamentally political reality, where the standards gious power to invest in the square. The work was begun by D. Diogo de Sousa, who replaced the old (Cf. AFONSO). mediaeval porch of the Cathedral with a “modern”- [14] CONSTITUIÇÕES, 1541, p. 63. type porch, and it was continued in other ways by
CITAR JOURNAL 49 Baltasar Limpo. accentuated the mastery of the city over the coun- The intervention of the Carmelite in the environs of tryside, separating one reality that was previously the Cathedral had a close antecedent in the Foz of inseparable. In this way, in the first half of the 16th D. Miguel da Silva, just as the public image of his Century, Porto attracted not only nuns lost in the clerics had a precursor in the priests of Viseu; both desert of temptation, or a relic half-hidden in a sub- assumed a representative quality through the telling urb, but also the neighbouring grandees. The same of a story, which was able to interact with the sur- cultural factor caused the “ennoblement” of Rua das rounding environment, integrating the space added Flores and the oligarchical city of the 16th Century at the end of the Middle Ages in a unified narrative. in general, which succeeded the Common Good, to The remand prison and the ecclesiastical auditorium, result from the aesthetisation of a social class. This the fountain, the design, which never came to frui- migration of concepts originated in the transforma- tion, of a new City Hall in which the representative, tions of the urban ideology occurred from the begin- horizontal subjectivity of the façade replaced the ning of the Modern Era, at the expense of the decline objectivity of the vertical symbolism of the tower; of the mediaeval community spirit and the ideas the chapel of Nossa Senhora de Agosto, probably a of Aquinas. These considered the city as the urban layout based on an original plan centered; the reor- framework through which man could impose himself ganisation of the interior of the cathedral through on a natural environment that was in no way inferior the ordering of the altars and its pinnacle in the to him. The open city, which had the sole purpose revolutionary crosspiece dome, with lantern and in- of developing the Church’s programme, founded on ternal baluster veranda, which the Sicilian master the idea of peace, happiness and harmony, premoni- André, possibly sent for from Italy by D. Miguel da tory of the kingdom of God. This was the ideal of Silva with Francisco de Cremona, made in the tran- justice and equality to which the Mendicants made a sept. The coherent narrative with which the interior decisive contribution. Their alliance with the market, and exterior spaces of the cathedral were invested however, had detrimental side effects, hastening the pressuposed the existence of a plan that was, in fact, end of the seigniorial system, and with it, the uni- presented to the Councillors in 1537: in front of the versal utopia of the Church. The Neoplatonic “Imago porch, this plan transformed the mediaeval square Urbis”, which upheld the Christian view for more into a “Plaza”. than a millennium, would eventually sink into the Baltasar Limpo thus deepened the policy begun by secular Mendicant ideal of the city of the Common D. Diogo de Sousa, taking the different activities Good and its political organisation. of pastor, builder and governor further, while the At the beginning of the Modern Era, the Church sacred nature of the first always placed it far above also had a global project: the Catholic Counter the other two. It was a humanist attitude that, as Reformation of the mid 16th Century, the direct heir we said, went back to Nicholas V and saw, in the of the Humanism that preceded it came to be se- promotion of architecture by ecclesiastical dignitar- verely condemned. Now with the complicity of the ies, whether sacred or profane, a way to better fulfil State, it strove to make the sacred once more the their duties to God. In the new Praça de S. João, the centre of the world. In this plan, however, the Church syntagmatic and self-sufficient ensenble of the old would only retain its identification with the organicist square broke down. If it was conceived to be lived metaphor from the old concept of Christian com- in, Baltasar Limpo’s plan transformed it into a space munity. In Porto, demographic growth intensified in that, essentially, was intended to be perceived. the first decades of the 16th Century, and the city expanded, but the social divisions became more pro- 4 | The fortress nounced. Processional life had been able to integrate The convent of S. Bento da Ave-Maria was erected and catalyse these elements, although it was already in 1518 in Porto, bringing together various rural com- noticeable in the first decades of the century, that munities from convents located in secluded spots: “… no-one appeared to know for certain what the place to house women and in which few works in the ser- of Jewish converts was in the organicist plan. This vice of God were performed…”. The prophylactic and was not the case, however, after the 1540s when, on cleansing function of the city in relation to deviant the establishment of the court of the Inquisition, it behaviour allowed by the rural wilderness is evident became perfectly clear. in this excerpt from the Royal order for the foun- The new concerns of the confessional State would dation. The theme was revisited on the building of focus, therefore, on sealing the openings in the body Rua das Flores (1521), in which rurality and urbanity mystic, expelling its heretics – which, at that time are associated with aesthetic features, respectively and place, meant the New Christians, active repre- “deformity” and “ennoblement”. sentatives of the innovative, free Atlantic trade – and In fact, breaking with mediaeval tradition, Humanism seeking to keep all its members in good order. The
CITAR JOURNAL 50 boundaries of the new social body were drawn by the Inquisition proceedings that arise simultaneously with the Modern State, and especially through its grand moments of collective catharsis, the autos- de-fé. Basically, the Inquisition served the objectives of the various constituent bodies of a State that was trying to regain control of a market that was quickly escaping it. In Porto, the court was created by King João III on 30 June 1541 and brought to an end by the Papal bull Mediatatio Cordis on 16 July 1547. It was then still Bishop Baltasar Limpo, who incidentally was one of those largely responsible for the final restoration of the Inquisition in Portugal and as a re- sult was rewarded with advancement to Archbishop Figure 6: The procession of “Corpus” Christy before of Braga. During the period the court held sway in 1559 Porto, two autos-de-fé were carried out in the city, in 1543 and 1544, both outside the Olival Gate. Sealing the social body was also carried out through the intensification of the processional ritual. From mid-century, celebratory, anti-heretic processions multiplied, parades having turned into a factor of drama and protection of the identity of the Catholic city. In 1555, under Bishop Rodrigo Pinheiro, a pro- cession for the conversion of England was organised. Other similar ones followed, standing out amongst them that of 1272 which commemorated the mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew, and another, two years earlier, that went from the Cathedral to S. Domingos. The Edict of Faith was then published, and a sermon was delivered by the Rector of the Jesuit College, Rui Vicente, both for the visit of the court of the Figure 7: The procession of Corpus Christi after 1559 Holy Office. The reorganisation of devotions through ritual consolidated a practice that, at the end of the ing of the city: in the second half of the 1500s, the Middle Ages, was already a fully developed struc- pre-Mendicant Roman site, fearful behind its walled ture. Trent enshrined it, declaring the processions circle, burst back into the urban iconophilia. Note the a “sacred ritual”. They became the leitmotiv of the words of Friar Manuel da Esperança when, in 1599, post-conciliar ecclesia triunfans. he alluded to the mediating action of St Pantaleon The main sign of urban transformation conveyed in the great plague that raged at the time and, mi- by ritual was, however, through altering the route raculously, spared Porto: of the most important procession, that of “Corpus”. “... Not only its neighbouring people of Massarellos, Its traditional route had kept the mediaeval city of Gaia and Villanova were consumed, but also the sub- the merchants open, since it would go, alternately, urbs that touch on its walls; all kept away time and to S. Pedro de Miragaia and Santo Ildefonso, the two again for ailing of this contagious illness, it always pre-Roman chapels outside the walls. However, from maintained its health through the intercession of 1559 the route was restricted to a circuit inside the the Virgin Mother and the holy merits of its patron perimeter, starting and finishing at the Cathedral and saint…” [16] particularly focusing on the old western ring road of The national Modern State took upon itself to bring the Rio da Vila valley. It is interesting to note that the to heel and surround the mediaeval city with for- City Council was aware of the pernicious effect that tifications. With the new urban cycle, the expan- this measure would have on the council plots outside sive “chõra” of D. Miguel da Silva, symbolised in the the walls of Santo Ildefonso, started in the expan- whole, identical to the Roman port of Ostia, which he sion phase in the first half of the century. It decided undertook in the Douro and, above all, in its matrix, that, at least on the eve of the “Corpus”, banners and was finally immobilised inside a fortress. At the end cerimonies would always go to Santo Ildefonso: “so as not to empty the streets” [15] (fig.6,7). [15] Apud AFONSO. A Imagem, vol. 1, p. 132. The restriction on rituals corresponded to the clos- [16] ESPERANÇA, p. 396.
