Prof.Prof. BrunoBruno PierriPierri HistoryHistory ofof ItalianItalian ForeignForeign PolicyPolicy

TheThe KingdomKingdom ofof ItalyItaly’’ss ForeignForeign PolicyPolicy:: FromFrom EarlyEarly ColonialismColonialism toto thethe thresholdthreshold ofof thethe XXXX centurycentury FebruaryFebruary 19th,19th, 20142014

DogaliDogali ► Western plateau formally part of Ethiopian Empire ► Ethiopian Empire based on feudal structure : several local sovereigns (ras) only formally subjugated to Emperor (Negus), bound to give him tribute and support in case of war ► Negus had not opposed occupation of Massawa , but later he protested when italian occupied villages of Saati and Uaa , nominally under Egyptian sovereignty , but for a long time controlled by Ethiopia ► Robilant started diplomatic contacts with Negus, but afterwards he opted for military solution ► 26.01.1887 Italian troops ambushed (to attack someone by surprise from a hidden place ) ► The defeat led to protests towards Govt ’s colonial policy , obliging both Robilant and Depretis to resign

CrispiCrispi ► RevolutionaryRevolutionary moodmood andand ferventfervent patriotismpatriotism ► PolicyPolicy ofof powerpower andand civilizationcivilization missionmission ► AdmirerAdmirer ofof BismarckBismarck andand rivalrival ofof FranceFrance -- MediterraneanMediterranean expansionexpansion ► AustriaAustria asas aa strongholdstronghold againstagainst RussianRussian expansionismexpansionism andand SlavSlav hegemonyhegemony onon AdriaticAdriatic –– BalkanBalkan policypolicy MilitaryMilitary CollaborationsCollaborations ►► ItaloItalo--AustriaAustria collaborationcollaboration inin casecase ofof AustroAustro--RussianRussian warwar ►► ItaloItalo--GermanGerman collaborationcollaboration ((ItalianItalian troopstroops toto sendsend inin toto thethe RhineRhine area)area) inin casecase ofof FrancoFranco--GermanGerman warwar TreatyTreaty ofof WuchaleWuchale ► CrispiCrispi carriedcarried onon militarymilitary operationsoperations inin Eritrea,Eritrea, sendingsending inin expeditionaryexpeditionary corpcorp ofof 20,00020,000 menmen,, whichwhich reoccupiedreoccupied SaatiSaati ► CommandersCommanders onon thethe spotspot decideddecided toto dealdeal withwith locallocal RasRas inin orderorder toto dividedivide themthem (divide(divide etet impera)impera) ► ItalianItalian AmbassadorAmbassador toto AddisAddis AbebaAbeba (( AntonelliAntonelli )) showedshowed CrispiCrispi thethe possibilitypossibility toto signsign aa treatytreaty puttingputting thethe wholewhole ofof EthiopiaEthiopia underunder ItalianItalian protectorateprotectorate ► 02.05.188902.05.1889 TreatyTreaty ofof WuchaleWuchale:: accordingaccording toto ItalianItalian interpretationinterpretation,, EthiopiaEthiopia notnot onlyonly recognisedrecognised ItalianItalian controlcontrol onon Eritrea,Eritrea, butbut alsoalso becamebecame dede factofacto anan ItalianItalian protectorateprotectorate ► 18901890 EritreaEritrea becamebecame ItalianItalian colonycolony CrispiCrispi policypolicy’’ss failurefailure ► Italian translation of the treaty obliged Ethiopian Govt to rely on Italian diplomacy in order to deal with other European nations , thus practically making Ethiopia an Italian protectorate ► Ethiopian text saw only the possibility for Ethiopia to rely on Italian diplomacy in foreign relations ► Contrasts on interpreration discovered in 1890, when Menelik , who had invited Russian and British sovereigns to his own coronation ceremony , was replied that they could not directly answered him, in light of the treaty he had undersigned ► Ethiopia began purchasing weapons and ammunitions , especially from Russia and ► Resumption of military operations – contrast with British interests in Sudan

