VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION JOURNAL (VOTEJ) VOL2, NO. 2, 2020. ISSN: 2734-2697 (Print). H. I. Okoye, B. O. Anioke, C. E. Ugwuanyi and G. C. Odokoro Policy Framework for Creation of Sustainable Industries through Work-Based Learning in TVET

by

*Hyacinth I. Okoye, Beatrice O. Anioke, Chinyere E. Ugwuanyi and Gloria C. Odokoro Department of Business Education, Faculty of Vocational and Technical Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka *Corresponding Author:[email protected]

Abstract It has been widely acknowledged that one indispensable programme that can produce demand-driven manpower for sustainable industrial and technological advancement of nations is Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). Creating sustainable industries requires long-term strategic approach. Given the critical role of human resources in sustainability, TVET institutions which train future industry staff needs to collaborate with the industries through functional and effective work based learning models. There should therefore be a nexus between the model of training and what is expected of the future workers being trained for the industries. Creation of the right policy is therefore critical. This paper x-rayed the theories and models of work-based learning; nexus between TVET institutions and sustainable industries through work based learning; and the existing challenges to be remedied through formulating right policy framework and reforms for the TVET systems. For the way forward, such policy should be geared towards ensuring, among others, that training institutions and industries work on shared vision; and that the policy framework for sustainability is based on best international models and practices highlighted in the paper.

Keywords: TVET, work based learning, sustainability, challenges, policy

Introduction sustainable future (UNESCO, 2005; Armstrong, Education is the key factor for sustainable 2011). development of modern societies, while technical As leaders and experts, TVET facilitators and vocational education and training (TVET) is have the opportunity to elevate the importance of the aspect that should empower beneficiaries for sustainable development in all the facets of seamless employment and significant industry. Research has shown that employers are contributions to the economy. In addition to other having a difficult time finding workers that have existing resources, successful societies in this 21st the right knowledge and skills needed to perform century owe their economic success to a largely in an ever-changing work environment despite the skilled labour force that matches the demands of predominance of unemployment syndrome which labour market. Sustainability from the is now better referred to as un-employability perspectives of industry professionals and syndrome. This is mostly the greatest problem in Technical and Vocational Education and Training Africa where TVET graduates are finding it (TVET) academics is a concept that has been difficult to convince the employers that they have talked about and debated for the past three the skills to take up 21st century jobs in industries. decades. With the rapid environmental, social and In Nigeria, a critical challenge is the development economic changes happening around the globe, it of a competent workforce and sustained economic is hardly surprising that the concept is gaining growth in the global economy. There is need to stronger attention. The world recognizes that reverse the trend of Africa being one of the practical actions and strategies need to be taken in blessed continents and yet remaining one of the order to move people and industries from least developed continents of the world ((Inyiagu, presently unsustainable terrains to a more 2014, Nwachukwu, 2014; Chukwuedo and Omoffonmwan, 2015; Muswaba, 2018).

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VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION JOURNAL (VOTEJ) VOL2, NO. 2, 2020. ISSN: 2734-2697 (Print). H. I. Okoye, B. O. Anioke, C. E. Ugwuanyi and G. C. Odokoro

