sign in sign up
<<
Home , Belu Zilber, Charilaos Trikoupis, Corneliu Coposu, Cretan State, Ivan Asen II, Sighet prison

MY FAVOURITE LEADER

THIS PROJECT HAS BEEN FUNDED WITH SUPPORT FROM THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION. THIS PUBLICATION REFLECTS THE VIEWS ONLY OF THE AUTHOR, AND THE COMMISSION CANNOT BE HELD RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY USE WHICH MAY BE MADE OF THE INFORMATION CONTAINED THEREIN. MY FAVOURITE LEADER

ISBN 978-619-154-120-1

2 CONTENT

BULGARIA Alexander I Battenberg ...... 7 Simeon I the Great...... 9 Khan ...... 10 Tsar Ivan Asen II...... 11 Stefan Stambolov...... 12 ...... 13 King Simeon the Great...... 14 King Simeon the Great...... 15

ESTONIA Konstantin Päts...... 19 Lennart Georg Meri...... 21 Arnold Rüütel...... 22

POLAND KING JAN III SOBIESKI (1629 – 1696)...... 25 JÓZEF PIŁSUDSKI (1867 – 1935)...... 26 MIESZKO I (935–992)...... 27 LECH WAŁĘSA (born in 1943)...... 28

ROMANIA Vlad III, Prince of (1431–1476/77)...... 31 Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723)...... 34 Nicolae Constantin Paulescu (30 October 1869 – 17 July 1931)...... 37 Cornel Coposu...... 40 Badea Cârțan...... 43

3 (1776 - 1831)...... 47 Charilaos Trikoupis (1832 - 1896)...... 49 (1864 - 1936)...... 51 Mavrokordatos Alexandros (1791- 1865)...... 53 Koumoundouros Alexandros (1817-1883)...... 55

PORTUGAL King João I (1357 - 1433)...... 59 King João V, the Magnanimous(1689 - 1750)...... 60 Marquês de Pombal (1699 - 1755)...... 61 Manuel de Arriaga (1840 – 1917)...... 62 General Ramalho Eanes (1935)...... 63

4 6 ALEXANDER I BATTENBERG

Bulgaria is famous for its long existence as a country. Starting from the 7th century, dozens of rulers and political leaders (as we call them today) have been in charge of Bulgaria. Whether they were good or bad for the prosperity of the country, they have certainly left their mark on the Bulgarian history. Some were powerful kings in the middle ages who ruled for decays, while others were presidents for a few years but each and every one of them has that thing which one considers as “significant”. For me, the most significant Bulgarian ruler is Alexander I Battenberg. Alexander I Battenberg was the very first knyaz (prince) of modern Bulgaria. His father was a German. Alexander had participated in the war which liberated the Bulgarians from the . His contribution in the Liberation was one of the main reasons why he was chosen to be the ruler of newborn modern Bulgaria. He was young, brave, ambitious and well recognized by the people. He accepted being the ruler of Bulgaria despite he was not a true Bulgarian, which I think was very risky for him because he could have been disliked and hated by the whole nation. What is more, even agreeing to become the very first knyaz of Bulgaria was itself a dangerous decision. How could a young foreigner just come and turn the country into a power and raise it from the ashes of the led 5 centuries rule by the Ottomans? So what quality should have a person who wants to stay in charge of a newborn country? Ambitiousness, of course. Alexander turned out to be a very ambitious young man. A quality that is really hard to find today. Or if you find it, it doesn’t come with being hardworking and innovative. But how can you turn your ambitions into reality if you don’t

7 have the power to go after them? Alexander knew that he had to work really hard to do everything right and he didn’t give up. He started doing many reforms but he also brought back things from the past that were forgotten or forbidden. He made Bulgaria a true European country for a short period of time. During Alexander’s rule was proclaimed the Unification of Bulgaria which united the country. This act of bravery was not well accepted by some of the influential countries back in the time and they wanted Alexander to resign from being a knyaz. He was deposed by force and was sent to Western Europe. Later on, he came back as a try to return but he was again unwanted and left Bulgaria once again. He gently stepped aside and was succeeded by Ferdinand I who became the new knyaz. During the time of the new ruler Bulgaria was declared as an independent country and he received the title “tsar” (king). This act shows how Alexander chose to quietly go away than stay unwanted on the throne. He knew what was better for Bulgaria and did it. Even if it meant leaving the country itself. Alexander I Battenberg – one of the most significant rulers in the whole history of my country. He was brave, ambitious and hardworking – there’s a lack of all these qualities today. Our society needs more role models like him and people who are willing to do anything for what they believe in. I believe that Alexander I Battenberg is the most significant Bulgarian ruler.

Marin Yordanov

8 TSAR SIMEON I THE GREAT

It’s hard for me to say who exactly is my favorite Bulgarian ruler, as all Bulgarian rulers had an impact on the country but if I had to choose the most influential one, that would be Tsar Simeon I the Great. Tsar Simeon I the Great ruled Bulgaria from 893 to 927 during the First Bulgarian state. He led a lot of successful battles against the and Serbia. One of the most popular is the Battle of Achelous on August 20, 917 against the Byzantines. During the rule of Simeon I Bulgaria reached its biggest territorial expansion. Bulgaria bordered the Black, Aegean and Adriatic Sea. Simeon I is also related to the Golden age when the Bulgarian culture was at its peak. The literature, arts and architecture were blossoming. The writers had the chance to develop their skills as they would write hundreds of manuscript scrolls in the tsar’s court. The palace was gorgeous. The murals, the mosaics and the stained glasses were breathtaking. Simeon I moved the Bulgarian capital from Pliska to Preslav. In Preslav was situated the magnificent Golden (Round) Church. It’s being called “round” because of its shape. I admire Tsar Simeon I the Great because he was brave and dedicated to his goal to raise Bulgaria’s authority.

Angela Nakou

9 KHAN KRUM

Khan Krum is my favourite ruler of Bulgaria, because he is unwavering in his decisions, brave and he never gives up of his dream that one day Bulgaria will be one of the strongest countries in Europe Khan Krum‘s reign is linked to one glorious event. The first written laws. Except that he have been clever warrior, he‘ve also been talented politician. His reign starts after Khan Kardams. after his nationality is pannonian Bulgarian. In the beginning of 811 y. the byzantine emperor Nikiphoros I Genik wants to attack the first capital of Bulgaria - Pliska. After he passed through the Balkan and breaks two Bulgarian squad the emperor‘s army reaches Pliska, he burns and plunder it. Khan Krum three times tried to offer piece to emperor Nikiphoros I Genik, but he rudely refused. Then Khan Krum mobilises all the forces and attacks Nikiphoros on 26th 811 in the Varbitsa pass. The emperor is captured. The legend says that Khan Krum ordered to be made a silver glass from emperor‘s head, which on the night of the win he raised a toast with the Slavic princes and said: Drink bunch from the Nikiphoros head. These words stayed forever in Khan Krum‘s biography. He is great, he is unwavering, he got the nickname Scarry because of his deeds. Khan Krum is my favourite ruler of Bulgaria. He is the person who meaned the most for the first Bulgarian county.

