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Image and Narration in the Tenth-Century Gerona Beatus Commentary on the Apocalypse

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Image and Narration in the Tenth-Century Gerona Beatus Commentary on the Apocalypse VISUALIZING APOCALYPSE: IMAGE AND NARRATION IN THE TENTH-CENTURY GERONA BEATUS COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Kevin Ray Poole, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Approved by: Professor Vicente Cantarino, Adviser Professor Maureen Ahern ____________________________________ Professor Rebecca Haidt Adviser Graduate Program in Spanish and Portuguese Copyright by Kevin Ray Poole 2006 ABSTRACT The illuminations that accompany the Gerona Beatus Commentaries on the Apocalypse have long been considered pictorial accompaniments to the written text of the New Testament Book of Revelations that function as visual aids for readers. This is only partly true, for several of the Beatus manuscripts contain illuminations that do not pertain to the Apocalypse but to other books of the Bible, though the text is absent. The Gerona Beatus, the most elaborately decorated of the Beatus manuscript family, is such an example, containing not only depictions of Old Testament stories but also a series of illustrations of the life of Christ not found in other manuscripts of its family. Produced in 975 AD, the Gerona Beatus continues the tradition of medieval apocalyptic thought in which the Antichrist was perceived of as embodied in the Muslim presence in Spain of the eighth through the fifteen centuries. As instruments of learning and meditation used by monks and other religious during the monastic practice of lectio divina, the Gerona Beatus illuminations functioned as more than simple graphic accompaniments, for they recreated a new narrative in which the reader could visualise the fulfilment of Biblical prophecies from both the Old and the New Testaments. By presenting the reader with a series of emotive symbols, depictions of Christ, and the images of the Apocalypse, the artists created a supernarrative in which various books of the Bible come into contact with one another and symbolically carry the reader into a ritual time in which earthly ii temporality ceases and a heightened level of spiritual understanding, which Saint Augustine calls visio spiritualis, is achieved. Through lectio divina, it was believed, the reader could access divine wisdom and, in so doing, prepare his soul for visio intellectualis, or divine understanding of God. The social climate in Spain the late tenth century caused concern among the Christian religious, who believed that Christ’s Second Coming was near and that the Church would soon conquer the perceived evil of Islam. The Gerona Beatus aided the religious to prepare themselves for that victory and for the Final Judgment that they believed imminent. iii Dedicated to my parents, Clifford and Sybil Poole iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank my adviser, Professor Vicente Cantarino, for his intellectual support and constant enthusiasm. He has truly taught me how to be a scholar, and I am forever indebted to him for his guidance. I also thank Professors Maureen Ahern and Rebecca Haidt for their support of this project. Their comments and suggestions, as well as their professional advice, have proven, and will always prove, invaluable to me. To Professor Stratos Constantinidis, I am also indebted for his comments and suggestions regarding the organisation of this project. For Mónica Fuertes Arboix, Carmen Grace, and Martín Brena, I am forever thankful. They have helped me in more ways than they can imagine during this process of research and writing, proving themselves truly great friends. I am equally grateful to Melinda Robinson, Judy Manley, Megan Hughes, and Rebekah Stepan. They have kept me laughing, even during the most stressful times of graduate school. Finally, I would like to thank Ms. Touria Myers and Professor Joseph Jones, both former teachers who have continued to encourage me in my professional endeavours. v VITA May 30, 1977……………………………Born – Russellville, KY, USA May 1999………………………………..B.A. Foreign Language Education The University of Kentucky May 2001………………………………..M.A. Spanish Language and Literature The University of Kentucky FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Graduate Program in Spanish and Portuguese Minor Field: Hispanic Linguistics vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract…………………………………………………………………………,,……....ii Dedication………………………………………………………………………,,……....iv Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………,,………....v Vita……………………………………………………………………………,.………..vi List of Figures………………………………………………………………..…………..x Chapters: Introduction…………………………………………………………..…………...1 1. The Historical Backdrop to the Beatus Apocalypse Tradition…….…………....10 1.1 Beatus and his religious environment……………….