TVET is no doubt a major supplier of and learning goals. Framework is the structure or human capital. It is important that workers with procedures put in place and so policy framework the right repertoire of skills are trained to take on is the structure built to provide direction for jobs. Research reveals that integrating implementation of policy (Rand, 2019). Policy sustainability into educational and training can cover a wide range of educational activities programmes is multi-dimensional and takes on a from upper administration to individual wide range of approaches leading to a variety of classrooms (UNESCO, 2005). An effective TVET perspectives within the Sustainable Development system requires a functional and responsive (SD) discourse. Industry perspectives and policy. The approach and mode of provision and approaches to Sustainable Development may development of TVET may vary from one substantially differ from TVET perspectives and country to the other and it may be taught at approaches. This definitely has implications for different educational levels in different TVET the Sustainable Development agenda and may institutions (Arfo, 2015). For instance, in Nigeria, limit the vision from being shared by the parties. TVET institutions include Technical Colleges at It therefore becomes imperative that both industry lower and upper levels. At tertiary level, there are and TVET institutions, through work based Vocational Enterprise Institutions learning (WBL), realign their goals for (VEIs)/Innovation Enterprise Institutions (IEIs), sustainability and work towards a common Monotechnics, Polytechnics and relevant agenda for cohesion and quality (Xanthis, 2015; Faculties of Universities (FRN, 2014; UNESCO- Chinedu and Wan-Mohammed, 2017). UNEVOC, 2019). Not to be forgotten are the majority emerging through apprenticeship under Work-based learning is a subset of the unorganized informal sectors. TVET policy is experienced-based learning (Richard, 2013). an extension of wider education policy and However, within the somewhat narrower confines formulating the right policies for implementing of TVET, work based learning refers to learning robust work-based learning strategies, based on that occurs through undertaking real work, workable theory and models of WBL, will go a through the production of real goods and services, long way to re-position both TVET, the industries whether the work is paid or unpaid. Work based and the society in general, not only on the part of learning activities begin by helping students steady growth but also sustainability. develop a broad understanding and awareness of industries and possible careers that are available Theories and Models of Work-Based Learning to them. Over time, these experiences narrow in (WBL) focus as students find careers of interest, learn that Work-based learning is a form of post-secondary education is necessary for success, experiential learning. The basic principles of and practise the technical, transferable 21st experiential learning set out by Dewey (1938) century skills, as well as social and personal skills infuse not only work based learning, but also to enter those careers later in life (Tennessee areas such as adult learning, service learning and Department of Education, 2016; Greenfield & outdoor education. For Dewey, learning was Stevens, 2018). In other words, students need primarily an activity that arises from the personal sustainable skills for work in sustainable experience of grappling with a problem (and thus industries; such calls for building industry- not all experience results in learning, a conclusion institution-led TVET. which has implications for the development of practical techniques to improve the quality of Policy refers to action plan or strategy to work-based learning within TVET). He argued guide the achievement of objectives. Education against the isolation of the school from the world policy includes plans, laws and processes that outside it, and maintained that the incorporation educational institutions, local authorities, states of students’ experience and learning outside the and nations have put in place to achieve teaching

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VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION JOURNAL (VOTEJ) VOL2, NO. 2, 2020. ISSN: 2734-2697 (Print). H. I. Okoye, B. O. Anioke, C. E. Ugwuanyi and G. C. Odokoro school was a powerful way to motivate them and at both middle and high education levels. Usually to engage them in learning (McCulloch, the academic staff are required to undertake McLaughlin and Allison, 2010).Corroborating, appropriate training programme and work with Wilson (1997) posited that work based learning is external adviser and consultant. An institution based on constructivist theory. With this plays the role of “second marker” maintaining approach, learning occurs through the regular contact with the organization and having development of meaningful constructs and the full responsibility for quality assurance (Garnett, experience in real work situations. Thus Richard 2009; Major, 2016). (2013) stated that WBL is a subset of experiential learning. The type of experiential learning as put Work Based Learning in TVET and Its forward by Kolb (1984) is based on Necessity constructivism, linked to it through the concepts There is now consciousness that of experience and reflection. Work-based learning employability has to be a key component of also has some models.GIZ (2017) stated that the education systems in order to avoid skills most promising WBL model is the Dual System. mismatches in the labour market. According to The Dual System is fundamentally based on the ILO (2019), 64 million youths are unemployed integration of companies as training providers worldwide. More strikingly, 20 percent of young together with TVET institutions that offer the people are not in education, training or apprentices the best opportunities to learn real employment – they are disengaged. At the same work processes. On the other hand, Major (2016) time, millions of jobs remain unfilled. A 2013 explained five models of work-based learning McKinsey study reported that 39 percent of categorized as: the individual model; the distance employers surveyed cited skills shortage as the learning model; the in-house model; the integrated main driver for the vacancies. TVET and work model; and the co-delivery model. based learning are interrelated concepts. Essentially, work based learning is part of a The individual model is the standard TVET system, but it can also take place outside of delivery model where a learner enrolls on a it. In this regard, different models of work based negotiated WBL programme and has his/her learning in TVET can be pivotal to close the gap learning facilitated by an institution tutor. between labour market skills demand and TVET Distance learning model, by definition, is almost output (Bandura and Grainer, 2019). distance learning in that the site of learning is the workplace rather than the institution environment. TVET comprises education, training and However, “distance” is a relative concept as with skills development relating to a wide range of the individual model first described, learners may occupational fields, production, services, and also live within a reasonable travelling distance. livelihoods. TVET equips people with skills and a In-house model is similar to the individual model, broad range of knowledge and attitudes but in this case, the institution provides a learning (UNESCO, 2019). Effective TVET instruction is facilitator who works off-site and as part of the based on three pillars: technical competence, learning and development team within a large industry experience and pedagogical skills business or organization. Integrated model is (Okoye, 2012; Duncan, 2014; GIZ, 2017). TVET where, through a formal contract, the institution as part of lifelong learning includes work based effectively seconds a learning facilitator to a learning, continuing training and professional business or organization to work as part of an in- development which may lead to qualifications. house learning and development team. Finally, Work-based learning encompasses a range of co-delivery is where a business organization formal and informal arrangements, including arranges to deliver its own programme of learning apprenticeships, informal learning on the job, and has academically qualified staff able to teach internships and work placements of various