Asen Vladimirov

10 TSAR IVAN ASEN II

My favorite Bulgarian ruler is Tsar Ivan Asen II. His rule is known as one of the greatest periods in the . When he ascended the throne in 1218 he terminated the internal strives and established strong central power. This reflected favorably on the life in the country. Ilike Ivan Asen II because he managed to expand the borders of Bulgaria by using the power of diplomacy. His rule lead to an economic and cultural rise. Ivan Asen II is one of the first medieval Orthodox rulers who started minting golden coins with their face and title on them. Tsar Ivan Asen II donated a lot to monasteries, especially the monastery on the Athos peninsula (today’s Greece). He led the Bulgarian army to the Battle of Klokotnitsa when his forces totally crushed the army of Theodor Komnin of Epirus. Ivan Asen II showed an unexpected mercy when he released most of the captured enemy army. Ivan Asen is my favorite ruler because of his successful domestic and foreign policy which made Bulgaria the most powerful country in Southeast Europe in the first half of the XIII century.

Madlen Todorova

11 STEFAN STAMBOLOV

My favorite Bulgarian leader is Stefan Stambolov. He is a Bulgarian statesman, politician, poet and one of the founders of today’s Bulgaria. He is my favorite ruler because he achieved a lot for the strengthening and the establishment of the Bulgarian state. He took part in the April Uprising in 1876. His later actions during the Bulgarian Unification in 1885 and the crisis after the coup in 1886 turned out to be crucial for the stabilization of Bulgaria and its detachment from Russia. As a prime minister, he defended the Independence of Bulgaria, accelerated the economic development, strengthened the position of Bulgaria in Europe and defended the interests of the country. He also established friendly relations with Turkey, looking for a way to unite the Bulgarian lands. The contribution of Stefan Stambolov is one of the most significant in Bulgaria’s history. Although his positive impact on the country, he gained a lot of enemies but his high political rank was hardly reached by anyone. Despite the fact he was hated by many, Stambolov is a unique and remarkable figure of the history of Modern Bulgaria.

Pamela Georgieva

12 VASIL LEVSKI

My favorite Bulgarian leader is Vasil Levski because he has been and will remain a Bulgarian hero and a revolutionary. Vasil Levski (Vasil Ivanov Kunchev) was born on July 18, 1837 in the town of Karlovo in the family of Ivan Ivanov and Gina Karaivanova. He studied at each school in Karlovo. In 1851 his father died. From 1855 he studied for two years in a secondary school in . He became fluent in several languages – Turkish, Greek and Armenian which were later useful in his revolutionary activities. Vasil Levski was a national fighter for freedom and an organizer of the Bulgarian Internal Revolutionary Organization and the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee. He is also known as “The apostle of freedom” because of his participation in the organization and development of the strategy for the Liberation of Bulgaria. The Internal Revolutionary Organization which he created was the foundation on which stepped the organizers of the April Uprising in 1876. He died on February 18, 1873 in . The anniversary of his death is traditionally honored on February 19.

Vesela Yordanova, 9 “a”

13 KING SIMEON THE GREAT

My favourite ruler of Bulgaria is King Simeon the Great. He was in charge of Bulgaria on X century. He is my favourite ruler so because of him Bulgarian literature and culture reached its „Golden age“. But his time of rule is not without wars with Byzantin, whose point is Romans to conquer Bulgaria. In 917 y. near river Aheloi takes place one of the most famous battles in the Bulgarian history, battle that approved Bulgaria, being the strongest countries on the Balkan peninsula. The interesting about him is that he wasn‘t surrounded by guard as some other Bulgarian and foreign rulers. I‘m fact he‘ve been honored in front of the writers as Chernorizets Brave, whose nature is a total mystery even nowadays and a lot more people from different parts of the Europe.

Bogdan Petkov

14 KING SIMEON THE GREAT

My favourite ruler is King Simeon the Great. I like him because he was very ambitious and strong ruler. He ruled Bulgaria from 893 to 927. He came to power after his father, knyaz Boris, dethroned his older brother Vladimir Rasate who wanted to restore the old pagan religion. Simeon had studied in the Magnaura school and he was very well educated for the time. During his rain he used diplomatic approach. However, sometimes he had to use the means of force to get the best for Bulgarian state. He managed to defeat the Byzantine Empire and defend the Bulgarian interest. I admire him also because during his rule Bulgarian culture flourished. A lot of books were written and translated. A lot of schools were established and people got the chance to learn to read and write into the new language.

Darina Ivanova

15 16 ESTONIA 18 KONSTANTIN PÄTS

My favorite Estonian leader is Konstantin Päts. I admire him because he had a very interesting, tragic and vivid biography and he was a real patriot of young Estonian state. Konstantin Päts was the first president of the Republic of Estonia (1938-1940). He is considered to be the most remarkable politician of the pre-war Estonian Republic. Päts graduated from high school in Pärnu and then he graduated from the Law Faculty of the University of Tartu in 1898. He had a Ph.D. degree (Doctor of Philosophy). In 1901, Konstantin Päts married Wilhelma Ida Emilie Peedi whom he had met in Pärnu High School. They had two sons, Leo and Viktor. He repeatedly led Estonian governments including during the most difficult times the state faced –the beginning of the War of Independence. Estonia won this war and became independent from the USSR and this is the most meaningful act as for my opinion. But unfortunately there was a lot of tragical moments, difficulties and contradictions in his life. None of his family avoided this fate. He was arrested on 30 July, 1940 by NKVD and departed to Russia, where he was living in a colony. After that, he was put to jail. He died in Russia in 1956. In 1990 his remains were reburied on Metsakalmistu cemetery in Tallinn. There is a monument and a memorial park devoted to Konstantin Päts In Tahkuranna. And this is the deserving final of his difficult life. My favorite Estonian rulers are Lennart Meri and Arnold Rüütel because I think they were the leaders of

19 Estonian Independence and they made Estonians feel themselves as a free and independent nation and be proud of the country.