EconomicEconomic CrisisCrisis ► Customs rivalry with France more serious due to State increasing debts after military expenses ► Economic subjection towards Germany ► Bismarck dismissed 1890 – loss of reference point for European balance of power RenewalRenewal ofof TripleTriple AllianceAlliance 18911891

► Stronger safeguarding of Italian interests in North Africa ► Art. 9. Germany and Italy committed to act in favour of territorial status quo in North Africa, especially Cirenaica , Tripolitania and Tunisia ► If , after a thorough analysis of the situation , Italy and Germany realised that keeping the statu quo is impossible , Germany committs herself , after a formal and prehemptive accord , to back Italy in any action, such as occupation or any other form of guarantee , that she might do in those regions . In that case, the two powers woud try to reach an agreement with England ► The treaty also provided facilities and special economic advantages : less serious tariffs war with France AllianceAlliance RussiaRussia--FranceFrance ► After only two years since Bismarck ’s dismissal , his diplomatic castle collapsed : Germany again in jeopardy of being surrounded , France no longer isolated ► France and Russia, having no other object than to meet the necessities of a defensive war, provoked by an attack of the forces of the Triple Alliance against either of them, have agreed upon the following provisions : If France is attacked by Germany , or by Italy supported by Germany , Russia shall employ all her available forces to attack Germany If Russia is attacked by Germany , or by Austria supported by Germany , France shall employ all her available forces to attack Germany ► France and Russia shall not conclude peace separately ConsequencesConsequences ofof FrancoFranco--RussianRussian ententeentente ►►GermanicGermanic componentcomponent ofof TripleTriple AllianceAlliance becamebecame moremore conservative,conservative, inin orderorder toto avoidavoid wastewaste ofof resourcesresources andand occasionsoccasions ofof conflictconflict ►►FranceFrance,, irritatedirritated duedue toto renewalrenewal ofof TripleTriple AllianceAlliance,, acquiredacquired strongerstronger antianti --ItalianItalian attitudeattitude ►►GermanyGermany soughtsought agreementagreement withwith BritainBritain,, butbut atat thethe samesame timetime sheshe becamebecame herher colonialcolonial rivalrival GermanGerman colonialismcolonialism

►►BerlinBerlin ConferenceConference 1884,1884, pursuedpursued byby BismarckBismarck,, hadhad regulatedregulated tradestrades inin CentralCentral --WesternWestern AfricaAfrica ►►BismarckBismarck decideddecided toto recogniserecognise asas coloniescolonies allall territoriesterritories notnot yetyet claimedclaimed byby otherother powerspowers andand inin whichwhich therethere werewere GermanGerman tradingtrading settlementssettlements ►►GermanGerman colonialcolonial empireempire inin AfricaAfrica withoutwithout territorialterritorial continuitycontinuity

AdwaAdwa ►►CrispiCrispi reappointedreappointed PrimePrime MinisterMinister 18931893 ►►JanJan 1895,1895, ItaliansItalians occupiedoccupied regionregion ofof TigraiTigrai ,, formallyformally partpart ofof EthiopianEthiopian Empire,Empire, butbut dede factofacto selfself --governinggoverning territoryterritory,, ruledruled byby opposeropposer ofof NegusNegus MenelikMenelik ►►SuchSuch aa measuremeasure hadhad toto allowallow ItalyItaly toto gaingain positionposition ofof strengthstrength toto exploitexploit inin negotiationsnegotiations withwith NegusNegus ►►MenelikMenelik summonedsummoned aa 100,000100,000--menmen--army,army, abrogatedabrogated treatytreaty ofof WuchaleWuchale andand wagedwaged warwar onon ItalyItaly AdwaAdwa ►►WorriedWorried aboutabout conductconduct ofof war,war, CrispiCrispi chosechose toto sendsend inin massivemassive additionaladditional troopstroops toto EritreaEritrea ►►11 MarchMarch 1896:1896: ItalianItalian brigadesbrigades scatteredscattered andand unliasedunliased,, thusthus givinggiving thethe NegusNegus’’ss armyarmy thethe chancechance toto challengechallenge themthem oneone byby one:one: 6,0006,000 menmen killedkilled,, 1,5001,500 woundedwounded,, andand 3,0003,000 prisonersprisoners DiplomaticDiplomatic isolationisolation andand thethe aftermathaftermath