CITAR JOURNAL CITAR JOURNAL 51 51 of the century, one of the greatest, if not the great- God - the churches, like Correggio realised early on, est concern of the Porto officials was to reinforce were not only sacred places, but above all crossing the old wall and construct “modern style” bastions points to the divine - which at that time also meant like the fort of S. Filipe next to the New Gate. This that it took a mediating position between them and concern coincided with the unprecedented influx of the State. a contingent of foreigners taking up residence in the city. A sacred circle of chapels strategically placed 5 | The clear city: the image must stand out in gates and outside the walls doubled the defence, The Royal edict of 1559, which ordered the restric- because the stones of the 16th Century wall were no tion of the “Corpus” procession to the interior of the longer the Mendicant symbol of the community of walls, obeyed the desire for an urban image format, men, but the sign of their separation. They marked with the consequent dichotomy in geographical, the area of activity of the Holy Martyr consecrated political, social and significance terms between the by the processional rites of protection, while also inside and the outside of the walls. It was also able expelling to the outside heretics sentenced in the to formalise an “anima urbis” similar to that which autos-da-fé. As a result, Atlantic trade suffered a Nicholas V had made in Rome about a century be- tough blow with the flight and expulsion of the ma- fore, as the processional route almost exclusively jor New Christian families at the end of the 1620s. followed the valley of the Rio da Vila, its roads, in- In Seville, giant hollow plaster statues with the con- cluding the Manueline residential areas and the city’s demned inside were even set on fire. At a time of historic markets, principally Ribeira and S. Domingos. intense iconophilia, the image of the wall was much At the same time, it contributed to the vertical and stronger than its stones. hierarchical aggregation of the urban social fabric, in The increased symbolism of the walled perimeter a way that would be complemented by the creation would also delay the final disappearance of the dis- of new parishes inside the walls in 1583. tinction between inside and outside, or if you will, The “Corpus Christi” ritual built a canonical narra- between the regulated, purified and highly ritualised tive about Porto, returning to the example of the urban area inside the walled city and the suburbs entrance of Baltasar Limpo in 1537. For this, however, outside it, which were identified with the country- certain prosperous areas, like Rua de S. Miguel, the side. Thus, in the early 17th Century, Santo Ildefonso old Jewish quarter and the western end of Belmonte, and Miragaia, outside the walls and excluded from in which the Augustine convent of S. João Novo the ritual of “Corpus”, were, at least in the minds was founded in 1592, were excluded from its route. of Porto’s inhabitants, still mainly areas of vegeta- These were the residential areas favoured by the ble gardens, the same which in the first quarter of major New Christian bankers and were therefore the previous century, debased the intramural city. In associated with the new Atlantic economy. It did, 1590, however, the records for the parishes located however, pass through Rua das Eiras and Rua de within the city walls listed no-one whose profession Cimo de Vila, immediately before the Vandoma gate was a farmer. So it comes as no surprise to find that gave access to the cathedral close, where the references to the closure, even if occasional, of the towers of several old patrician families in town were proud New Carros Gate, built in 1526 at the north- concentrated, particularly that of Rodrigues de Sá, ern end of Rua das Flores, which was supposed to Lord Mayors since King João I. Its aim was to pro- welcome urban expansion beyond the walls. Apart duce a “pure” “public” area in Porto, roughly coincid- from the avenue of Cordoaria and Carmo, it would ing with the old Mendicant peripheral ring and the only be reused in a structured way in the late 17th ritual aspect would contribute to its clarification in Century, with the construction of the Congregados the actual intra-mural area. However, this anima urbis and then, in the 18th Century, with the opening of was not completely formalised, and according to the the New Plaza. pioneering example of intervention in the Cathedral The Counter-Reformation, as an essentially urban conducted by Baltasar Limpo, without the repre- movement, only accentuated a culture of suprem- sentative and identitary character of the architec- acy of the city, which ascended to Humanism, to ture and the new means of graphic representation. “Devotio Moderna” and the first, still mediaeval, It was the Jesuits who were largely responsible for movements of Reform. Thus, models of belief and this operation. behaviour were proposed which, spreading from The Society of Jesus, which was one of the main urban centres, were universally imitated. The city catalysts of “Christianisation”, fully understood the of the early Modern Era, an internalised bastion, far lesson of Alberti: the city was seen as a profound- from the surrounding rural environment and its eco- ly ritualised stage, capable of capitalising on the nomically exploited inhabitants, became a mediator, representative possibilities of architecture. Like the not only between men but also between them and Mendicants three and a half centuries earlier, their
CITAR JOURNAL 52 teaching concentrated on a persistent task of pros- of S. Lourenço. This survey, without doubt one of the elytism and urban evangelisation. From the city, the first to be made of the city, would have followed the Jesuits would conquer a rural world they regarded degree of objectivity and precision possible at the as little short of barbaric. Father Inácio de Azevedo, time. The scientific modernity of the Renaissance, from Porto, after travelling for two months in the however, as is evident in the thinking of one of its province of Trás-os-Montes, declared its inhabitants leading theorists, Alberti, a pioneer in the differen- to be stupid and rude; other Jesuit missionaries com- tiation between graphic representation and con- pared the Minho people to Gentiles and those from struction, did not mean an abrupt break with the the Beiras to the Negroes of Guinea. Mediaeval scholastic culture which, as a matter of The first Jesuits arrived in Lisbon in 1540 and quick- fact, was one of the topoi of the Jesuits. This perma- ly established themselves in the most important nent dialectic between modernity and mediaevalism Portuguese urban centres: Coimbra in 1542, Évora can, for example, be detected in the Aldas steps, in in 1551, Porto in 1560. The rapid arrival and expansion front of the College. of the Society of Jesus was due to the invitation and The steps, built from 1595, were intended to link, protection of King João III. From the perspective through their four flights, the Aldas terrace, where of the Monarch, it was a well-prepared army capa- the College was sited, to the upper plateau of ble of putting into practice the Portuguese plan for Penaventosa, where the Cathedral was situated. Christian evangelisation, which ran alongside that They fan out, framing the escarpment, in a semicir- of expansion. It would also be able to strengthen cular landing inspired by an engraving by Serlio: it Christian morals and worship in Portugal’s European is a manifestation of the “concordatio” between the territory and reinvigorate a highly deficient culture delicacy of art and the harshness of nature. It is also, and education. This is why the King came to be in the wild “terribilita” of the escarpment, which is known as the second founder of the Society of Jesus. metamorphosed into the order and permanence of The Jesuits were also a decisive instrument in the the semicircle of steps, an affirmation of the real- final alignment of the “Pious King” with the Catholic ity of the image and therefore of classical fullness Counter-Reformation, which led to the shift in politi- borrowed from antiquity. This was its modernity; cal culture that occurred during his reign. simultaneously, however, the way it overcomes the The Jesuit concept of the city as a sacred stage and, difficulties of the escarpment is the mirror image of consequently, as the scene in which the procession the Neoplatonic ascension theory which, inciden- and preaching representations should be simultane- tally, was recovered by St. Ignatius in his Spiritual ously encapsulated, hardly fitted the cramped and Exercises. claustrophobic setting of Barredo, next to Ribeira, The same understanding of the possibilities and where the Apostles, led by S. Francisco de Borja, importance of the image presided over the choice settled on their arrival in Porto. Thus, they quickly of the site for the College of S. Lourenço, facilitat- moved to a new location on the high platform of ing its close relationship with the city. However, in Aldas on Penaventosa hill, next to the Cathedral. the absence of a plan, it could hardly have been Besides reinforcing the idea of obedience, one of achieved. Sited lengthwise on the narrow Aldas ter- the fulcral concepts in the thinking of Inácio, the race, the College incorporated the movement of the new locale provided the ideal conditions for an ur- old street existing there; it seems to advance on the ban setting of an historical nature that the Society city, with joyous, didactic and exemplary energy. This craved. In it, architecture was the final element in was perfectly justifiable, since the importance given a long chain, whose links were the various formal, by the Jesuits to the architecture and the site fits historical and symbolic components of the urban into the Ignatian method of “seeing the place” and landscape. With this aim in mind, the Society did owed much to the identification that the Society es- not neglect the optimisation of all the possibilities tablished between itself and education. This ranged for articulation provided by the new forms of iconic from the construction of schools and churches to representation. It is in this sense that the obligation the establishment of brotherhoods, from preach- to send to Rome the detailed plans of each city in ing to the creation of theatrical pieces that quickly which a new College was to be founded should be would be developed in the Colleges. In this sense, understood. S. Lourenço was an urban performance, whose un- In Porto, however, the Society’s architects, prob- abashed visuality was able to raise the spirit and ably either Bartolomée de Bustamente or Silvestre character of the city’s inhabitants. It is also, accord- Jorge, undertook an urban survey. This must have ing to the Jesuit concept of art, a morally uplifting been prior to 1570, when the new site for the College story, the mediator subject of individual experience, had already been chosen. Three years later, on 20 capable of guiding the senses, the intellect and the August 1573, the first stone was laid for the College spirit of everyone.
CITAR JOURNAL 53 penetrability of the old symbol. Their transparency resulted from the policy of consensus and social identity around the confessional State, implemented after the middle of the century by King João III, who ritually demarcated the “anima urbis”, structured it and vertically framed it by the division into parishes and sealed it by the ritualised organicist metaphor. The primacy of representation, however, had begun well before in the valley: the Dominican centrality had decrypted the absolute symbolic space in the ideal of the Common Good; the Joanine Ribeira and Jewish quarters fragmented it into the exclusive Figure 8: The Cathedral and the Jesuit College of regulated urbanism, and the morphologically and São Lourenço (bottom right) socially hierarchicised extensions of King Manuel initiated their modern systematisation. S. Lourenço dominated the valley of the Rio de At the start of the 17th Century, the image should Vila, while submitting hierarchically, in a creative jump out of the picture. The shadow in which the counterpoint of tension, but not disharmony, to the eastern city from the Penafiel road and the suburbs Cathedral (fig. 8). It introduced a “Weltanshauung” were plunged would enhance the pure clarity of the into Porto; a new language of the visible. Two oth- narrow Mendicant valley. A contiguity that was re- er reformed establishments quickly followed in its quired to make the “Weltanshaung” effective, rein- footsteps: S. João Novo (1593), which, in the same forcing the theatrical exposure of the State through way, had its façade facing the city and S. Bento da the variety and suitability of the representations. A Vitória (1598), whose foreshortened façade rose at State that, like a system of hierarchical differences the top of the hill of the old Jewish quarter, facing and oppositions, is recognised through the immedi- the cathedral. The classic principle of a live harmony, ately noticeable visuality of the signs inflated by the arbitrarily formed, seems to have presided over this ostentatious practices of the architecture. arrangement, subordinate and semi-circular, around Porto thus acquired the façade, in the full sense of the Cathedral and the valley of the Rio da Vila. This, “facies”, that remained with the city throughout the become “anima urbis”, established itself as the place Modern Era. It gave it a clear and instantly recognis- of the plot, woven by the eye, between the religious able identity, a result of the stratigraphic dialectic be- architectures that rejoiced with mutual vision and tween the mediaeval ichnographia, the 15th Century afforded, like the ritual man “... the bright feeling of exclusivity, the Manueline expansion and the actions being like the others ...” [17]. of the Counter-Reformation that the Baroque would The analogical thinking, long-held in Western cul- only refine. An “istoria” had already been tried by ture, from Ambrose to Thomas Aquinas and from Scotus Erigena to Saint Augustine [18] concurred in this way, alongside the scientism of the new iconic ways of graphic representation, for the renewed plan for the valley of the Rio da Vila. But the pres- ence of large architectural masses - the new Casa da Relação would be erected next to the Benedictine monastery from 1607 - also expressed the ubiquity of Church and State. In Porto, they were the most visible signs of the “Petrifaction” movement that invaded the European city of the modern age. As synoptic and hyper-representative architectures, they showed such a strong desire to materialise the dogma that little remained in them of the im-
[17] MISHIMA. Le Soleil et l‘Acier. Apud LEGENDRE, Pierre. Margin note. Un object digne d‘acclamations … Soulever la Question litur- gique en Occident. In: KANTAROWICZ, Ernst C. Laudes Regiae. Une étude des acclamations liturgiques et du culte du souverain au Moyen Âge, Paris: Fayard, 2004, p.10. [18] TAFURI, p.31. Figure 9: The city plan in the 16th Century
CITAR JOURNAL 54 participação de uma confraria. Revista da Faculdade de Letras. História, 2nd series, 10 (1993), p. 117 e ss. BARROS, Amândio Jorge Morais. Alterações nas elites mercantis portuguesas no tempo dos Reis Católicos. O caso da cidade do Porto. In: Congreso Internacional Isabel La Católica y su época (Luis Ribot Garcia and Julio Valdeón Baruque, coords.). Valladolid-Barcelona-Granada 15 to 20 November 2004, p. 2 et seq. (at press).