Oleg Panenko

20 LENNART GEORG MERI

I was very surprised when I knew that Lennart Georg Meri was a writer, film director and statesman who served as the second President of Estonia from 1992 to 2001. Such a many-sided person! Meri was the leader of the Estonian Independence Movement. Lennart Meri was born in Tallinn. He was a son of the Estonian diplomat and, later Shakespeare translator Georg Meri, and Estonian Swedish mother Alice-Brigitta Engmann. His family left Estonia when he was a baby and then he studied abroad in nine different schools and in four different languages. His warmest memories were from his school years in Lycée Janson de Sailly in . Also Lennart Meri fluently spoke five other languages: Finnish, French, German, English and Russian. It shows that he was a very educated man. And his way of life and study is a good example for me as a young Estonian citizen.

Nikita Budnikov

21 ARNOLD RÜÜTEL

I was interested in his life because he helped the Estonian nation to save their customs and traditions and he was a good example for many people showing the beauty of our culture himself. Arnold Rüütel is an Estonian politician and statesman. He was the 3rd President of the Republic of Estonia from 2001 to 2006. Rüütel was born in Laimjala Parish, on the island of Saaremaa. He graduated from Jäneda Agricultural College in 1949, and worked as a senior agronomist for the Department of Agriculture of Saaremaa and as a teacher of agriculture at Tartu School of Mechanization of Agriculture from 1955 to 1957. Arnold Rüütel married to a folklorist Ingrid Rüütel and they had two daughters. He also introduced the tradition of Annual Christmas balls where great people of Estonia are honored and rewarded. His family saved a lot of traditions of national costumes and they often wore them themselves during official ceremonies and holidays! Estonians respected him for his wisdom and strenght and I think he is a wonderful example for young generation!

Nikita Budnikov

22 POLAND 24 KING JAN III SOBIESKI (1629 – 1696)

I admire him because he was a successful soldier and army leader. By his Turkish enemies he was called the Lion of Lechistan (Poland) for his bravery. Innocent XI in 1684 awarded him a title of Christians’ Defender of the Faith. He was an educated man who spoke several foreign languages which was quite unusual even for royalties. He was king of Poland between 1674 -1696. Jan Sobieski got the throne thanks to successful victorious wars with Turks and Tatars. In 1683 he won the famous battle of stopping the Turkish invasion of Europe, protecting European Christian traditions from domination of Islam. The battle of Vienna is on the list of most important battles for the whole world. During his reign final peace treaty with Russia was signed in 1686. Sobieski’s reign was the best time of the development of Sarmatian culture – which was characterized by love of freedom and traditions. He was a loving husband famous for his love letters to his wife Marysieńka (Maria). Their collection of letters is an example of romantic literature of those times. He retired and looked after his household and property which he received as a reward for his service to his country. He died in 1696.

Wiktoria Kielich

25 JÓZEF PIŁSUDSKI (1867 – 1935)

My favourite leader is Józef Piłsudski is admired by Polish people because: He was a great soldier, strategist, focused on Polish army, the head of Polish army since 1918.He was an independence activist and the first Marshal of Poland since 1920. He helped Poland gain independence after 123 years of partitions, occupation and NON-EXISTENCE on European maps. On 11 November 1918 the enemy armies staying for 123 years in our motherland started to go back to Russia, Germany and Austria where they belonged. Poland did not allow foreign invaders to change us into Russians or Germans, we didn’t forget our native language, culture and traditions. The war against Russians in 1920 was very important for the world and Europe. Piłsudski’s small Polish army ‘demolished’ the enormous Bolshevik -Russian army . He stopped the Soviet plans to change the Southern & Western Europe into Soviet republics. The famous battle of Warsaw is 18th on the list of the most important battles in the world history. He was the creator of government after the revolt of May 1926 and Polish Prime Minister in the years 1926–1928 and 1930. Piłsudski was mostly concerned with the Polish army and foreign affairs. From among all European countries Poland had the most difficult situation being squeezed between 2 aggressive and expansive powers: Germany and (Russia). His actions led to recognition of Poland on the world map and the map of Europe by them! He reached agreements :„pacts about non-aggression” signed with USSR in 1932 and Nazi III Reich in 1934, unfortunately both our neighbours did not respect them. He is also known for funny sayings, which due to censorship can’t be quoted here ;). He died in 1935. Joanna Klimczak 26 MIESZKO I (935–992)

He is my favorite because he was a strong leader of Piast family and the tribe of POLANS. He conquered many Slavic tribes and united them as one country. He became the first official ruler of newly formed Poland. He was a clever diplomat, he accepted Christianity as Polish religion and joined western civilization avoiding German christianization by force. He married a Bohemian (Czech) princess to have friends over the southern border. He formed the first regular army of warriors, who trained every day, guarded the towns and villages, and fought against the enemies when necessary. He defeated German army at Cedynia in 972 signalling the strength of Poland to all European neighbours. He started Piast dynasty which ruled nearly until the end of the XIV century. He died in 992.

Klara Pozłótka

27 LECH WAŁĘSA (BORN IN 1943)

Lech Wałęsa is a person admired by me and the Polish people because he got successful in life: he was an electrician who became the president of Poland between 1990-1995. He has made people smile as he is a charismatic politician with direct, simple, sometimes funny language. He was a co-founder of „Solidarity” the first independent trade union in the Soviet-block countries and an effective union leader who wasn’t afraid to speak aloud what the workers felt. He was an organizer of the illegal 1970 strikes at the Gdańsk Shipyard when workers protested about the government raising food prices; He was considered the chairman of the strike committee. He was a tough man who firmly defended his opinions. He and his big family (8 children) were under constant surveillance by the Polish secret police; his home and workplace were always bugged. Over the next few years, he was arrested several times for participating in dissident activities. He became famous all over the world as a human-rights activist who spoke in the White House and a Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1983. On 9 December 1990 Wałęsa won the presidential election and became the first democratically elected president of Poland. Wałęsa saw Poland through privatization and transition to a free-market economy (Balcerowicz Plan), Poland’s 1991 first totally free parliamentary elections, and a period of redefinition of Poland’s foreign relations. He successfully negotiated the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Polish territory. He got a substantial reduction in Poland’s foreign debts. As a retired politician – now he is a commentator of the political and economic reality.