►►AlliesAllies remindedreminded ItalyItaly thatthat thethe TripleTriple AllianceAlliance treatytreaty waswas notnot aa shoppingshopping societysociety toto satisfysatisfy ItalianItalian interestsinterests ►►FranceFrance andand RussiaRussia aidedaided EthiopiaEthiopia ►►BritainBritain neutralneutral ►►TotalTotal failurefailure ofof ItalianItalian policypolicy ofof powerpower AngloAnglo--RussianRussian rapprochementrapprochement ►► TurkishTurkish oppressionoppression onon ArmeniansArmenians ledled BritainBritain toto seekseek agreementagreement withwith RussiaRussia inin orderorder toto avoidavoid conflictconflict overover StraitsStraits

AfterAfter CrispiCrispi ►► CrispiCrispi ’’ss resignationresignation ►► DiDi RudinRudinìì PrimePrime MinisterMinister ►► OctoberOctober 18961896 treatytreaty ofof peacepeace ofof AddisAddis Abeba:Abeba: NegusNegus recognisedrecognised ItalianItalian sovereigntysovereignty onon Eritrea,Eritrea, butbut ItalyItaly abrogatedabrogated treatytreaty ofof WuchaleWuchale andand gavegave upup anyany interferenceinterference withwith EthiopianEthiopian policypolicy ►► RelinquishmentRelinquishment ofof policypolicy ofof powerpower andand resumptionresumption ofof positionposition ofof balancebalance inin EuropeEurope throughthrough alliancesalliances GettingGetting awayaway fromfrom TripleTriple AllianceAlliance ► DespiteDespite 18971897 renewalrenewal ofof alliancealliance andand friendshipfriendship withwith BritainBritain,, itit waswas necessarynecessary toto establishestablish normalnormal tradingtrading relationsrelations withwith FranceFrance ► ThereforeTherefore,, itit waswas unavoidableunavoidable toto getget closercloser toto DoubleDouble EntenteEntente ► MeanwhileMeanwhile,, AustriaAustria--HungaryHungary hadhad recognisedrecognised FrenchFrench protectorateprotectorate onon TunisTunis ► TheThe agreementsagreements signedsigned inin ParisParis onon SeptSept 28,28, 1896,1896, allowedallowed ItaliansItalians inin TunisTunis toto keepkeep theirtheir ownown nationalitynationality andand trasmittrasmit itit toto theirtheir childrenchildren,, toto keepkeep schoolschool andand culture,culture, andand freelyfreely carrycarry onon professionalprofessional activitiesactivities ► FranceFrance aimedaimed atat detachingdetaching ItalyItaly fromfrom TripleTriple AllianceAlliance FashodaFashoda 18981898

► French colonial track West -East , from Atlantic to Red Sea (Harbour of Djibuti ) ► British colonial track North -South «from Cairo to Cape » ► Sept 1898 the small Sudanese town of Fashoda , almost at the junction between the two tracks , became theatre of conflict ► French expedition , sent in to occupy the town, was met by a British army unit , involved in crushing Mahdi rebellion ► Both units faced each other until Nov 7, when the French withdrew, after an agreement between the two Govts ► France gave up confrontation with Britain in view of future anti -German accord ► Declaration of 21 Mar 1899: France gave up occupation of Fashoda and Eastern Sudan divided between France and Britain

LibyanLibyan QuestionQuestion

► AngloAnglo--FrenchFrench agreementsagreements ledled toto FrenchFrench encirclementencirclement toto Tripolitania,Tripolitania, towardstowards whichwhich ItalyItaly hadhad expansionistexpansionist claimsclaims ► ItaloItalo--FrenchFrench agreementagreement JanJan 1901:1901: 1) FranceFrance committedcommitted notnot toto trespasstrespass limitlimit agreedagreed withwith BritainBritain,, thusthus leavingleaving freefree handhand toto ItalyItaly 2) ItalyItaly notnot interestedinterested inin MoroccoMorocco ► AngloAnglo--ItalianItalian agreementsagreements 19021902 (Premier(Premier ZanardelliZanardelli )) 1) LondonLondon hadhad nono claimsclaims onon TripolitaniaTripolitania and,and, inin casecase ofof changeschanges toto statustatu quo,quo, committedcommitted toto respectrespect ItalianItalian interestsinterests 2) ItalyItaly undertakenundertaken notnot toto obstacleobstacle BritishBritish interestsinterests inin MediterraneanMediterranean