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VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION JOURNAL (VOTEJ) VOL2, NO. 2, 2020. ISSN: 2734-2697 (Print). H. I. Okoye, B. O. Anioke, C. E. Ugwuanyi and G. C. Odokoro models that form part of school-based vocational managing the system and in quality assurance; qualifications (OECD, 2018b; ILO, 2019). and it eventually leads to award of a recognized qualification (Smith, 2010; Richard, 2013). Work-based learning is used in TVET to develop basic work habits, occupational identity, Education-Industry Collaboration, Functional and specific occupational competencies. Work Based Learning (WBL) and Sustainable However, because of its attractiveness as a Industries powerful form of learning, it can also be used for From a strategic perspective, the a wider range of educational purposes. For provision of high-quality work based learning lies example, it is used as a way to motivate at the heart of modern-day education and training, disadvantaged, disengaged and failing students by with education-industry collaboration regularly giving them the opportunity to experience success prioritized at national and local levels, and work through applied learning in practical settings, and based learning increasingly recognized as a means the opportunity to come in contact with adult of ensuring that learners of all ages are provided mentors and role models. It can teach with the knowledge, skills and competencies entrepreneurship, promote maturity, and help to required by industries to remain successful and develop generic skills such as initiative and sustainable. The idea of taking the institutions into problem-solving (Business-School Connections the workplace is one that is no longer a rare Roundtable, 2011; Wilson & Mehta, 2017). occurrence but an increasingly common one and Again, work-based learning is the surest one that benefits both in terms of growth in way of raising quality and reliability in TVET. It knowledge capital as well as human and social is difficult, if not impossible, to replicate the real capital (Garnnett, 2009). When we think of demands of daily production, or the cycle of consumer-driven approach, industry is the production over a period of time, in a classroom primary consumer of TVET graduates. If or workshop, and neither can these settings easily industries are not involved in the process of replicate the social context of work that arises developing the specific skills and attitude to be from interacting with workmates and from dealing possessed by the graduates, they are less likely to with customers and suppliers. Additional see any relevance between TVET and their skills arguments in favour of work-based learning need (Raihan, 2014). Lemanski, Mewis and within TVET are that it can be a way of more Overton (2011) outlined benefits of WBL to closely involving employers in TVET, thus employers which can ultimately translate to increasing their confidence in the system, and of sustainable industries to include: flexible increasing the link between learners and the workforce tailored to the industry needs; labour market in order to improve their chances of improved workforce performance and employment after they complete their training. productivity; increased employee motivation cum Work based learning, at one extreme, can take the higher staff retention; minimal disruption; form of informal apprenticeship-type without promotes projects directly related to the business; recognized occupational qualification, but and can lead to collaboration where institutions nevertheless remains important source of skills in accredit company training programmes for many African developing economies. At another training and research. extreme, it takes a highly formalized and well- Among the most significant changes defined apprenticeship arrangements such as those which have occurred in United Kingdom (UK) found in Switzerland, Germany, Denmark and Higher Education institutions (especially TVET Austria, in which the learner has the legal status institutions) over the past 30 years is the of paid employee; period of apprenticeship development and introduction of WBL into the divided between the workplace and institution; curriculum. UK governments have found ways of employee organizations play a major part in incentivizing TVET institutions to develop their

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VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION JOURNAL (VOTEJ) VOL2, NO. 2, 2020. ISSN: 2734-2697 (Print). H. I. Okoye, B. O. Anioke, C. E. Ugwuanyi and G. C. Odokoro