Klara Pozłótka

28 30 VLAD III, PRINCE OF WALLACHIA (1431–1476/77)

I admire Vlad III who was a member of the House of Drăculești, a branch of the House of Basarab, also known, using his patronymic, as (Vlad) Drăculea or (Vlad) Dracula. He was posthumously dubbed Vlad the Impaler (Romanian: Vlad Țepeș), and was a three-time Voivode of Wallachia, ruling mainly from 1456 to 1462, the period of the incipient Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. His father, Vlad II Dracul, was a member of the Order of the Dragon, which was founded to protect Christianity in Eastern Europe. Vlad III is revered as a folk hero in Romania as well as other parts of Europe for his protection of the Romanian population both south and north of the . A significant number of Romanian and Bulgarian common folk and remaining (nobles) moved north of the Danube to Wallachia, recognized his leadership and settled there following his raids on the Ottomans. As the cognomen “The Impaler” suggests, his practice of impaling his enemies is part of his historical reputation. During his lifetime, his reputation for excessive cruelty spread abroad, to Germany and elsewhere in Europe. The name of the vampire Count Dracula in Bram Stoker’s 1897 novel Dracula was inspired by Vlad’s patronymic. In 1459, Pope Pius II called for a new crusade against the Ottomans, at the Congress of Mantua. In this crusade, the main role was to be played by Matthias Corvinus, son of John Hunyadi (János Hunyadi), the King of Hungary In this context, Vlad allied himself with Matthias Corvinus, with the hope of keeping the Ottomans out of the country (Wallachia was claimed as a part of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror). Later that year, in 1459, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II

31 sent envoys to Vlad to urge him to pay a delayed tribute of 10 000 ducats and 500 recruits into the Ottoman forces. Vlad refused, because if he had paid the ‘tribute’, as the tax was called at the time, it would have meant a public acceptance of Wallachia as part of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the Sultan received intelligence reports that revealed Vlad’s domination of the Danube. He sent the Bey of Nicopolis, Hamza Bey (also known as Hamza Ceakirdjiba), to make peace and, if necessary, eliminate Vlad III. Vlad Țepeș planned to set an ambush. Hamza Bey, the Bey of Nicopolis, brought with him 1000 cavalry and when passing through a narrow pass north of Giurgiu, Vlad launched a surprise attack. The Wallachians had the Turks surrounded and defeated. The Turks’ plans were thwarted and almost all of them caught and impaled, with Hamza Bey impaled on the highest stake to show his rank. In the winter of 1462, Vlad crossed the Danube and devastated the entire Bulgarian land in the area between Serbia and the Black Sea. Disguising himself as a Turkish and utilizing the fluent Turkish he had learned as a hostage, he infiltrated and destroyed Ottoman camps. In response to this, Sultan Mehmed II raised an army of around 60,000 troops and 30,000 irregulars, and in spring of 1462 headed towards Wallachia. This army was under the Ottoman general Mahmut Pasha and in its ranks was Radu the Handsome. Vlad was unable to stop the Ottomans from crossing the Danube on June 4, 1462 and entering Wallachia. He constantly organized small attacks and ambushes on the Turks, such as The Night Attack when 15,000 Ottomans were killed. This infuriated Mehmed II, who then crossed the Danube. Radu the Handsome, brother of Vlad III and ingratiate of the Ottoman Empire, was left behind in Târgoviște with the hope that he would

32 be able to gather an anti-Vlad clique in Wallachia that would ultimately establish Radu the Handsome as the new Voivode of the region. Vlad’s rule falls entirely within the three decades of the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, conquering the entire Balkans peninsula. Vlad the Impaler’s attack was celebrated by the Saxon cities of , the Italian states and the Pope. A Venetian envoy, upon hearing about the news at the court of Corvinus on 4 March, expressed great joy and said that the whole of Christianity should celebrate Vlad Țepeș’s successful campaign. The Genoese from Caffa also thanked Vlad, for his campaign had saved them from an attack of some 300 ships that the sultan planned to send against them.

Zamfir Ionela

33 DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673–1723)

My favourite leader is Dimitrie Cantemir. He was twice Prince of (in March–April 1693 and in 1710– 1711). He was also a prolific man of letters – philosopher, historian, composer, musicologist, linguist, ethnographer, and geographer. Of Crimean Tatar origins, as his family name suggests (Cantemir originates from Khan Temir), Dimitrie Cantemir was born in Silișteni, the son of Moldavian Voivode Constantin Cantemir (and brother to Antioh Cantemir, himself Prince), of the low-ranking Cantemirești family. His education began at home, where he learned Greek and Latin and acquired a profound knowledge of the classics. Between 1687 and 1710 he lived in forced exile in Istanbul, where he learned Turkish and studied the history of the Ottoman Empire at the Patriarchate’s Greek Academy, where he also composed music. In 1693, he succeeded his father as Prince of Moldavia - in name only, as the Ottomans appointed Constantin Duca, favoured by Wallachian Prince and, despite many shared goals, forever rival of the Cantemirs Constantin Brâncoveanu; his bid for the throne was successful only in 1710, after two rules by his brother (whom he represented as envoy in the Ottoman capital). He had ruled only three weeks when he joined Peter the Great in his campaign against the Ottoman Empire and placed Moldova under Russian , after a secret agreement signed in Lutsk. Defeated by the Turks in the battle of Stănilești (July 18–July 22, 1711), Cantemir sought refuge in Russia, where he and his family finally settled. There, he was awarded the title of Knyaz (Prince) of the by Peter the Great and received the title of Reichsfürst (Prince) of

34 the Holy Roman Empire from Charles VI. He died at his Dmitrovka estate near Oryol in 1723 (on the very day he was awarded the Roman-German princely title). In 1935, his remains were carried to Iași. In 1714 Cantemir became a member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. Between 1711 and 1719 he wrote his most important creations. Cantemir was known as one of the greatest linguists of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being well versed in Oriental scholarship. The best known is his History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire. It remained the seminal work on the Ottoman Empire up to the middle of the 19th century. In 1714, at the request of the Royal Academy in Berlin, Cantemir wrote the first geographical, ethnographical and economic description of Moldova, Descriptio Moldaviae. Around the same time he prepared a manuscript map of Moldova, the first real map of the country. It contained a lot of geographical detail as well as administrative information, it has been used by all cartographers of the time as an inspiration for their own maps of Moldova. Other writings: • A history and notation of Ottoman court music. • The first critical history of Romania as a whole, under the name of Hronicul vechimei a romano-moldo-vlahilor – approx. “Chronicle of the Ancientness of Romanian- Moldavians-Wallachians” (1719–1722). The work proves the Latin origin of the Romanian language and of people born on the former territory of ancient Dacia, including the fact that Romanian has four dialects. • The first Romanian language novel, the cryptic Historia Hieroglyphica (1705), to which he furnished a key, and in which the principal persons are represented by mythological beasts; it is the history of the two Wallachian

35 ruling houses of Brâncoveanu and Cantacuzino. • A philosophical treatise, written in Romanian and also in Greek, translated into Romanian, under the title Divanul sau Gâlceava Înțeleptului cu lumea sau Giudețul sufletului cu trupul (Iași, 1698) (“The Divan or The Wise Man’s Parley with the World or The Judgement of the Soul with the Body”). • An unfinished second treatise (Constantinople, 1700), Sacrosantae scientiae indepingibilis imago or Imaginea științei sacre, care nu se poate zugrăvi (“The Undepictable Image of Sacred Science”). • An introduction to Islam written for Europeans. • A biography of Jan Baptist van Helmont. Due to his many esteemed works he won great renown at the high courts of Europe. His name is among those who were considered to be the brightest minds of the world on a plaque at the Library of Sainte-Genevieve in Paris, next to those of Leibniz, Newton, Piron, and other great thinkers. Some of Cantemir’s compositions are part of the regular repertory of Turkish music ensembles. He had around 40 compositions in the Ottoman music of which few are performed today, but his greatest service to the Ottoman music is the fact that he helped survival of 350 instrumental pieces by recording them in a certain notation (the ebced) script he developed in his work Edvar which he presented to Sultan Ahmed III.