[8] BARROS, João de. Geographia d‘Entre Douro e Minho e Tras-os-Montes. Porto: Porto Municipal Public Library, 1919.
Figure 10: The anima urbis in an engraving of the [9] BASTO. Artur Magalhães. O estabelecimento da 18th Century Companhia de Jesus no Porto. Boletim Cultural da Câmara Municipal do Porto, 4, fasc. I (March 1941), Baltasar Limpo in Praça de S. João. In Catholic Porto, p. 25-49; 5, fasc. I (March 1942), p. 36-57. the image of the city narrated in the stone and in the skyline its history, made social, political, theological, [10] BETHENCOURT, Francisco de. História das urban and iconographic dogma (fig. 9,10). Inquisições. Portugal, Espanha e Itália. Lisbon: Círculo de Leitores, 1994. REFERENCES [1] AFONSO, José Ferrão. A imagem tem que saltar [11] BRANDÃO, Domingos de Pinho. Teologia, ou o rebate dos signos. A cidade episcopal e o Porto filosofia e direito na diocese do Porto nos sécu- intramuros no século XVI. Propriedade, ritual, rep- los XIV e XV. Alguns subsídios para o seu estudo. resentação e forma urbana (1499-1606). [Roneoed Studium Generale. Boletim do Centro de Estudos text]. 3 vols. Barcelona, 2008. Dissertation (PhD in Humanísticos, 7 (1960), p. 242 et seq. the Theory and History of Architecture). Barcelona School of Architecture, UPB. [12] BUESCU, Ana Isabel. Imagens do príncipe. Discurso normativo e representação (1525-1549). [2] A Praça da Ribeira (part 1). Revista Mvseu (at Lisbon: Edições Cosmos, 1996. press). [13] CALABI, Donatella. The market and the city. [3] ALMEIDA, Carlos Alberto Brochado de. Via Square, Street and Architecture in early Modern Veteris. Antiga via romana? Actas do Seminário Europe. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004. de Arqueologia do Noroeste Peninsular. 3 vols. Guimarães: Sociedade Martins Sarmento/Revista [14] CAMPOS, Fernando. As devoções de D. João II. de Guimarães, 1980, vol. 3, p. 155 et seq. Esta é a cabeça de S. Pantaleão. Lisboa: IPM, 2003, p. 53 et seq. [4] ALMEIDA, Carlos Alberto Ferreira de. Vias me- dievais de Entre Douro e Minho, Dissertação para a [15] CARDOSO, Isabel Botelho. Concelho e senhorio. licenciatura em História [Roneoed edition]. Porto: O Porto (1385-1433). Master’s thesis in Mediaeval Faculty of Letters, 1968. History for the Faculty of Letters of the University of Porto [Roneoed edition]. Porto: FLUP, 1993. [5] ALVES, Ana Maria. Iconologia do poder real no período manuelino. A procura de uma linguagem [16] CARITA, Helder. Lisboa Manuelina e a formação perdida. Lisbon: INCM, 1985. de modelos urbanísticos da época moderna (1495- 1521). Lisbon: Livros Horizonte, 1999. [6]AZEVEDO, Carlos Moreira. Pantaleão de Nicomédia: percurso biográfico, na memória da per- [17] CHOAY, Françoise. Urbanism and semiology. sistente devoção europeia. In: Esta é a cabeça de S. The city and the sign. An introduction to urban se- Pantaleão. Lisbon: IPM, 2003, p. 91 et seq. miotics (M. Gottdiener; Alexandros Ph. Logopoulos, eds.). New York: Columbia University Press, 1986, p. [7] BARROS, Amândio Jorge Morais. A procissão 160 et seq. de Corpo de Deus do Porto nos séculos XV e XVI: a
CITAR JOURNAL 55 [18] COMBLIN, Joseph. Théologie da la ville. [s.l.]: [30] FREITAS, Eugénio de Andreia da Cunha e. Éd. du Témoignage Chrétien, 1968. Estradas velhas entre Leça e Ave. Douro Litoral, IV Série I-II (1950), p. 50 et seq [19] CROUZET - PAVAN, Élisabeth. Sopra le acque salse». Espaces, pouvoir et societé à Venise à la fin [31] FRUGONI, Chiara. A distant city. Images of ur- du Moyen Âge, 2 vols. Rome: École française de ban experience in the medieval world. Princeton: Rome, Palais Farnèse, 1992. Collection de l‘École Princeton University Press, 1991. Française de Rome, 156. [32] GOMBRICH, E. H. Symbolic Images. In: Gombrich [20] CRUZ, António. Um reformador pré-tridentino. on the Renaissance, 2 vols. London: Phaidon, 1993, D. Frei Baltasar Limpo prelado do Porto e de Braga. vol. 2. Boletim Cultural da Câmara Municipal do Porto, 25, fasc. 3-4 (January/December 1980), p. 91 et seq. [33] GUIDONI, E.. Città e ordini mendicanti. Il ruolo dei conventi nella crecità e nella progettazione ur- [21] CONSTITUIÇÕES Synodaes do Bispado do bana del XIII e XIV secolo. Quaderni Medievali, 4 Porto ordenadas pello muito Illustre & reverendis- (1977), p. 69-106. simo Senhor Dom frey Marcos de Lisboa Bispo do dito Bispado. Coimbra, Por Antonio de Mariz, 1585. [34] HESPANHA, António Manuel, As vésperas do Leviathan. Instituições e poder político. Portugal – [22] CONSTITUIÇÕES sinodaes do bispado do Porto séc. XVII. Coimbra: Almedina, 1994. ordenadas pelo muito reverendo e magnifico Senhor Dom Baltasar Limpo Bispo do dicto bispado. Porto: [35] HUIZINGA, Johan. The Waning of the Middle Vasco Dias Tanquo de Frexenal, 1541. Ages. Hardmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1990 [23] COUTO, Padre Luís de Sousa. Origem das pro- cissões da cidade do Porto. Porto: Câmara Municipal [36] E GOFF, Jacques. L’apogée de la France ur- do Porto/Gabinete de História da Cidade, 1936. baine médiévale, 1150-1330. In: DUBY, Georges (dir.) Documentos e Memórias para a História do Porto, 1 Histoire de la France urbaine. Paris: Seuil, 1981, vol. 2, p.183 et seq. [24] CUNHA, D. Rodrigo da. Catalogo dos Bispos do Porto, 2 vols. Porto: Officina Prototypa Episcopal, [37] EFEBVRE, Henri. La production de l‘espace. 1742. Paris: Anthropos, 2000.
[25] DIAS, José Sebastião da Silva. A política cultural [38] LEGENDRE, Pierre. Margin note. Un object digne da Época de D. João III, 2 vols. Coimbra: University d‘acclamations … Soulever la Question liturgique of Coimbra, 1969. en Occident. In: KANTAROWICZ, Ernst C. Laudes Regiae. Une étude des acclamations liturgiques et [26] Correntes do sentimento religioso em Portugal du culte du souverain au Moyen Âge, Paris: Fayard, (Séculos XVI a XVIII), 2 vols. Coimbra: University of 2004, p.9 et seq. Coimbra, 1960. [39] LILLEY, Keith D. Cities of God? Medieval urban [27] ESPERANÇA, Frei Manuel da. Historia sera- forms and their Christian symbolism. Transactions of fica da ordem dos frades menores de S. Francisco the Institut of British Geographers, 23 (September na Província de Portugal, 2 vols. Lisbon: Oficina 2004), p. 296 et seq. Craesbeekhiana, 1656. [40] LUCAS, Thomas M., S.J. Landmarking. City, [28] FERREIRA, J. Augusto. Memorias archeologico Church & Jesuit Urban Strategy. Chicago: Loyola historicas da cidade do Porto (Fastos Episcopaes e Press, 1997. Políticos). 2 vols. Braga: Cruz & Compª Editores, 1923. FOUCAULT, Michel. As palavras e as coisas. Lisbon: [41] MACEDO, Maria de Fátima. “Esta: cabeça: leixou: Edições 70, 2005 Gonçalo da Cunha: meio cónego”. In: Esta é a cabeça de S. Pantaleão. Lisbon: IPM, 2003, p. 251 et seq. [29] FREGNA, Roberto. La pietrificazione del denaro. MACHADO, Ana Paula. Histórias em torno das Studi sulla proprietà urbana tra XVI e XVII Secolo. relíquias e dos relicários de São Pantaleão no Porto. Bologna: Editrice Bologna, 1990. In: Esta é a cabeça de S. Pantaleão. Lisbon: IPM, 2003, p. 185 et seq.