WBL content. The same can be replicated in are also limited because they are human resource Nigeria and other African countries. intensive and often require extensive training for industry experts. Challenges of Work-Based Learning in TVET A number of challenges have been Model Policies, Initiatives and Reforms identified by Greenfield and Stevens (2019), Many policies have evolved with respect Bandura and Grainger (2019) and Nankuhii to reforming TVET towards addressing the socio- (2019) which can hinder effective work based economic challenges in Nigeria and other African learning in TVET and which African countries, countries (Okoroafor and Nnajiofo, 2017). including Nigeria, should watch. The challenges According to Fawcett, Sawi and Allison (2014), include that despite the inherent advantages, there conducting policy and evaluation research should are far too few available opportunities for low- be a high priority to establish the right type of income people who also do not have the policies and programmes that can work. connections and formal support services to help Meanwhile, Langart (2019) posited that there is them find internship. There are also issues of lack need to strengthen TVET research in Africa. of policy guidelines; bureaucracy; TVET research, according to the source, will teachers/lecturers’ obsolete knowledge/skills; ultimately lead to identification of challenges and inadequacy and non-availability of modern how to address gaps in curriculum industries. Besides, developing countries have big implementation and market linkages through informal sectors that are not organized and so the capacity building. Strong TVET system will lead countries have more difficulty in identifying key to functional work based learning and representatives from the employer side to work sustainability. with. Again, the training of technical personnel has witnessed many challenges ranging from Kazmi (2012) earlier identified elements policies which have no bearing with our problems of TVET policy framework to include to curriculum that has little or no relationship with governance, industry engagement, competency workplace and social needs (Nwachukwu, 2014; based standards, qualifications framework, quality Okoye and Arimonu, 2016). standards for providers (industries and institutions’ facilitators) and mode of delivery and Studies by Greenfield and Stevens (2019) assessment. In that regard, it was found that there and Bandura and Grainger (2019) asserted that is serious need for sufficient employer statistics about the percentage of jobs that do not engagement and employer-led efforts. For exist now but will when our students enter the example, a Canadian organization known as workforce are often cited, but we are not doing “Raise Your Flag” works with companies to enough collectively to prepare for this upcoming provide platforms that details step-by-step career seismic shift in changing career pathways. paths at those companies. Another good example Another challenge is in the difficulty of is Pathways in Technology (P-TECH) which leveraging the new technologies. Though there are started as collaboration between IBM, the New emerging technologies such as virtual and York City Department of Education, and the City augmented reality, very few institutions use them University of New York. P-TECH lasts six years for career preparation and training. These and gives students a high school degree, a innovative technologies could be harnessed and community college degree, and significant work implemented in places where access to various experience by the time they finish, with no tuition types of careers or opportunities is limited. In cost to the students and their parents. P-TECH addition to technology challenges, lack of funding work-based learning includes mentoring, job is a significant impediment. Most people cannot shadowing, and internships. There are seven P- afford to work without pay while they participate TECH schools in New York City and dozens of in on-the-job training. Mentorship opportunities others elsewhere in New York, Rhode Island,

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VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION JOURNAL (VOTEJ) VOL2, NO. 2, 2020. ISSN: 2734-2697 (Print). H. I. Okoye, B. O. Anioke, C. E. Ugwuanyi and G. C. Odokoro