Cârstea Andreea

36 NICOLAE CONSTANTIN PAULESCU (30 OCTOBER 1869 – 17 JULY 1931)

My favourite leader is Nicolae Constantin Paulescu who was a Romanian physiologist, professor of medicine, and politician, the discoverer of pancreine (later called insulin). The “pancreine” was a crude extract of bovine pancreas in salted water, after which some impurites were removed with hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. Paulescu was also, with A. C. Cuza, co-founder of the National Christian Union and later, of the National-Christian Defense League in Romania. Born in , he was the first of four children of father Costache Paulescu and mother Maria Paulescu. He displayed remarkable abilities as early as his first school years. He learned French, Latin and Ancient Greek at an early age, so that a few years later he became fluent in all these languages and was able to read classical works of Latin and Greek literature in the original. He also had a particular gift for drawing and music and special inclinations towards natural sciences, such as physics and chemistry. He graduated from the Mihai Viteazul High School in Bucharest, in 1888. In the autumn of 1888, Paulescu left for Paris, where he enrolled in medical school. In 1897 he graduated with a Doctor of Medicine degree, and was immediately appointed as assistant surgeon at the Notre-Dame du Perpétuel-Secours Hospital. In 1900, Paulescu returned to Romania, where he remained until his death (1931) as Head of the Physiology Department of the University of Bucharest Medical School, as well as a Professor of Clinical Medicine at the St. Vincent de Paul Hospital in Bucharest. In 1916, he succeeded in developing an aqueous

37 pancreatic extract which, when injected into a diabetic dog, proved to have a normalizing effect on blood sugar levels. Shortly after completing the experiments, he was called to service in the Romanian army. After , he resumed his research. From 24 April to 23 June 1921, Paulescu published four papers at the Romanian Section of the Society of Biology in Paris: • The effect of the pancreatic extract injected into a diabetic animal by way of the blood. • The influence of the time elapsed from the intravenous pancreatic injection into a diabetic animal. • The effect of the pancreatic extract injected into a normal animal by way of the blood. An extensive paper on this subject - Research on the Role of the Pancreas in Food Assimilation - was submitted by Paulescu on 22 June to the Archives Internationales de Physiologie in Liège, Belgium, and was published in the August 1921 issue of this journal. The method used by Paulescu to prepare his pancreatic extract, as published in the Archives Internationales de Physiologie in 1921, was similar to a procedure described by the American researcher Israel S. Kleiner in an article published in 1919 in Journal of Biological Chemistry. Using his procedure, Kleiner had been able to demonstrate significant reductions in the concentration of blood and urinary glucose after intravenous injections of his extract. Furthermore, Paulescu secured the patent rights for his method of manufacturing pancreine on 10 April 1922 (patent no. 6254) from the Romanian Ministry of Industry and Trade. In February 1922, doctor Frederick Grant Banting and biochemist John James Rickard Macleod from the University of Toronto, Canada, published their paper on

38 the successful use of a different, alcohol based pancreatic extract for normalizing blood sugar (glucose) levels (glycemia) in a human patient, a young boy. While Paulescu had patented his technique in Romania, no clinical use resulted from his work, as his saline extract could not be used on humans. The work published by Banting, Best, Collip and McLeod represented the injection of purified insulin extract, after into a diabetic individual ameliorating symptoms of the disease. Not surprisingly, Banting and Macleod received the 1923 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of insulin treatment.

Sbora Iulia

39 CORNEL COPOSU

The person I admire is Cornel Coposu. He was born in Bobota, Sălaj County (in Transylvania, part of Austria- Hungary at the time). He was a devout member of the church and joined the (PNR), a group dominated by Greek-Catholic politicians - Gheorghe Pop de Băseşti was an acquaintance of the Coposu family, and Alexandru Vaida-Voevod was a relative on ’s mother’s side. After studying Law and Economy at the University of Cluj (1930–1934), he engaged in local politics with the PNR’s direct successor, the National Peasants’ Party (PNŢ), and worked as a lawyer. He became private secretary of , the leader of the PNR and PNŢ, who had been a decisive factor in Transylvania’s union with Romania (1918). Coposu moved to Bucharest in 1940, when was ceded to Hungary, and, during World War II, he was an important member of the PNŢ delegation in the clandestine opposition to ’s regime. He established links between the movement and the , and was one of the politicians charged with maintaining contacts between Romanian politicians who were negotiating the country’s exit from the and the Western Allies (an alternative kept by the Antonescu government). In 1945, after the royal coup against the Antonescu regime, Coposu became deputy secretary of the PNŢ and, after the reunion of Northern Transylvania, the party’s delegate to the leadership of provisional administrative bodies. He was also active in organizing the party as the

40 main opposition to the Communist Party and the cabinet before the 1946 general election. The communist regime established with Soviet assistance, arrested him on July 14, 1947, together with all the leadership of the National Peasants’ Party, after some of the party leadership had allegedly tried to flee the country in a plane landed at Tămădău (see Tămădău Affair). He was imprisoned without trial for nine years, as all charges brought against him were dismissed due to lack of evidence. Coposu later attested that his imprisonment, imposed by Soviet officials overseeing the , was among those causing a stir in the higher echelons of the Communist Party — , a Communist who was purged together with Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu, later told him that prominent party politician had unsuccessfully opposed the move in front of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. In 1956, Coposu was sentenced to life imprisonment for “betrayal of the working class” and “crime against social reforms”. In April 1964, he was freed after 15 years of detention and 2 years of forced residence in Rubla (Brăila County), having spent, in all, 17 years of incarceration in 17 notorious detention and hard labor facilities associated with the communist regime, including , Gherla, , Râmnicu Sărat, Piteşti prison, and the Danube-Black Sea Canal. Coposu later testified having been impressed by the deep scars collectivization had left in the country, as well as by the resilience of the Rubla deportees (In the 1990s, during debates over the overall number of victims of the Communist regime between 1947 and 1964, Coposu spoke of 282,000 arrests and 190,000 deaths in custody). After his release, Coposu started work as an unskilled worker on various construction sites (given his status as

41 a former prisoner, he was denied employment in any other field), and was subject to Securitate surveillance and regular interrogation. His wife Arlette was also prosecuted in 1950 during a rigged espionage trial, and died in 1965, soon after her release, from an illness contracted in prison. Coposu managed to keep contact with PNŢ sympathisers, and re-established the party as a clandestine group during the 1980s, while imposing its affiliation to Christian Democracy and the Christian Democrat International.