CITAR JOURNAL 56 guês. Coimbra: Almedina, 2002, p. 361 et seq. [42] MARTINS, Fausto Sanches. A Arquitectura dos RYKWERT, Joseph. La idea de ciudad. Antropología primeiros colégios jesuítas em Portugal: 1542 -1759: de la forma urbana en el Mundo Antiguo, Madrid: cronologia, artistas e espaços [texto policopiado]. Hermann Blume, 1985. Porto 1995 . Dissertation (PhD in History, speciali- [53] SILVA, Francisco Ribeiro da. A criação das sation in Art, presented at the Faculty of Letters, paróquias de S. Nicolau e Nª Sª da Vitória (1583). University of Porto). Aspectos sócio-económicos e religiosos da época. Porto: Paróquias de S. Nicolau e Nª Sª da Vitória: [43] O Colégio de S. Lourenço 1560-1774. Summary 1984. paper for aptitude tests for a career in teaching [Roneoed edition]. Porto: FLUP, 1986. [54] O Bispado do Porto à luz das Constituições Sinodais da Época Moderna: valores clericais e [44] MATTOSO, José. A história das paróquias em normas de comportamento. In: I Congresso sobre Portugal. In: IDEM. Portugal medieval. Novas inter- a Diocese do Porto. Tempo e lugares de Memória. pretações. Lisbon: INCM, 1985, p. 37 et seq. Homenagem a D. Domingos de Pinho Brandão. [45] V. «Paróquia». In: AZEVEDO Carlos Moreira de Minutes, 2 vols. Porto/Arouca: Centro de Estudos D. (dir.) Dicionário de História Religiosa de Portugal. Domingos de Pinho Brandão/Universidade Católica- 4 vols. Lisbon: Círculo de Leitores, 2000, vol. 4, p. Centro Regional do Porto/Faculdade de Letras da 372 et seq. Universidade do Porto-Departamento de Ciências e Técnicas de Património, 2002, vol. 1, p.57 et seq. [46] MEA, Elvira Cunha de Azevedo. A Inquisição de Coimbra no século XVI. A instituição, os homens [55] O Porto e o seu termo (1580-1640). Os ho- e a sociedade. Porto. Fundação Eng.º António de mens, as instituições e o poder, 2 vols. Documentos Almeida, 1997. e Memórias para a História do Porto, XLVI. Porto: Porto City Council Historical Archive, 1988. [47] MENDES, Nuno Resende. Corpo em estilhaços. O culto patronal a São Pantaleão “do Porto”. In: Esta [56] SOALHEIRO, João. São Pantaleão entre o mun- é a cabeça de S. Pantaleão. Lisbon: IPM, 2003, p. do antigo e os novos mundos. “Orientale lúmen”. 124 et seq. Esta é a cabeça de S. Pantaleão. Lisbon: IPM, 2003, p. 69 et seq. [48] MUIR, Edward. Ritual in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 [57]TAFURI, Manfredo. Sobre el Renacimiento. NASCIMENTO, Aires de; GOMES, Saul. S. Vicente Princípios ciudades, arquitectos. Madrid: Cátedra, de Lisboa e os seus milagres medievais. Lisbon: ed. 1992. Didaskália, 1988. WESTFALL, Carrol William. In this most perfect para- dise. Alberti, Nicholas V, and the invention of con- [49] NOVAIS, Manuel Pereira de. Anacrisis Historial, scious urban planning in Rome, 1447-55. University 4 vols. Porto: Biblioteca Pública Municipal, 1912-1915 Park and London: the Pensylvania State University O‘MALLEY, John. Trent and all that. Renaming Press, 1974. Catholicism in the Early Modern Era. Cambridge, Massachussetts/London, England: Harvard [58 ]WHITEHAND, J.W.R. Reflexiones sobre la mor- University Press, 2000. fologia urbana. WHITEHAND, J.W [et al.] Morfologia Y paisage urbanos: la perspectiva geográfica bri- [50] OZMENT, Steven. The Age of Reform 1250-1550. tánica. Lleida: Department de Geografia y Història, An Intellectual and Religious History of Late Medieval Facultat de Lletres, Universitat de Lleida, 1989, p. 9 and Reformation Europe. Yale: Yale University Press, et seq. 1981. FONTS [51] ROSSA, Walter. A cidade portuguesa. In IDEM. Figure 4 – Photo by José Pessoa, published in: Esta A urbe e o traço Uma década de estudos sobre o é a cabeça… urbanismo português. Coimbra: Almedina, 2002, p. Figures 5, 6, 7 – Based on carthograms published 194 et seq. in: OLIVEIRA, J.M. Pereira de. O Espaço urbano do Porto. Condições naturais e desenvolvimento. 2 [52]O urbanismo regulado e as primeiras cidades vols. Coimbra: Instituto de Alta Cultura – Centro de coloniais portuguesas. In: IDEM. A urbe e o traço. Estudos Geográficos, 1973 Uma década de estudos sobre o urbanismo portu-
CITAR JOURNAL 57 FROM SINGING MATERIAL TO INTANGIBLE POETRY: THE MUSIC OF JUNQUEIRO
--- Henrique Manuel S. Pereira ---
CITAR JOURNAL 58 The poet lives by words as the musi- terpoint) without even knowing that ostensive use of metaphor, visually cian by sounds. One or other of the he is doing it. But, though Teixeira de and aurally expressive images, pauses threads with which both build, inves- Pascoaes considers him the “supreme that are eloquent silences, sequences, tigate, decipher and seek to express musician,” this is not exactly what The reiterative structures, synaesthetic wonderment refers back to the or- Music of Junqueiro is about. Not even, and onomatopoeic processes, a vast der of the originary. In the beginning in the conventional sense of the term, range of nuances, of technical-com- was what? The network of ancient about an anthology, since that implies positional, rhetorical-stylistic, ideo- cosmogonies and the imbricate lexi- choosing according to certain criteria. thematic aspects, interwoven in a cal and semantic web of documents The Music of Junqueiro fits into harmonious, seamless music, concur and sources that give shape to our the broader scope of Revisiting/ both for the modulation of what is concepts bear witness to the univer- Discovering Guerra Junqueiro, a pro- the music of Junqueiro, and for direct sal operative power of both sound ject of the School of Arts, Sound and communication with the reader or lis- and syllables. The word is the purest Image at the Catholic University of tener, easily consigning the verses to symbol of the manifestation of being, Porto. It could be said that, like much memory. of the being that thinks himself and of what came after it, it was born This will help to understand that from expresses himself or the being that unexpectedly, i.e. without being in- the point of view of response, Guerra is known of, and communicated by tended or contemplated at the start. Junqueiro has been a unique case in another. Expressing the person, the So what was this start? Only the idea Portuguese literary history. No other word is part of its dynamism. Even if of making a documentary, Nom-de- poet, whatever the period being ana- by analogy, does the same claim not guerre, The Journey of Junqueiro, in lysed, attained such popularity. The apply to music? which, using the voice of the Poet as effectiveness of the poetry-reader Who can tell of the secret ritual in much as possible, what was sought communication meant a mighty which verse is born, or map the con- was a portrait that took into account power of persuasion, able to seduce, stellation of ideas, or the tumultuous the multiple facets of this polyhedral charm, convince of its truth. This hap- swarms of syllables and sounds that persona: thinker, farmer, politician and pened in a society marked by a high are born in the orchestration of a diplomat, scientist and prominent art level of illiteracy in which music was poem? But if sound seems to precede collector and thinker. Recourse would the fundamental language and collec- the word, as the emotions precede be made to published and unpub- tive means of communicating feelings the words, let us ask the same ques- lished documents, the testimony of and meanings. Many, not knowing tion about music or any other form of scholars and admirers of Junqueiro, how to read, learned by ear and re- Art and its creators. Everything hap- his works and thoughts. But what sup- cited by rote extensive compositions pens in that elusive, secret territory of port for this product would be given of Guerra Junqueiro (such as O Melro, artistic creation, in that enthusiastic by music? Without this representing from A Lágrima) or even entire books. game of matches and mismatches per se a difficulty, we wanted to go And if knowing by heart implies an with reality. further: that music was not mere il- appropriation and has something of Nothing authorises us to say that lustration or gap-filling, even though possession, it is also knowledge of the Guerra Junqueiro (1850-1923) knew beautiful and effective, but another heart. It would, therefore, be useless music or was able to read music form of the Poet expressing himself. and demeaning to ascribe his seduc- beyond the most elementary level - The work of Guerra Junqueiro was tion to specific audiences. The work even though, from a certain point he done and driven by an essential musi- of the Poet served audiences differ- lived in a house inhabited by music. cality, which is one of the most com- entiated by taste, social status, cul- Both his daughters played piano and pelling and commanding aspects of ture and political persuasion. the youngest, Julia, excelled at the its majestic language, somewhere That said, and accepting as unques- violin, to the point that, for example, between sarcastic, epic, lyrical and tionable that there is a characteris- in a public concert in 1898, she played religious. tically Junqueirian music, a music, the allegro from Mozart’s 3rd Quintet Words, like music, are liable to various therefore, of Junqueiro, it is not sur- with Gilhermina Suggia on cello; and modulations; they are, or can be, sing- prising that many musical composers, even if he openly, to write some poet- ing material. Guerra Junqueiro knew in different styles, geographies, times ry, sought inspiration in certain pieces it and demanded that it was so: what and generations, have found a source by Beethoven, which reminded him “doesn’t have music... is useless!”, of inspiration in his work, so one can of those “immortal melodic souls of what “doesn’t sing, doesn’t vibrate, speak of a music for Junqueiro. We great epic tales that have died...”. is no good!”. Based on this evalua- know it today, because prior to the However, music also allows empirical tion criterion, the verse of Junqueiro’s Music of Junqueiro only half a dozen achievements in which the artist fully work is stretched, loiters, stops, danc- musical compositions written us- complies with the rules (in the case of es or sets off running like giddily roll- ing verses by Guerra Junqueiro were solfège or harmony and even coun- ing waves. Rich rhymes, vocal strata, known.