……………….....…...11 1.1.1 Beatus of Liébana…………………………………………….…....11 1.1.2 Beatus and Adoptionism……………………………………….….15 1.1.3 Beatus’s Millenarianism…….……………………………….….…23 1.2 The Illustrated Beatus Tradition……………………………………….….....27 1.2.1 Islam as Antichrist……………………………………………..…..28 1.2.2 Concluding Comments..………………………...…………….…...37 2. The Beatus Illustrations: Texts for the Illiterate or Path to Spiritual Perfection?..................................................................................39 2.1 Images for the illiterate……………………………………………...……….40 2.1.1 Gregory the Great and Reading in the Middle Ages…….…..….…40 2.1.2 Words, Pictures, and Communication………………….…….……45 2.2 Practical Uses of Images: Glosses and Memorization…..……….…….……49 2.2.1 Images as Glosses of Written Texts….…………………….…..….50 2.2.2 Images and the Memory…………………………………….…......56 2.3 Image, Emotion, and Spiritual Growth...……………………………….…....65 2.4 The Beatus Apocalypse Illustrations as Spiritual Guides……………….…...75 3. Image and Narration in the Gerona Beatus Commentaries On the Apocalypse ……….………………………………………..…………….83 3.1 The Gerona Manuscript……………………………………………………...85 vii 3.2 Decorative Illumination in the Gerona Beatus Manuscript……...………..…89 3.3 Narrative Illustrations in the Gerona Beatus………………………………....93 3.3.1 Spatial .Oorganization of the Gerona Apocalypse Illustrations…...95 3.3.1a The Enthroned Christ (folio 107r, Revelations 4:1-5) .......96 3.3.1b The Sixth Seal (folio 131v, Revelations 6:12-17).……...102 3.3.1c Saint John Receives the Book that He is to Eat, and the Measuring of the Temple (folio 161v, Revelations 10:1-11 and 11:1-2)……………………….106 3.3.1d General Conclusions Regarding Spatial Use in the Gerona Beatus…………………………………….……111 3.3.2 Speech acts in the Gerona Apocalypse Illustrations……………..115 3.3.2a The Delivery of the Book to Saint John (folio 31v, Revelations 1:1-6)……………………………………...116 3.3.2b The Message to the Seven Churches (folios 70v, 71r 76r, 85r, 89v, 94r, 100v; Revelations 2-3)……………..121 3.3.3 Representations of Movement in the Gerona Apocalypse llustrations………………………………………………...……124 3.3.3a The Opening of the Four Seals (folio 126r, Revelations 6:1-8)……………………………….…......126 3.3.3b The Destruction of Jerusalem (folio 166r, Revelations 11:7-10)………………………………………….…..…131 3.3.4 Pictorial Apocalypse Narremes of More than One Page…………135 3.3.4a The Battle of Armaggedon (folios 171v & 172r, Revelations 12:1-18)…………………………………....136 3.4 Structure of the Extra-Apocalyptic Illustrations…………………………....143 3.4.1 The Evangelists…………………………………………………...145 3.4.2 The Life of Christ………………………………………………....147 3.4.3 Illustrations from the Book of Daniel…………………………….154 3.5 Conclusions……...…………………………………………………….……159 4. The Gerona Beatus Apocalypse Supernarrative………………………………..162 4.1 The Genotext and Spiritual Enlightenment………………………………...163 4.2 The Gerona Beatus Extra-Apocalyptic Illuminations……………………...168 4.2.1 The Cross of Oviedo (folio 1v)…………………………………..168 4.2.2 Christ in Majesty and the Court of Heaven (folios 2r-4r)……..…169 4.2.3 The Four Evangelists (folios 4v-7r)…………………….….…..…174 4.2.4 The Genealogical Tables (folios 8v-14r)………………….……...177 4.2.5 The Life of Christ (folios 15r-18r, 189r)………………….……...180 4.2.6 The Bird and the Serpent (folio 18v)……………………….….....184 4.2.7 The Alpha and Omega (folios 19r, 284r)……………………..….186 4.2.8 The Apostles and the Map of the World (folios 52v-53r, 54v-55r)…………………………………………………….…….188 viii 4.2.9 The Animals and the Statue, and the Woman on the Beast (folios 61r, 63r)…………………………………………………..192 4.2.10 Noah’s Ark (folios 102v-103r)………………………………....195 4.2.11 The Palm Tree (folio 147v)……………………….………….....198 4.2.12 The Baptism of Jesus (folio 189r)………………….…………...201 4.3 Narrative Time in the Gerona Beatus Apocalypse Supernarrative.………..210 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….…….…214 Appendix A: Extant Illuminated Beatus Apocalypse Manuscripts……….…….……..219 Appendix B: Illuminations of the Gerona Beatus Manuscript…………….…….…….221 Appendix C: Explanation of the Tables of the Antichrist………………….…….……224 Bibliography……………………………………………………………….…….…….228 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 3.1 Graphic Organization of Illustration on Folio 161v…………………………..109 3.2 Spatial Organization of Folios 171v and 172r……………….………………..138 x INTRODUCTION “It is the one great poem which the first Christian age produced, it is a single and living unity from end to end, and it contains a whole world of spiritual imagery to be entered into and possessed.”1 The Apocalypse, or the Revelation to Saint John, has captivated the minds of the religious and the laity alike, the world over, for nearly two millennia. The last book of the New Testament, it is, without a doubt, the most difficult to understand, for its twenty- two chapters contain an enigmatic message that leaves even the most astute of scholars
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