Fiţa Augustin

42 BADEA CÂRȚAN

My favourite leader is Badea Cârțan who was a self- taught ethnic Romanian shepherd who fought for the independence of the Romanians of Transylvania (then under Hungarian rule inside Austria-Hungary), distributing Romanian-language books that he secretly brought from Romania to their villages. In all he smuggled some 200,000 books for pupils, priests, teachers and peasants; he used several routes to pass through the Făgăraş Mountains. He was born in Cârțișoara, present-day Sibiu County, the second child of poor peasants (Nicolae and Ludovica) who were former serfs, and he spent his childhood tending sheep at the edge of his village. In between his later brushes with fame, he would always return to this activity. He became the head of his family on 2 October 1865 with the death of his father. Cârţan first crossed the mountains into the Romanian Old Kingdom with his sheep and a friend at the age of 18, and it was at that time that his interest in Romanian national unity became powerful. In 1877 he enrolled as a volunteer in the Romanian War of Independence, serving until 1881. In 1895 he travelled to Vác and Szeged to visit imprisoned Romanians, including the signatories of the Transylvanian Memorandum. Badea Cârțan himself was arrested twice: once because he asked the Emperor-King Franz Joseph at Vienna for Transylvania’s self-determination, and once because he asked the authorities for permission to sell Romanian books. Cârțan made a journey on foot to Rome, and when he arrived at the city’s edge after 45 days, said, “Bine te- am găsit, maica Roma” (“Pleased to meet you, mother Rome”). He wished to see Trajan’s Column with his own

43 eyes, as well as other evidences of the Latin origin of the Romanian people. After pouring Romanian soil and wheat at the column’s base, he wrapped himself in a peasant’s coat (cojoc) and fell asleep at the column’s base. The next day he was awakened by a policeman who shouted in amazement, “A Dacian has fallen off the column!”, as Cârţan was dressed just like the Dacians carved into the column; the event was reported in Roman newspapers and Duiliu Zamfirescu, Romanian representative in Italy, showed him around the city and introduced him to its important personalities. This January-February 1896 trip was but one of three visits to Rome; on his last, in October 1899, on the occasion of a meeting of the International Congress of Orientalists, he laid a wreath at the column’s base. Cârțan also visited , Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Egypt and Jerusalem. He was buried in Sinaia, on soil belonging to independent Romania (Transylvania still being seven years away from its post-World War I union with Romania); on the stone cross atop his grave is inscribed the phrase: “Aici doarme Badea Cârțan visând întregirea neamului său” (“Here lies Badea Cârțan dreaming of the unity of his people”).

Joiţa Robert

44 GREECE 46 IOANNIS KAPODISTRIAS (1776 - 1831)

My favourite ruler of my country is Ioannis Kapodistrias. He was the first Governor of the independent Greek State, who founded the State from scratch, with his personal fortune. As the Governor of Greece promoted important reforms for the improvement of the public engine and for the establishment of law frames, which were necessary for the establishment of order. In the public administration he founded a Resolution Body to address the economic, military and internal matters of state. For the public order established the first Greek Police. He tried to fight theft ,he eliminated the piracy in the Aegean and he reorganized the armed forces and the institutions of justice Having studied Medicine, he organized the Health sector. For the effective treatment of serious contagious diseases he described the vaccination method and improvement of pharmaceutics. He reorganized the economy of the country. He founded the National Mint, the «National Bank» and established the phoenix as national money. He organized all the public services. For the development of industry, maritime and of the agriculture was given special weight to the mineral resources of the country, repairing of ships or purchase new ones, the cultivation of National land, support farmers and introduced new crops For the education of children he built new schools and he founded a lot of Technological and Academic Education Schools for young people

47 Today, many streets and squares carry his name. The airport in Corfu is named “Ioannis Kapodistrias” whereas the national university of was renamed into “National Kapodistriakon University of Athens”. Moreover, Kapodistrias is depicted in the 20 cents coin of euro. Kapodistria Plan is named the reform programme in the local administration. Unfortunately he was murdered on 9th October 1831 in .

48 CHARILAOS TRIKOUPIS (1832 - 1896)

My favourite Greek leader is Charilaos Trikoupis.l He was born in Nafplio and came from the famous family of Trikoupis. He was reigned in the political scene of Greece for 19 years. From 1875 to 1894 he became Prime Minister seven times in total. Charilaos Trikoupis craved for modernization, which was not easy due to the problematic greek economy and to the conservative spirit of the era. Nevertheless his action in Greece is considered defining for the transition of the country in the 20th century. He enforced the Maritime by buying the warships , decreased the military service to one year from thre. With the government that he constituted in March 1882 he reorganized the police, the agricultural police and the military school “Evelpidon” He constituted laws for the qualifications, permanency and promotion of public workers.. He paid attention to the development of education. In 1867 as a minister of foreign affairs he sign a pact of defensive co-operation with ruler Michael of Serbia and in March 1880 he abolished a tax in cereal products and replaced him with another one in favour of farmers. He reduced the Parliament members from 240 to 150 (the lowest limit that the Constitution allowed) . He decided the drainage of lake Kopaida and the creation of a railroad system. In 1882 there were only 9 kilometers of railway that connected Athens and , in 1893 only 914 km were functional and another 490 were under construction. For the funding of those projects he took 2 big loans and taxed tobacco and wine.

49 The opening of the Korinthos canal was a success because of Trikoupis, who inaugurated it in 1893. He taxed construction. Characteristic of his progressiveness is his risky vision for the gapping of Rio-Antirio which took shape in 2004, a century later with the construction of the Bridge Rio- Antirio. It was named after him on 25th May 2007. Also, many Streets and Squares in various greek cities have been named after him. He died at the age of 64 in Cannes and was buried in Athens.