CITAR JOURNAL 59 How would we know if there were book with double CD, comprising for- freezing the reading and interpreta- others? And, in the likely event that ty tracks lasting more than two and a tion of his work and action. there were, how would we undertake half hours, which feature critics, art- The idea of The Music of Junqueiro this research without a bibliography ists, composers, performers and read- has already surpassed the Portuguese to guide us? It was, therefore, as you ers. The impossibility of accessing borders. We know that, in Spain, can imagine: a thorough investigation, scores, and the restrictions of means around Curros Enríquez, and in Brazil, using various conventional and un- required for their performance, made based on the work of Olavo Bilac, suspected sources, to discover them, it unfeasible to record all the works something similar, with recognised and another study, just as – or more – surveyed. and expressed emulation, is in the difficult, combined with good fortune, Presented in the form of a narrated making. to locate and access the scores. concert, that would result in a DVD, After this archaeological process, The Music of Junqueiro attracted which managed to find thirty-seven three hundred emerging and well- compositions, a number that testifies established people, of several gen- to the extraordinary reception that erations, from within and outside the work of the Poet had, the over- the School of Arts of the Portuguese whelming majority of which are now Catholic University in Porto, with var- unknown and unpublished - writ- ied but converging contributions, in ing for the voice, soloist and piano, a extraordinary and enthusiastic syn- capella choir and choir accompanied ergy. by piano predominate in a collection The collection of syllables and musi- of Portuguese and Brazilian compo- cal notes assembled perhaps concur sitions – the question arose: why not for a fuller historical intelligibility and revisit Guerra Junqueiro with our con- critique of the personality of Guerra temporary sensibilities and language? Junqueiro and will open, perhaps - if From this jazz, pop, hip hop, electron- viewed from the perspective of the ic attires were born, as well as other thematic source of our literature (its less well defined styles. poets, composers and musical per- The Music of Junqueiro (which, in the formers) – to the vast field of musical end, is the music of and the music for research that is glimpsed in it. All the Junqueiro) covers nine books of poet- more so because a consensus tends ry by the Poet from Freixo de Espada to become established on the claim à Cinta: A Morte de D. João (1874), that poetry is “the greatest intellec- A Musa em Férias (1879), A Lágrima tual creation of the Portuguese” and (1888), A Marcha do Ódio (1890), because if there is poetry that is my- Finis Patriae (1891), Os Simples (1892), thographically identified with its lan- Oração ao Pão (1902), Oração à Luz guage, of which it is the original ma- (1904), Poesias Dispersas (1920). trix, that poetry is Portuguese. As is These represent a survey of forty- known, especially in the late 19th and four poems by Guerra Junqueiro set early 20th Centuries, the fraternal co- to music, amongst which are two existence between poetry and music symphonic poems, and cover a time- wove a web of fruitful relationships. span which goes at least from the It is not, however, about re-establish- 1880s to 2009. In a range of compos- ing the prestige of Guerra Junqueiro, ers and compositions of inevitably since this task would be impossible uneven quality, here are names such and an improbable anachronism, so as Luís Freitas-Branco, Óscar da Silva, intimate is the relation between text Cláudio Carneiro, Fernando Lopes- and society in the work of the Poet Graça, J. Viana da Mota, Barroso and so disproportionately resounding Neto, António Fragoso, Berta Alves was his reception. The academic pro- de Sousa, Tomás Borba, etc. ject, Revisiting/Discovering Guerra The original aim grew, therefore, inde- Junqueiro, is rather an attempt to res- pendently of the documentary, estab- cue him from the fog of oblivion and lishing a criss-cross of several artistic from the cultural ambiguity in which codes and, within each code, differ- troubled circumstances, orthodoxies ent forms of expression, made into a and conflicting powers bound him,
CITAR JOURNAL 60 CITAR JOURNAL 61 SMC 2009 6th Sound and Music Computing Conference | 23 - 25 | July Casa da Música | Porto
--- Nicolas Makelberge CITAR, Research Center for Science and Technology of the Arts| Portuguese Catho- lic University Ricardo Guerreiro CITAR, Research Center for Science and Technology of the Arts| Portuguese Catho- lic University. Vitor Joaquim CITAR, Research Center for Science and Technology of the Arts| Portuguese Catho- lic University. ---
CITAR JOURNAL 62 1 | Introduction forum in Europe for the promotion venue serving a large community of Porto, 23-25 July 2009. The of international exchanges around Porto artists and audiences. A loca- Portuguese summer is as always a Sound and Music Computing, a field tion famous for hosting concerts of memorable affair, especially if it is that approaches the whole sound and a wide range of music with varying windy beyond belief and with occa- music communication chain from a aesthetical intentions, a collaboration sional downpour, as was the case at multidisciplinary point of view. which proved to be a very rewarding the beginning of the SMC conference. By combining scientific, technological for both parts. Nevertheless, the sun finally prevailed and artistic methodologies it aims at Although Casa de Música, notoriously revealing its rays that Portugal is fa- understanding, modelling and gener- maze-like with its winding corridors, mous for, bathing the city’s facades in ating sound and music through com- peculiar elevator-system and many its warm glow from morning to sun- putational approaches. doors, could easily turn into an logis- down. Porto, built in the usual Latin Its core academic subjects relate to tical nightmare for everyone involved, way with many narrow streets neither musicology, physics (acoustics), engi- the organizers seemed to have parallel nor perpendicular, is an intri- neering (including computer science, planned the rather intense program cate city full of elevation that carries signal processing and electronics), to perfection and without any obvi- one up hills to beautiful views above psychology (including psychoacous- ous delays they kept the attendees the Douro River and Gaia city situ- tics, experimental psychology and entertained, curious, and interested ated just across from it. neurosciences) and music composi- throughout the entire four days. According to sources Portugal got tion. The SMC initiative is jointly super- its name from “Portus”- an ancient vised by the following European asso- 2 | Tutorials name of this very city with today’s ciations: AFIM (Association Française On the first day of the confer- approximate 250.000 habitants and d’Informatique Musicale), AIMI ence three tutorials were present- metropolitan area of around 2 million. (Associazione Italiana di Informatica ed. Composer and researcher from Revitalized in 2001 alongside with the Musicale), DEGEM (Deutsche Centre for Music and Technology in nomination for “European Capital of Gesellschaft für Elek¬troakustische Helsinki Mika Kuuskankare started off Culture”, Porto has developed its cul- Musik), HACI (Hellenic Association of by demonstrating the current status tural significance not only nationally Music Informatics) and IAMT (Iberian of PWGL, a visual programming lan- but also globally. With an extensive Association for Music Technology).” guage for computer aided composi- architectural tradition, the city contin- SMC 2009 was organized by the tion and sound synthesis, showing ues to be of architectural significance Institute for Systems and Computer some practical examples of which and still remains an important refer- Engineering of Porto (INESC Porto), not all performed to Mika’s expecta- ence much thanks to the renowned the Research Center for Science and tion. However, the improvements, and contemporary architect Álvaro Siza Technology in Art (CITAR) of the quality of the application became Vieira and his way of thinking con- Universidade Católica Portuguesa quite evident to most, not just for cerning the urban landscape. in Porto, the School of Music and computer aided composition but also Situated at the end (or beginning) Performing Arts (ESMAE), Porto’s for sound synthesis and music nota- of one of the largest avenues of the Concert Hall: the Casa da Música, tion, which, coupled with a straight- city, Avenida da Boavista, you’ll find and the Department of Electrical and forward graphical design, makes it an A Casa da Musica, which officially “is Computer Engineering of the Faculty open-source application with an in- the first new building in Portugal to of Engineering of the University of creasingly promising future. be entirely dedicated to music - to the Porto. In the second tutorial Olivier Lartillot presentation and public enjoyment of According to the organization, the from University of Jyväskylä, Finland music, to music education and to the SMC 2009 hosted two hundred par- ventured on a thorough overview creation of music.” ticipants from more than 50 countries, of the MIRtoolbox and emphasised A Casa da Música, its opening initially ranging from Hamilton, New Zealand some key aspects which aren’t yet scheduled to coincide with the year to San Francisco, US, while the con- properly documented. Following, of “Cultural Capital of Europe 2001”, ference website received 22.500 hits Bob Sturm presented some inter- first opened its doors on April 2005 from 110 countries across the world esting results from his on-going re- slightly behind schedule. The build- since its inception. Six events of the search on dictionary-based methods ings extraordinary display of modern conference where transmited via (DBM’s) of sound analysis a method architectural triumph joyously host- www.casadamusica.tv, and was fol- that he described to be for granular ed the 6th SMC - Sound and Music lowed online in 35 countries. synthesis what Fourier analysis is for Computing Conference, after previ- While main events were held at Casa additive synthesis. After expound- ously being hosted by Paris, Salerno, da Música, others were designated for ing some of the main concepts, an Marseille, Lefkada and Berlin. the Coliseum at Passos Manuel street; example of atomic decomposition “The SMC Conference is a privileged an old cinema turned multi-purpose processes was presented - the same
CITAR JOURNAL 63 topic of last year’s “best paper” at ogy specialist Bruce Pennycook went the International Conference on José C. Principe - Perception as Self- through the aesthetics of interactive Computer Music which Bob co-au- Organization in Space Time music and concerns regarding archi- thored. val issues, longevity of the music of The Director and Founder of the the genre, and general transient is- 3 | Keynotes Computational Neuro-Engineering sues concerning sound and music Atau Tanaka - From Mainframes to Laboratory (CNEL) of the University today. As major trends in the evolu- DIY Culture - Continuous Evolution in of Florida, was responsible for what tion of music have gone from patch Computer Music could be considered one of the more cords and knobs to computers, it un- inspiring talks of the conference by doubtedly changes the way we play, As the first keynote of the conference, “critically reviewing the tools used in perform and ultimately even think. Atau Tanaka stood for the more laid audio engineering and how one can Bruce was voicing his concerns about back but yet articulate presentation design new self-organized systems the longevity of many of his own that consisted of his own experience/ to quantify the world around us.” pieces and the music of the genre as observations in the field contrasted Professor Principe who is involved in a whole, as they aren’t performed in against the subject’s history. The biomedical signal processing, Brain the same way as traditionally scored presentation’s key points reminded us Machine Interfaces in particular, and pieces, some only be performed by about the ambiguousness of the roles the modelling and applications of a trained operator. On top of that, he of the instrument-builder/composer, cognitive systems, briefly reviewed questioned music-education’s reluc- producer/performer or consumer/ the science of sound which he cat- tance to pick up many pieces trans- participant, which aren’t as easily de- egorized into three epochs: from ferring them to students, and how fined and categorized as they used to Physics to Psycho-Acoustic theories this affects Computer Music, not only be. to finally arrive at today’s Computer