IrredentismIrredentism inin TrentoTrento ►AccordingAccording toto LiberalLiberal RightRight WingWing traditiontradition,, ItalyItaly pursuedpursued realisticrealistic policypolicy inin accordanceaccordance withwith herher resourcesresources ►NationalityNationality principleprinciple stillstill validvalid:: ItalianItalian politicianspoliticians couldcould notnot ignoreignore itit ,, inin orderorder notnot toto givegive impressionimpression thatthat irredentistirredentist questionquestion hadhad beenbeen abandonedabandoned ►CretanCretan crisiscrisis 18971897 hadhad hardhard testedtested ItalianItalian nationalistnationalist feeling:feeling: nationalitynationality principleprinciple sacrificedsacrificed onon thethe altaraltar ofof RealpolitikRealpolitik andand necessitynecessity ofof stabilitystability inin BalkansBalkans andand StraitsStraits area.area. ItalianItalian publicpublic opinionopinion propro--GreekGreek GrecoGreco--TurkishTurkish WarWar ofof 18971897

► Question over the status of the Ottoman province of , whose Greek majority long desired union with ► In 1878, the , according to the provisions of the , was to give Crete a status of wide -ranging autonomy . The Ottoman commissioners repeatedly ignored the convention, causing rebellions ► Renewed clashes between the Greek and " Turkish " communities in 1896 ► To quell the unrest , Ottoman military reinforcements arrived while Greek volunteers landed on the island . At the same time, the fleets of the Great Powers patrolled the Cretan waters , leading to further escalation ► Agreement was reached with the Sultan and the tensions receded ► In January 1897, inter -communal violence broke out. A struggle for independence and union with Greece was declared by Cretan revolutionaries ► As a result of the intervention of great powers after the war, an autonomous Cretan State under Ottoman was established the following year

AlbaniaAlbania ► 19011901 ItaloItalo--AustrianAustrian agreementagreement onon AlbaniaAlbania ► AustriaAustria aimedaimed atat avoidingavoiding spreadspread ofof BalkanBalkan crisescrises ► ItalianItalian influenceinfluence asas stabilisingstabilising forceforce ► ItalyItaly andand AustriaAustria sharedshared interestinterest inin maintainingmaintaining statusstatus quoquo inin AlbaniaAlbania (( OttomanOttoman Empire)Empire) ► InIn casecase ofof necessitynecessity ofof alterationalteration,, committmentcommittment toto keepkeep autonomyautonomy ofof AlbanianAlbanian StateState ► InIn casecase ofof failurefailure,, agreementagreement forfor solutionsolution suitablesuitable toto mutualmutual interestsinterests WaltzWaltz DanceDance

► ExchangeExchange ofof notesnotes ItalyItaly--FranceFrance 1902,1902, twotwo daysdays afterafter renewalrenewal ofof TripleTriple AllianceAlliance:: A) FrenchFrench neutralityneutrality inin casecase ofof warwar ItalyItaly-- AustriaAustria B) ItalianItalian neutralityneutrality inin casecase ofof AngloAnglo--GermanGerman warwar duedue toto GermanGerman aggressionaggression ► GermanGerman ChancellorChancellor spokespoke aboutabout waltzwaltz dancedance ofof faithfulfaithful wifewife withwith otherother menmen.. HoweverHowever ,, hehe warnedwarned thatthat ItalyItaly waswas notnot vitalvital forfor GermanyGermany andand isolationisolation waswas moremore dangerousdangerous forfor RomeRome thanthan forfor BerlinBerlin ► PremisesPremises ofof WW1WW1 alreadyalready onon stagestage