50 ELEFTHERIOS VENIZELOS (1864 - 1936)

My favourite leader is Eleftherios Venizelos. He was born on he grew up in . In 1881 he registered in the Law School of Athens. He graduated in 1887. He opened a lawyer’s office and became distinct in his job. As a politician he played an important role in the political matters of Greece from 1910 to his death. He was a Prime Minister of the Cretan State and seven times . He was active in the political and economic evolution of Greece and in the victorious results of the Balkan (1912- 1913). During World War I he disputed with royalty which cost National Division (1915-1917). He imposed his politics for fighting side to side with the Allies believing that it was the time for the “Big Idea to be fulfilled” (ie. Greece would maintain the profits from the and extend its borders). Greece was rewarded for its contribution by the grant of the Commission of Smyrna(1919). In the critical elections of November 1920 Venizelos was defeated, withdrew from politics, and returned during the Asia Minor destruction in 1922. With two radical initiatives (1923) the mandatory exchange of with Turkish and the Treaty of Lozanni, which defined the borders between Greece and Turkey he changed the orientation of Greek politics and set the foundations of peaceful development. The last four years of his career(1928-1932) was a period of stability and creativity. His success was the Greek-Turkish Amity Agreement (1930). The end of his career was marked by his attempted assassination (June 1933) . The Governments of Venizelos brought pioneer changes and solidified a series of public rights in various areas such as employment, social politics, health, welfare,

51 education and agriculture. Lower vocational schools, industrial, commercial and housekeeping schools were founded.Free Public Primary Education was established. He was politician, genius, realist and visionist, flexibl and daring, he possessed an impressive glowing. The name of Eleftherios Venizelos has been givem to many streets and squares in almost all greek cities. The Subway of Athens bares its name (Eleftherios Venizelos- Tavros). the new airport of Athens was named International Airtport of Athens “Eleftherios Venizelos” in his honour.

52 MAVROKORDATOS ALEXANDROS (1791- 1865)

My favourite Ruler is Mavrokordatos Alexandros. He was born in a suburb of Konstantinople. He was the son of Nikolaos Mavrokordatos, office holder,and Smaragda Karatza. From his very first years he was taught bya tutor and learned to speak fluently the turkish and french language early. During 1807-1811 he was a student in the Great School of The Nation. In 1812 his uncle Ioannis Karatzas became the ruler of Vlahia and made him his secretary. But soon, Mavrokordatos becomes distinguished and is promoted to a Minister of foreign Affairs. There, Mavrokordatos took lessons on fortification, which he then implemented in Mesologi. Then, he went to Piza, Italy. There, the famous “Circle of Piza” was created which played an important role in the outcome of the revolution in 1821. In 1819 Mavrokordatos became a member of the Secret Society of Friends while studying Medicine at the local university. He climbed to higher positions almost immediately after being a candidate for the positions of President of the First National Assembly, of the Executive Body and then of . After the revolution he was actively involved in the political life of Greece, being a Prime Minister 4 times. He was the only Prime Minister that was personally involved in three war operations. 1st: The Battle of Peta After the outbreak of the revolution in 1821, Mavrokordatos sailed to Marsaille, took Greeks that lived in Europe and greek affiliates and departed to Patra, believing that it had been freed by then. . In due time he

53 found out it was still enslaved so he settled in Mesologi. He met with Dimitrios Ipsilantis in August 1821, he became his place holder. Mavrokordatos tried to reinforce his position by organizing a crusade in Epirus, but it resulted in the defeat of the battle of Peta. 2nd: The fisrt siege of Mesologi He compensated the defeat of Peta with his personal success on Christmas Eve 1822 when he repelled the Turkish Military, with the help of the Peloponesians , during the first siege of Mesologi. 3rd. The Fall of Sfaktiria Mavrokordatos went to navarino (April 1825), sent by Koyntouriotis, in order to coordinate and save the forts and Sfaktiria. Despite his efforts only but a few were saved. Mavrokordatos barely escaped death. The sector in which almost all writers recognize his valuable contribution is diplomacy. Today, many streets have been named after him.

54 KOUMOUNDOUROS ALEXANDROS (1817-1883)

I like Koumoundouros Alexandros most. He was born in outern Mani. As a child he was almost captured by the Turk-Egyptians of Ibrahim. He graduated from the school of Nafplio and studied law in the new university of Athens. he practices law for a while in Kalamata. In 1841 he fought in the rebellious Crete and when he came back to Athens he became the secretary of theodoros Grivas. During the governing of I. Kolettis (1847) he became a general attorney for three years, when he resigned to get into politics. In 1850 he was elected member of the Parliament for the first time for Messinia. Since then he was re-elected as a member with a small 14-month recess (1868-1869). In 1864 there was an attempted murder against him in Stadiou Street at the entrance of the Assembly. Next year he established the Koumoundourian party and became Prime Minister the same year. From 1865 to his death he became Prime Minister 10 times in 7,5 years.. As far as the foreign politics was concerned: In 1866 the Cretan issue was debated, which he managed to overcome successfully since he didn’t succumb to the demands of the Great Forces who wanted Greece to be dragged into a war with Turkey. He believed that war politics wouldn’t benefit Greece since it wasn’t prepared. Also, the peaceful affiliation of and South Epirus was considered a success of his governing. In the inner of the country, he took care for the resolution of various problems, like the reglulation of taxing and the narrowing down of theft. The law for “Ministers’ responsibility” was also important, according to which the associates accused of

55 forgery and of impersonation of authoritieswere sent to a special court. 2.650.000 acres of land were redistributed and amnesty was given to 100 thieves in order to fight. As a minister and Prime Minister he managed to ensure the greek interests, due to his being direct, self- controlled and exceptionally daring. From the beginning of his political action he was distinguished for his rhetorical skills and his mediocrity. His political speeches, especially on economy and state administration, established his corresponding rumour. Places in his memory • Koumoundourou Lake • Koumoundourou Isle • Koumoundourou Square • Many streets

The essays are collective work of: Lambardy Vasiliki Nikoleta, Lambardy Vasiliki Maria, Kosma Maria Georgia, Potsi Eliana, Zacharias Kantikos, Katsianakis Konstadinos, Souaipi Amarildo, Chondros Emmanuel, Kostaki Markela, Xinogala Artemis, Frantseska Disa, Xinogala Garifalia, Imbra Biorni, Margaritis Andreas, Xinogalas Dianellos Sandiku Klevis, Nanou DImitra, Gianniou Elpiniki, Sumbasi Yillka

56 PORTUGAL 58 KING JOÃO I (1357 - 1433)

My favourite ruler is King João I. He was born on the 11th April 1357, in Lisbon, and died on the 14th August 1433. He was considered king after the crisis in Portugal. In 1385 Portugal defeated the Castilians in Aljubarrota battle. John I of Portugal ruled in peace and pursued the economic development of the country. The only significant military action was the siege and conquest of the city of Ceuta in 1415, an important place to control the circulation of goods in the Mediterranean Sea. He aimed at controlling navigation in the African coast. On the other hand, this was the first step in opening the Arabian world to medieval Europe, which in fact led to the Age of Discovery with Portuguese explorers sailing across the whole world.