anchoring the genre in history, but When it came to his own work, real- Auditory Scene Analysis (CASA). also grounds it in contemporary soci- time networked interaction through Professor Principe discussed the dif- ety, making it an active, shaping force the extensive use of sensors and min- ferences between the auto-correla- of music culture. iaturized mobile devices, analogue tion and the auto-correntropy func- combined with digital, open-source tion, concluding with what he said to | Oral Session 1 software use and development, and be his main point: “ - going beyond First off was the hot topic of Sonic the do-it-yourself (DIY) culture all play auto-correlation function is some- Interaction Design and a group a major role – just as in the computer thing that needs to be done”, to con- from IRCAM, McGill and Zürcher music research field in general. In his tinue on Self-Organizing Networks Hochschule der Künste in Zurich with Net_Dérive project (with its obvious and Self-Organizing Maps (SOM) the Flops glass - a glass-container situationist undertones) the audience where he stressed the importance embedded with tilt sensors which were presented with a first-hand ex- of letting the data design the system produces impact sounds when tilted, perience of Tanaka’s take on inter- (data providing the coefficient di- emulating falling objects out of the active composition: which often im- rectly), which he also related to the glass. A device specifically designed plies strategies and procedures com- necessity of reducing redundancy to study emotional reactions aris- monly found in Computer Supported (Which is the opposite of entropy, he ing from sonic interactions. Based on Cooperative Work (CSCW), by de- reminded us). three factors: “valence, arousal and signing multi-user instruments which As a final note Professor Principe dominance” and by changing sharp- may be played in concert-like situa- presented some computational neu- ness, tonality and naturalness of a tions / appreciated in an installation roscience related questions such as sound exposed to a test group, the or any other network performance “How does the brain perform compu- team tried to find out what reaction environments. tation associated with perception?” can be anticipated out of which char- When it comes to central issues sur- and “How do we enjoy music?” where acter of sound. By juxtaposing their rounding Tanaka’s own work, both he concluded that computation is study to similar studies of airplane as a researcher and as an artist, the emerging as the fundamental princi- sounds they found natural sounds dynamics of democratized digital ple to the self-organizing function of to be more pleasant and induced a forms and how they permanently the brain. greater sense of control in its sub- change and evolve, seems to be most jects compared to synthetic sounds. significant. He emphasized that his Bruce Pennycook - Who will turn the However, natural sounds were not concerns are well beyond mere tech- knobs when I die. experienced as calming, where es- nology, trying to understand greater pecially tonality didn’t seem to af- concerns which all may enrich our In his keynote, composer, new me- fect the types of emotional reactions musical approaches. dia developer, and media technol- measured, which contradicts earlier
CITAR JOURNAL 64 studies in the area. XML standard may transcend strictly | Oral Session 4 Next up was Eoin Brazil and Mikael musical content by applying it in a First up under the computational mu- Fernström from University of city pedestrian soundscape project sicology topic, the research team from Limerick, Ireland whom after a mo- conducted during the SMC 2008 in Aristotle University of Thessaloniki ment of technical issues (which on a Genoa. presented a technical proposal in whole were spared from the confer- order to solve the problem of inef- ence), presented research concerning | Oral Session 3 ficiency of the Voice Integration/ empirically based auditory display Session 3 concerned Interactive per- Segregation Algorithm (VISA) [ design. What at first could have been formance systems and started off Karydis et al. ] when dealing with seen as quite an undertaking to con- with the augmented African thumb cases where the number of streams/ sider everyday sounds and their de- piano named the “Hyper Kalimba”. voices change during the course of a scriptions/understanding/synthesis/ Through various sensors and Max/ musical work. Incorporating the prin- modelling to come out with a some- MSP, pitch bend, tremolo, extended ciples of both temporal and pitch what watertight SID design process, range and delay broadens the sound proximity and the Synchronous Note later proves quite convincing. By ex- possibilities of the Kalimba without Principle, they developed a new ver- tending existing SID methodologies interfering with any of its original fea- sion of the algorithm, to include an from emphasis on mere sound crea- tures to allow seasoned practition- improved mechanism for context- tion to highlight the empirical inves- ers to build upon existing knowledge dependent breaking of chords and tigation of the sound artefact created when exploring the hyper-instru- for keeping streams homogeneous. and how it is perceived by an audi- ment’s emerging sound possibilities. The new algorithm proved to gen- ence, they hope to provide a way to Max/MSP was also used in the DTW erate improved results when deal- “bridge the semantic gap between gesture recognition tool presented ing with a larger and more diverse low level perceptual studies and high- by the next speaker Frederic Bettens dataset (non-homorhythmic homo- level semantically meaningful con- from Mons in Belgium. Aiming to phonic accompanimental textures or cepts”. This, by among other things, give instrumental music performers even homophonic and polyphonic incorporating wider socio-cultural extended control over the sound of combined) than the one selected by considerations when working within their instrument by extending the “in- Karydis’s group (where the number of the proposed framework which they strument body” onto the whole per- voices remained steady throughout find lacking in current SID models. former and what traditionally would the musical work) without, however, be considered non-musical gestures, compromising its efficiency with this | Oral Session 2 the team proves a surprisingly re- older dataset. “Soundscapes” was the topic starting warding experience through viola Modeling Schoenberg’s Theory of off the next oral session, or more spe- player Dominica Eyckmans and her Harmony was the next topic on cifically their analysis and re-synthe- “Dancing Viola” project. the agenda with “A Computational sis. From CIRMA and the University Instrument/body was again the topic Model that Generalises Schoenberg’s of Torino came the next presenters with Motion-Enabled live electronics Guidelines for Favourable Chord whom, based on the notion of a lack (MELE) at a workshop part of Impuls Progressions” by Torsten Anders of models/applications which re- 2009 in Graz, Austria. In an attempt and Eduardo Miranda from ICCMR in synthesizes a soundscape (through to provide performers with more than Plymouth. They presented a formal the analysis on an existing one) pro- traditional pedals and switches to model that they proclaimed is ca- posed a method based on the prem- shape their sound in a more intuitively pable of working at the level of ab- ise that soundscapes are made up of manner, the team from University of straction presented in Schoenberg’s “sound zones” which spatially group Music and Performing Arts employed theory text, with one possible caveat; together types of sound objects. Re- state-of-the-art 3D motion tracking that the capability owns to the fact synthesis is then delivered through to inform the sound processing and that the object to model was the ex- Supercollider and GeoGraph, the lat- projection. Additional to the eman- planation of these harmonic rules and ter a graph-based system to describe cipation experienced with bodily- not the rules themselves. The main musical structures. attached controllers the performers features of the system rest on the The next presentation concerned in- sensed an increased attention from computer generation of four-voice tegrating an interface to navigate a the audience on their actions on the homophonic chord progressions or map of environmental sounds using stage, resulting not only in a change the creation of other harmonic de- the IEEE 1599, XML-based standard of awareness of their performance, pendent textures, even if the flexibil- of multi layer representation of mu- but resorting many participants to ity of the proposed model permits sic information. Inspired by the “Sons ask for choreographic support. applications beyond a four-voice de Barcelona” and “Freesound.org” setting. (Even in a microtonal music and its likes, the team proves that the context.) Results achieved allow the
CITAR JOURNAL 65 implementation of a group of exer- only the concept as a whole but As a final presentation, Bernard cises, although the less complex ones particularly the improvement of its Niedemayer from Linz in Austria suggested by Schoenberg’s treatise, social tagging mechanisms which shared his take on audio to score which all may be found in the pro- underlie much of the sites user ex- alignment through a “matrix factori- posed paper. Examples may be found perience. Polysemy, synonymy and zation based feature” where com- at http://strasheela.sourceforge.net data scarcity concerns, which all are bined with dynamic time warping, it provided with full source code. common issues in social tagging, are proves to be an viable alternative to The final presentation concerning without exception relevant for free- the more traditional chroma-vectors. computational musicology proposed sound.org. To fight any incongruen- a method for modelling musical dis- cies, a content-based audio similarity | Oral Session 7 sonance. Expressing dissonances in method of extending tags - so called Continuing on a similar subject, Andy a sequential form as, “the dissonance “autotagging” - was proposed, which M. Sarroff and Juan P. Bello from NYU phenomena in music can be seen as through human assessment showed presented findings associated with an ordered sequence of processes” “strong agreement” in 77% of tags en- predicting the perceived spacious- which, according to the authors Salim hanced by the auto-recommendation. ness of stereophonic music record- Perchy and Gerardo M. Sarria makes Showing that the site is on the right ings, and from it derived objective the Real-Time Concurrent Constraint path in helping people find sounds signal attributes. To achieve this, the Calculus (rtcc) the preferred choice. by minimizing human margin of er- music had to be parameterized by For it permits a process to react to the ror when it comes to folksonomies. three discrete dimensions of percep- environment after receiving a stimu- Projecting the past against the future, tion, namely width of the source en- lus from it, during a certain time inter- Xavier Serra shared his thoughts on semble, the extent of reverberation, val. As this reactive system efficiently attempts to attract young people to and extent of immersion. Their pre- manages asynchronous behaviour, the site by the “Sons de Barcelona” dictive algorithms demonstrated to it seems to be appropriate to model project and attempts to incentiv- perform well on all dimensions and dissonances as a non-deterministic ize collaborative practices through a proved that it’s actually possible to process over time. “Free Sound Radio”. map perceived spaciousness through mere attributes of an audio signal. | Oral Session 5 | Oral Session 6 Next up was Giovanni De Poli, Antonio The first presentation of day two con- Next on the agenda was Chris Roda (Padova University) and Luca cerned album and artist effects and Raphael from Indiana University who Mion (TasLab, Trento) from Italy, who music information retrieval. Through presented his musical accompani- investigated the more emotional and using two different methods, a tim- ment system (software that serves as effective content of music, at the bre based Mel Frequency Cepstrum musical partners for live musicians). same time widening the application Coefficients and Single Gaussian (G1) Their proposed system models the of math within music by extending and Fluctuation Patterns (FPs) on traditional “classical” concerto set- beyond sound relation, structure, pro- very large datasets (like that of the ting in which the computer’s task is duction and propagation and into the World Wide Web), the authors Arthur to perform a pre-composed musical domain of emotions. They did this Flexer and Dominik Schnitzer from part in a way that follows a live so- by exploring the possible association Austria tried to answer if there’s a loist. Their system which goes under between musical expressiveness and proved album and artist effect in very the name “Music Plus One” (name in- basic physical phenomena described large databases, which of them is spired by the “Music Minus One” ac- by integro-differential operators. larger than the other and how the size companiment records) uses a hidden of database correlate to test results. Markov model of score following as of | Oral Session 8 They found that there is a clear album the grounding it gives to navigate the For session eight, the topic was and artist effect in very large data- “accuracy-latency trade-off”, which “Computer environments for sound/ bases for both methods, although tries to minimize that chance that a music processing/composition”. the effect might be overestimated score follower reports events before Started off by Chris Chafe from when smaller datasets are being use. they actually have occurred. As the Stanford talking about tools and Furthermore, the FP being interest- MPO model primarily deals with the methods to assess and tune network ingly enough also less sensitive to synchronization issues beyond com- parameters for remote sessions of production and mastering effects of mon practice music for soloist and network performances. One such albums. orchestra, they see their research ap- tool proposed enables performers Xavier Serra from MTG at Universitat plicable way beyond and into other to tune the parameters of their con- Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona was next domains where ways of going about nection through what could be con- talking about the challenges in im- synchronization issues similar to sidered an “auditory display” which proving the freesound.org site, not theirs may prove very useful. in turn is connected to a multi-client