Connecticut, Texas, Illinois, and Colorado labour market needs. States should establish (Greenfield and Stevens, 2019). policies to expand work based learning opportunities for workers and employers; give A few other examples include Iowa’s grants to small employers to assist with the cost of Work Based Learning Policy Guide, Nebraska’s starting and managing new apprenticeships; grant work based learning webpage and Kentucky’s tax credit for employers employing apprentices, Work Based Learning Manual (Zinth, 2018). with an enhanced credit for apprentices from Interestingly, a good development in African disadvantaged populations; and a tuition waiver country is the fact that Malawian industry has for apprentices’ post-secondary classroom supported training delivery through several instruction, plus a requirement that instructions activities, for instance companies and terminate with certificates and degrees. That way, oganizations are required by law to pay TVET the policy would have addressed the issues of levy towards implementation of TVET promoting life-long learning, redressing gaps programmes (Nankuhuni, 2019). Government, between high and low income or disadvantaged apart from being an important employer, is an groups (inclusive education) and generally enabler for work based learning through a policy provide for improvement in the social and framework and financial and legislative economic status of TVET (Chakroun,, incentives. Government can also through bodies 2016;Wilson, 2017). such as the regulatory agencies broker the relationships and partnerships between work- Conclusion based learning in TVET and industries (South Work based learning in TVET is a sine African Society for Cooperative Education – qua non since both complement each other. This SASCE, 2014; Rand Corporation, 2019). fact has been established and recognized globally by way of research, policy framework and USAID and other donors are implementation by many advanced economies. experimenting with new models to promote Besides, demand-driven work based learning innovations and new ideas. Special attention is anchored on 21stcentury skills is the only way to being paid to TVET reforms, particularly in the create sustainability in the industries that yearn to areas of new qualifications frameworks, skills, have such required workforce that can apply state- competences, partnerships with industry, and of-the-art tools to deliver responsibilities. increasing access to higher education and social Therefore, appropriate model policy framework inclusion. There is also the issue of building should be put in place by the stakeholders for the partnership with all stakeholders to encourage mission of using work-based learning to create scale and sustainability in TVET. There is need sustainable industries and substantially increase for mixed financing of work based learning in the Gross Domestic Products (GDP) of TVET. Policy coordination and governance are developing economies like Nigeria and other sub- also key. Work based learning requires Saharan African countries. established coordinating structures of governance and a policy framework that encourages The Way Forward incentives and rewards for cooperation and Based on the challenges and international coordination (Fawcett, Sawi and Allison, 2014). model policy frameworks of WBL in TVET as highlighted in this paper, there is need for new Nigerian and other African countries measures, initiatives and policy reforms in borrowing from the model policy initiatives Nigeria and, by extension, other African countries should be concerned with developing evidence- to enable the creation of sustainable industries based national policies and plans that treat TVET backed up by right crop of workforce emerging and tertiary education holistically, reduce from the TVET institutions-industry disparities and respond to changing tech-enabled collaboration.

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VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION JOURNAL (VOTEJ) VOL2, NO. 2, 2020. ISSN: 2734-2697 (Print). H. I. Okoye, B. O. Anioke, C. E. Ugwuanyi and G. C. Odokoro

In the first place, there should be capacity but paid WBL in TVET through government building and re-building programmes for all incentives, TVET tax or levy (a percentage TVET teachers or facilitators. TVET facilitators at contribution by industries just like the education all levels should ordinarily have industry, tax and the Tertiary Education Trust Fund teaching and research experiences. Those in the [TETFUND] in Nigeria). In West Virginia (USA), system but without industry experience should be employers claim a tax credit for hiring apprentices incentivized to undergo practical in the construction trades. The tax credit is equal training/exposure in relevant industries. Both to $2 per hour multiplied by the total number of national and state governments should provide hours worked by an apprentice but shall not enabling environment and incentives for the exceed $2,000 or 50% of actual wages paid in that creation of such modern industries with state-of- tax year for the apprentice, whichever is less. the-art facilities, including tech-based solutions and platforms. Again, a deliberate policy reforms The policy re-formulation or reforms should be made on education-industry should equally cover robust quality assurance collaboration covering the roles of all systems and cross-border recognition of stakeholders who must share the same vision: qualifications of beneficiaries who have achieved government, industry and TVET institutions. The the expected skills level based on international policy should also cover opportunities for low standards in curriculum and instruction. To that income and disadvantaged populations, new end, the policy should provide for linkages with qualification frameworks for all categories of similar institutions in advanced economies to beneficiaries of WBL in TVET, mentorship, and promote cross-fertilization of ideas and exchange formalization of the informal sectors like programmes as well as facilitate technology agriculture and retail trade. transfer. However, to take care of the majority in the informal sector, there should be framework or In addition, more intensive research template for monitoring and regulating the should be conducted, by universities in informal sector that trains the artisans. The collaboration with industries, on WBL in TVET products of such system should be recognized and especially on the use of innovative technologies, licensed/certificated by the relevant Ministry at including virtual and augmented reality platforms, the end of the apprenticeship based on established thus creating abilities to leverage new techs by standards. Finally, the well-structured policy, its beneficiaries. There should also be clear coordination and governance patterns at all levels, guidelines on sufficient employer engagement and should be articulated and well documented in deliberate scheme for mixed financing form of manual to guide all stakeholders. arrangement by subsidizing or offering cost free

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