Márcio Conde Pedro Figueiredo

59 KING JOÃO V, THE MAGNANIMOUS (1689 - 1750)

I admire King João V. Hewas born on the 22nd October 1689 in Lisbon, and died on the 31st July 1750. He reigned for 43 years and he was known for discovering gold in Brazil, a Portuguese former colony. His reign was known for the many wars fought to defend Portugal. His long reign was characterized by a strengthening of the king’s power due to the incomes the crown earned by exploring the newly found gold and diamond mines in Brazil. A fifth of each ton extracted from these mines was crown property, the rest being divided among claim owners, contractors and public administrators. This sudden wealth enabled the king to rule becoming an absolute . João V built his own Versailles, the grand Royal Palace of Mafra (1) and the Palace of Necessidades (2) and its park, in Lisbon. John V was the greatest patron of the arts in the Europe of his time.

Márcio Conde Pedro Figueiredo

60 MARQUÊS DE POMBAL (1699 - 1755)

My favourite leader is Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, first count of Oeiras, better known as Marquês de Pombal. He was born in Lisbon on May 13th of 1699 and was a portuguese noble diplomat and statesman. He is considered one of the most controversial statesman in the Portuguese history because of the changes he achieved in the Portuguese society.

On November 1st of 1755, there was an earthquake in Lisbon and due to the tragedy and the chaos, Marquês de Pombal had to show his capacities of leadership and organisation by demanding the rebuilding of the capital. This was one of his greatest challenges. He renewed most of our historical patrimony. He is also known for having put an end to slavery in Portugal, in 1761. He also put an end to the discrimination of the New Christians, by the Portuguese Inquisition (1821).

Márcio Conde Pedro Figueiredo

61 MANUEL DE ARRIAGA (1840 – 1917)

I like Manuel de Arriaga most. He was the 1st President of the Portuguese republic. He was an important lawyer, teacher, writer and politician. He was a member of the Portuguese Republican Party (before January 31, 1891). Manuel de Arriaga was an active parliamentarian during the constitutional monarchy of King Luís I. He was involved in the debates on the reform of education, the penal code and prisons, in addition to electoral reform. He was combative and critical of what he saw, as for example, wastes and luxuries of the royal family.

Márcio Conde Pedro Figueiredo

62 GENERAL RAMALHO EANES (1935)

I admire General Ramalho Eanes who was an important general and politician. He was born on the 25th January 1935. After a long military career in the Portuguese Colonial War, he was in Angola (former Portuguese colony) when the 25th April revolution (1974) took place. He joined the AFM (Armed Forces Movement) and after returning to Portugal, he was made president of RTP (Portuguese public television). He ordered the military operations against the pro-communist radical faction of the AFM on the 25th November 1975, an event known as the “Hot Summer”.

In 1976 he was elected President of Portugal. By the end of 1980 he was re-elected (1980-1986). After his presidency, he headed the Democratic Renewal Party, resigning in 1987. He is also a Member of the Portuguese Council of State, as a former elected President of Portugal. He rejected any suggestion of becoming a Marshal, considering the title unnecessary.

Márcio Conde Pedro Figueiredo

63 BULGARIA

Hristo Botev and his men get off on Bulgarian soil -Ivona Stoyanova Khan Asparuh - Aleksandra Yordanova

Khan Asparuh - Ani Braynova

2 The feast of Khan Krum after the victory over Emperor Nikiphorus - Asen Vladimirov

Knyaz Boris welcomes the students of Cyril and Methodius - Nedyalka Racheva and Pamela Georgieva 3 Knyaz Boris I -Esil Shukrieva

Knyaz Boris I -Adelina Nenova

4 Tsar Simeon the Great - Stefani Raycheva

Tsar Simeon the Great - Svetlana Petrova

5 Tsar Simeon the Great - Hristo Hristov

Tsar Simeon the Great (the book lover) - Monik Yordanov

6 Tsar Simeon the Great - Madlen Nenova

Tsar Simeon the Great Viktoria Vasileva

7 Proclaiming of Samuil king - Aleksandar Andonov

8 Tsar Ivan Aleksander and his wife walking around -Velislava Velinova

Tsar Ivan Asen II and his second wife Ana Maria, daughter of the Hungarian king Andrash II - Zhulieta Hristova and Nadya Racheva 9 Tsar Kaloyan captures the emperor Boldowin I - Andzhela Naku

Tsar Kaloyan, his unfaithful wife and emperor Baldwin - Sanya Dimitrova

10 Stefan Stambolov - Maria-Yoana Tsaneva

Knyaz AleksandarI Batenberg at Serbo-Bulgarian war - Marin Yordanov

11 Vasil Levski - Stefani Marinova

12 ESTONIA

Arnold Rüütel and his wife on the official ceremony - Nikita Budniklov

13 The grave of the first President of Estonia Konstantin Päts in Metsakalmistu - Oleg Panenko

Lennart Georg Meri on the bank of - Nikita Budnikov

14 GREECE

The murder of Kapodistrias - Katsianakis Konstantinos

15 Charilaos Trikoupis - Eleftherios Venizelos - Katsianakis Konstantinos Katsianakis Konstantinos

Mavrokordatos Alexandros Koumoundouros - Katsianakis Konstantinos Alexandros - Katsianakis Konstantinos

16 Ioannis Kapodistrias - Kapodistrias - Katsianakis Konstantinos Katsianakis Konstantinos

Ioannis Kapodistrias - Katsianakis Konstantinos

17 POLAND

Baptism of Mieszko I - Maja Cień

Józef Piłsudski - Jakub Lech King Jan III Sobieski - Maja Kwiatek 18 King Sobieski encouraging his troops to attack Kara Mustafa - Julia Dobrowolska

Piłsudski – founder of Polish army - Maja Cień 19 Lech Wałęsa - Zdzisław Mieszko I - Olga Snoch Kruszyński

President Wałęsa - Maja Kwiatek

20 PORTUGAL

Marquês de Pombal - Daniela Monteiro

21 D. João I - Joana D. João V - Rodrigues, Maria Martelo, Pedro Figueiredo Marta Charrua

General Ramalho Eanes - Manuel de Arriaga - Joana Rodrigues Ana Sofia Santos

22 ROMANIA

Badea Cârţan - Corneliu Coposu - Popa Sorina Popa Sorina

Dimitrie Cantemir - Popa Sorina

23 Nicolae Paulescu - Popa Sorina

Vlad the Impaler - Popa Sorina

24