CITAR JOURNAL 66 avoid spending time adjusting ones synchronization, sound communica- ditional, but less known forms of mu- connection to prevent disruptive tion and spatial agent mobility, the sical expression more accessible to and many times unavoidable delay/ authors hope to provide a way for us- mainstream music research. jitter problems rather than playing ers to develop a musical multi-agent Continuing the topic, Vincent music. The implementation is part of system which is directly tailored to Akkermans from Utrecht school of the JackTrip application, software for his needs, the framework also freeing the arts and Joan Serra and Perfecto low-latency, high quality and multi- him from worrying too much about Herrera from MTG in Barcelona spoke channel audio streaming over TCP/IP technicalities. To verify the usefulness concerning the presentation and Wide Area Networks (WAN). of this framework, two scenarios were evaluation of a music descriptor use- The next paper dealt with a pro- put forward where musical multi- ful in MIR, namely the “shape-based gramming language for real-time agent systems issues, like MIDI and spectral contrast descriptor” which is signal processing and synthesis pre- audio communication, artificial life said to yield significant increase in ac- sented by Yann Orlarey, Dominique constructs, spatial trajectories, and curacy, robustness and applicability Fober and Stephane Letzwhich from acoustical simulation were discussed over OBSC, the more common octave Grame (Centre National de Création and scrutinized. based descriptor used in content- Musicale) in France. “Faust” is a lan- based MIR when classifying a songs guage which is designed from scratch | Oral Session 9 music genre for instance, based on to serve as a compiled language, Third day initially concerned musical the audio signal. which allows it to be complemen- pattern recognition, a paper authored tary to existing audio languages and by the three Americans Jon Gillick | Oral Session 11 provide a alternative to C/C++ when from Wesleyan University, Kevin Tang Last of the oral sessions concerned developing signal processing applica- from Cornell and Robert M. Keller Musical Performance Modelling. The tions, libraries or audio plug-ins. Two from Harvey Mudd College, dealt with INTUNE software starts of at the new compilation schemes for “Faust” the automated learning of jazz gram- premise that we’re not that great at together enable data to be computed mars from a corpus of performance estimating ourselves objectively, but in parallel, which produces interesting through a combination of clustering can learn to do so if providing the improvements in performance. and Markov chains. Research shows “proper external perspective” as the All the way from Universidade de the success in generating novel and authors put it. INTUNE is a program Brasilia, Brazil came the next pre- individually distinct solos which do to help musicians hear and improve senters Bruno F. Lourenço, José C.L. not deviate unfavourably from the their intonation and tries to overcome Ralha, Márcio C.P. Brandão who used overall “sound” of performers ana- the obvious deficiencies of the much- a Lindenmayer system (L-system) lyzed, nor stray too far from the char- accepted electronic tuner as an aid to to create interesting musical scores. acterization of jazz. perfect ones intonation through the Most commonly used to model the The second paper presented by use of not only aural, but also visu- growth processes of plant develop- Dough Van Nort, Jonas Braasch and al feedback. Session eleven proved ment, or in the more familiar form of Pauline Oliveiros from Rensselaer to be an entertaining and insightful graphical fractal-art, their research Polytechnic Institute in New York presentation by Christopher Raphael show that by introducing genetic op- dealt with exploring the “language” of a paper co-authored by Kyung Ae erators to create new sets of produc- between performers or performers Lim, both from Indiana University. tion rules of the L-systems instead and audience in musical improvisa- Following was again more Austrians, of using increasingly sophisticated tion where sound recognition and Sebastian Flossman, Maarten L-systems (which doesn’t generate evolutionary algorithms may provide Grachten and Gerhard Widmer from interesting enough art, neither graph- a helpful framework to guide the im- Johannes Kepler University in Linz. By ically nor musically according to the provisation. using the dataset of human piano per- authors), they ensure variability in the formances of 13 complete Mozart so- output to such degree as to create in- | Oral Session 10 natas and the complete set of works teresting scores. Matija Marolt from University of for solo piano by Chopin, the project Next authors, Leandro Ferrari Thomaz Ljubljana, Slovenia started off session tried to algorithmically render and and Marcelo Queiroz from São Paulo, ten which dealt with Sound/Music model expressive performance. Their Brazil proposed a framework relat- signal processing algorithms by pre- presentations not only highlighted ing to the emerging area of musical senting an approach of transcription the advancements of their proposed multi-agent system technology. By of recordings of Slovenian bell chim- network to model dependencies be- introducing a taxonomy and imple- ing performances and its various im- tween score and performance, but ment a computational framework plications, not only as an attempt of also highlighted issues concerning which encapsulates previous work salvaging cultural heritage from ex- human aesthetic evaluation within and addresses problems like real-time ternal forces but also in making tra- successful research in music model-
CITAR JOURNAL 67 ling and rendering. Concluding that advocated for a central concept of for whom and why we make music although they’ve taken great strides music modelling and evaluation, could be in place. Also utilitarian as- towards a machine-generated perfor- questioning limits of accuracy of cur- pects of music were brought up by mance to sound “musical” to humans, rent approaches and urged for larger Christopher Raphael at the end of the there still needs to be features in their focus upon interactive aspects of fea- session with his thought on music for model which are capable of explain- tures of these models, which he found computer games. ing data with a higher degree of inter- be do well with a more holistic ap- The last inspirational session set out pretational freedom. proach. He also expressed the need to present original, forward-thinking to increase the evaluation strategies ways to visualize music which all had 4 | Inspirational Sessions of music to improve feature extrac- the potential to fuel interesting and Inspirational sessions where held tion and broaden the field. controversial discussions, and to tran- throughout the whole conference Next on the agenda was Marcelo scend the common appearance of where informal discussions between Wanderlay who spoke about evaluat- many current visualizations of music. panel and audience could take place ing input devices for musical expres- Contributors got the chance to pre- in relation to short presentations. sion, which device for which context, sent and demo their prototypes for At the first inspirational session we qualitative vs. quantitative considera- 15 minutes, which was followed by an witnessed some good examples of tions, also the importance of a more open discussion. Everything from vis- what Sonic Interaction Design is or granular definition of the musical ual augmentation of large-scale mu- how it may be employed in every- “task” in various research contexts. sic libraries to interesting audiovisual thing from “wise bathrooms” to per- Anssi Klapuri questioned the impor- mappings based on various kinds of sonal acoustic shields in form of um- tance of multimodality and exam- stimuli were presented, which proved brellas, all delivered with both serious ples from our living environment; for to be an intense and exciting experi- intent or with poignant irony to shine instance, applying theories on how ence as we were moving closer to the light of key issues concerning our re- babies orient themselves through end of the conference. lationship with technology. multimodal interaction when trying The second session concerned to make machines understand sound. 5 | Concerts Algorithmic Composition and Chris Chafe from Stanford “Network Several concerts appeared through- Interactive Music, a topic which has concerts, virtues and challenges” out the conference, having received gotten a fair amount of attention went over the obvious virtues but 258 submissions; the selection cov- lately due to its relevance to comput- also the less obvious challenges of ered 44 pieces distributed all across er games and other music software networked concerts such as levels, the 3 days. The concerts were di- applications like Noatikl and Nodal. A mixes, sound staging, moving mikes, vided between Casa da Música and 10 minute presentations by each pan- basically all that which makes the per- the Passos Manuel street’s Coliseum, el members like Bruce Pennycook, formance enjoyable and doable not the latter also hosting some of the Robert Rowe spanned all topics to as- only for involved performers but also inspirational sessions as an attempt sess the state of the art and discuss- for an audience. Areas, which Chris to not only share some of the logis- ing future developments of highly rel- reminded us all, could benefit from tics, but also to open the SMC event evant topics in the field. more research and not forgetting to to the wider community. The concert “Current challenges within SMC” was mention that much of the research in programme was selected with the the topic of the third inspirational ses- networked music is “Green”, introduc- help of music chairs Pedro Rebelo sion, moderated by Xavier Serra from ing ecological concerns into the SMC (Sonic Arts Research Centre, Queen’s MTG in Barcelona, a discussion about research field. University Belfast) and Carlos Guedes opportunities and challenges facing “More of the same” was the topic (Escola Superior de Música e Artes the SMC in the present and future. of the subsequent presentation. do Espetáculo-IPP, Porto) while com- First on the agenda was Giovanni de Composer, sound/media artist Hannes piled by four invited curators: Evan Poli and Antonio Camurri who shared Raffaseder pleaded for new artistic Parker (UK), the renowned impro- some thoughts on SMC education/ concepts and aesthetic approaches in viser/saxophonist, Robert Rowe (New curriculum issues concerning skills computer music. Raffaseder remind- York University, US) composer/aca- needed in the job market, why to get ed the audience of the abundance of demic, Pauline Oliveros (Rensselaer educated in SMC and which topics innovations within the field, but also Poly¬technic Institute, US) composer/ are of central importance in a SMC questioned the homogenous aes- improviser and academic and hard- degree, also bringing up the need to thetics of the creative output. Even if ware hacker/improviser/academic assess any founding literature and de- most performances, one could agree, Nicolas Collins (School of the Art fine the current and future literature had their virtue more in the demon- Institute of Chicago, US). All four very base, which SMC is to rest on. stration of art-supplies than artis- well known individuals designated to Following was Matthias Mauch who tic output, an increased awareness the difficult task of accepting only 44
CITAR JOURNAL 68 out of 258 works. live laptop to tape pieces crossing all deserves to be quoted at full length: Out of the concerts, the first and possible instrumental styles with in- “the variety of music presented for the last could be said to have termittently augmented by the sound selection for SMC was fascinating. stood out of the crowd. The first processing, either pre-recorded or More and more the computer disap- one was very special number not - some being less obvious than pears into the music. Transparency is named “Curator’s Concert” which others. enhancing the music that couldn’t be represented works from Robert The last concert of SMC 2009 was made without the computer yet the Rowe, Quartetto Telematico, made up of a dazzling variety of in- music wants to be free of the medium. Nicolas Collins, Pedro Rebelo and strumentation, technical approaches More and more the computer is an in- the Networked Duo (Evan Parker, and styles of student submissions cu- strument of choice. The most press- Frank Perry). Through a group of rated by Robert Rowe, which stood ing problem is the musical interface. acoustic instruments articulated out of the crowd because of its great How is it possible to gain the most with a few electronic interventions width, and displaying the obvious expressive access to the enormous they managed to create a wide creativity bustling in the SMC com- power of the computer? The future palette of pieces that made up munity. of music is indicated in the develop- an impressive concert. Out of the Although the concerts overall may ment of this access and in the pieces set, the last, namely the duo with have generated a lot of food for selected for performance this year.” Parker and Perry was particularly thought concerning Sound and Music Common sentiments were to be found extraordinary at Casa da Musica Computing, one couldn’t deny that in Nicolas Collins notes: “In select- this evening, a completely acoustic they were a bit disappointing in the ing music for two concert programs performance if it wasn’t for the me- way of not facilitating the great sum at the Casa da Música and Passos dium, the Internet. Parker decided total of what each individual part on Manuel I re¬viewed some 60 submis- to play sax (to everyone’s delight), stage could create under “normal” sions. I was pleasantly surprised by while Perry played Tibetan Singing circumstances. However, it takes a the diversity I encountered: the mu- Bowls in Bournemouth, England. lot of courage and perseverance to sic covered a wide range of styles -- Both seemed to gallantly manage work under the conditions that a from familiar “academic” computer and overcome any inevitable limi- busy scheduled conference provides music genres, through interactive tations inflicted (such as latency) which should be commended, one improvisation-based work and multi- when communicating sonorously also has to keep in mind that these media projects, to experimental pop even through a generous band- were concerts in the context of a SMC -- and its practitioners hail from all width, which can only be attributed conference, which has its fair share over the globe. Just as the electronic to the tact and sensibility of great of distracted and maybe benignly music tools of the post-war European musicians, adjusting to the latency uneducated audience, musically. avant-garde were in¬corporated into on the fly. Furthermore, if it was not for the SMC the Pop sound palette by the end of The global piece of the same con- logo on the pamphlets in people’s the 1960s, so the computer has be- cert on the other hand, played by hands, the concert could easily be in- come an ubiquitous tool for music of Pedro Rebelo (piano), Franziska terpreted as a jazz concert, and the all sorts – not just the piano for the Schroeder (saxophones), António line-up being what you find in a con- new millennium, but also our tape re- Augusto de Aguiar (double bass), temporary jazz festival. Although an corder, manuscript paper, accompa- Evan Parker (sax) and Frank exception could be made for Salvage, nist, collaborator, record label, radio Perry, did not reach by far the el- the Nicolas Collins piece where seven station, business manager and record egance and simplicity which we performers attempted to re-animate store. Moreover, since the late 1990s found in the duo. Last but not deceased and discarded electronic the speed and memory capacity of least on that same concert, it was circuitry where six of the players used affordable computers have made the a delight to witness the pioneer of test probes to make connections be- manipulation and storage of video Deep Listening, Pauline Oliveros, tween a simple circuit and the elec- as practical as working with sound, on accordion and iPhone (from tronic corpse and the seventh per- and a large percentage of the SMC Dartington, UK) trying to match former “conducting” the performance submissions demonstrate so strong Jonas Braasch on soprano saxo- by periodically signalling the players and well-integrated a visual compo- phone (from Troy, NY), Chris Chafe to freeze the individual sound texture nent as to make them indistinguish- on daxophones and Doug Van Nort by holding their probes as still as pos- able from “video art.” As a result, I’m on Greis and electronics (both pre- sible. happy to admit, I no longer have any sent at Casa da Música). Overall, everything imaginable was idea what the term “computer music” The following seven concerts re- presented at the SMC concerts much might mean.” flected a large variety of sonic and like Pauline Oliveros notes concern- Robert Rowe, highlighted that: “the aesthetical styles, ranging from ing the introductory concert, which student submissions for the 2009
CITAR JOURNAL 69 Sound & Music Computing confer- the SMC conference, although some ence revealed a rich and dazzling va- would argue that a man of his exten- riety of instrumentation, technical ap- sive practice in network cooperative proaches, and styles. (…) from several music deserves better circumstances countries, traditions, and aesthetic than what the SMC seemingly could points of view.(...) Altogether, a tour provide. Watching him cramped up de force by the next generation of on stage with less experienced per- electro-acoustic composers.” formers was extremely dishearten- Finally, and to my great satisfaction, ing at times. With a ten-minute time Evan Parker introduced improvisa- limit, which can seem like a long tion to the program at the Passos time, one can only do so much when Manuel venue, which it had as its sharing the stage. All in all, his lack core where “Laptop music, remixing of exposure during the conference of live sounds, instrument and elec- was unfortunate, especially for great tronics dialogues and custom instru- fans. However, apart from this maybe ment makes this concert a showcase subjective disappointment, the SMC of current improvisation work using 2009 in Porto was a great and re- technology.” warding experience, and the SMC as Before closing the difficult task of giv- a research field appears to be in good ing a fair summation of the SMC 2009 shape, making us all look forward concerts where a general feel and sa- with great anticipation to the next lient features has taken precedence year’s conference in Barcelona. over reporting each submission in de- tail, I was glad to see the great John Bischoff listed among the long line of proposals. Selected by Nicolas Collins for the third concert, Bischoff played his 2008 piece: “Audio Combine, a solo electro-acoustic work which an- alyzes the impulse sounds initiated by a performer using sonic objects and builds a multi-layered collage struc- ture in response. As the objects are activated one at a time, the resulting sounds are amplified, colorized, and recycled in fragmented form based on the timing patterns of their ini- tial occurrence. As more sounds are made, more layers of fragmentation are generated on top of one another. One can think of the piece as the real- time construction of a sonic collage whose details are always different because the performer’s timing is al- ways different.” I think many would agree that a better experience that night than Bischoff’s performance for the specific audi- ence, is hard to come by. An exem- plar performance of a great concert concerning electronics, that together with the Evan Parker and Frank Perry duo, was one of the conference’s ab- solute highlights. For great many reasons it makes per- fect sense to have John Bischoff at
CITAR JOURNAL 70 CITAR JOURNAL 71 Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts - Author’s generic title (e.g. educator, artist) Revista de Ciência e Tecnologias das Artes - Author address (postal and e-mail) ISBN: 978-989-95776-0-2 | ISSN: 1646-9798 - Biographical Information: 1-2 sentences about Portuguese Catholic University | Porto your occupation and relevant activities and affiliations. - A statement indicating that the manuscript has Information for Authors not been published previously and is not being submitted for publication elsewhere. Articles and Reviews - A clearly labeled disk (or uploaded zip/sit file) Submitting Articles containing the manuscript and biographical Editorial Guidelines statement, in Word format. Formatting Guidelines - Full captions for all illustrations should be Submitting Manuscripts Electronically included. Illustrations - Word count of entire submission, including all Additional Information elements / please provide a word count for both the main text and the notes separately. Articles and Reviews Authors are invited to submit texts, books and Editorial Guidelines events reviews under the stated aims and scope of All articles and reviews should be written in the Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts. English or in Portuguese; quotations from foreign The main languages for the Journal are English language texts should be translated into English or and Portuguese. into Portuguese. Where necessary the original text may be quoted in the endnotes. Submitting Articles Articles should be clearly written, logically The Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts presented and accessible to the general reader. accepts both solicited and unsolicited texts for Texts are judged on the basis of relevance to the review. aims and scope of the journal, originality, rigor of After the manuscript is submitted to the thought. Editor, it is sent to anonymous readers for Papers may include statements of belief and peer review. Each manuscript is reviewed by speculations, which should be denoted as such. one member / two members of the scientific If you have an opinion worth presenting, state committee. it boldly. Try to avoid an excessively ‘academic’ Authors are notified of acceptance, rejection or tone. There is no need to shun the use of the first the need for revision within two months. Articles person singular. may be returned to the author for revisions once Authors should avoid esoteric words, slang, or more. parochialisms, idioms and colloquialisms. After a manuscript is accepted, it is edited at the editorial office where it will be styled to conform Formatting Guidelines to Journal of Science and Technology of the Arts’ style, and returned to the author for approval prior Length to publication. Articles should not exceed 6,000 words (endnotes Once a manuscript is accepted for publication, and references will not be counted as part of this the editing and production process usually takes total) / The Journal of Science and Technology of about four months. the Arts normally publishes articles up to 6,000 An accepted article may not appear in the words in length. immediately subsequent issue of the journal, at Longer articles will be considered on their merits. the discretion of the editor. Papers should be submitted electronically Abstracts according to editorial guidelines. [see below: Authors are asked to provide an abstract of Submitting Manuscripts Electronically and online between 150 and 200 words. submission] Incorrectly formatted papers will be rejected. Key Words Authors are asked to provide 4-8 key words. The submission package should include: - Article Title Text layout - Author Name - Double-space ALL copy: text, quotations,
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