Prehistoric Settlement in the Western Cumberland Plain
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT IN THE WESTERN CUMBERLAND PLAIN: RESOURCES. ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY. by James Leslie Kohen Dip Tech (Sc), B App Sc (NSWIT), A.A.I.S.T. Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Macquarie University Sydney 1986 FRONTPIECE. The western Cumberland Plain, viewed across the Nepean River fro* the Lapstone Monocline. ABSTRACT The study of prehistory is subject to the same bias and prejudice as any other scientific discipline. When the rewards are likely to be few and the effort required great, researchers will avoid problem areas in favour of more lucrative fields. One such neglected area of research has been the archaeology of the coastal plains and forests of southeastern Australia, where poor visibility and the diffuse nature of the archaeological record militate against the investment of valuable research time. In the Sydney region, the archaeological data accumulated relate almost exclusively to rock shelter deposits. While such sites do have the potential to provide a great deal of valuable information, they reflect only a fraction of the activities carried out by the prehistoric population. In order to counteract the bias evident in the archaeological investigations, I undertook a systematic archaeological survey of the western Cumberland Plain. In the early chapters of this thesis, I examine the^ environmental setting and the resources which were available to Aboriginal people at the time of European settlement in 1788. After evaluating the ethnographic accounts, a clear picture emerges of two major economic systems operating; one based on coastal resources and one reliant on a wider range of locally abundant foods. Associated with this dichotomy were linguistic, technological and social differences suggestive of dense Aboriginal populations exploiting relatively narrow territories. i Archaeological surveys were undertaken, a representative rockshelter site and two open sites were excavated, and, in conjunction with the surface collections of artefacts, it was possible to identify patterns in the archaeological record suggesting that the technological changes evident in the stone tools were a reflection of a changing resource base. In the final chapters, the factors which have influenced the location of sites and the distribution of artefact types are examined, and a model proposed which accounts for the observed data. The model suggests that macropodids formed a major component of the diet for several thousand years following the introduction of the microlithic industry, but that over the last 2,000 years increasing Aboriginal population has necessitated a diversification into a wider range of resources. ii DECLARATION The work contained in this thesis is the result of my original research except where due acknowledgement is given. It has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other University or Institution. James Leslie Kohen 10th April, 1987. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people who have had a significant influence on this research project. I must thank Dr. Fred McCarthy for his inspiration, without which this project would not have been initiated. His support and interest provided the stimulus which was needed for me to approach prehistory without fear or trepidation. My first tottering steps into prehistory were made easier thanks to the guidance of Dr. Pat Vinnicombe, Fr. Eugene Stockton, Dr. Don Adamson, Dr. Frank Dickson, and of course my supervisor, Professor Martin Williams. Val Attenbrow, Anne Ross and Lee Scott-Virtue provided valuable input during the early stages. In later stages of the work, I was grateful for the comments made by Dr. Peter White and Dr. Ronald Lampert, who also made available the collections in the Australian Museum. The following people donated their time and energy assisting with the field work: Georgina Houghton, Alison Cooper, Julie Brady, Christina Sumner, Donna Matthews, Greg Russell, Margaret Dalkin, John McAdam, Rozanne Ransley, Michael Gillings, Raimond Pullinen, Ellen Toomey, Jenny Trueman, Sandy Deveson, Mark Anderson, Debbie Galloway, and Trish Scott. My thanks must also go to the many other students of prehistory and biology who have assisted in the field and in the laboratory. I also wish to express my thanks to the staff of the School of Biological Sciences at Macquarie University, and in particular Alison Edgecombe, who assisted with the vegetation surveys and iv identified many of the plant specimens collected; Peter Hughes who assisted with the computing and statistics; Dr. Frank Burrows who helped with the pattern analysis; and Ron Oldfield who provided darkroom facilities. In the School of Earth Sciences, Rod Bashford and John Cleasby were always willing to provide their excellent drafting talents to convert my rough sketches into works of art, and Mary Woods provided access to the Shiela McDonald Collection held in Maccquarie University Library. Kevin Downing from the Australian National University greatly assisted in the computing and also provided an aeroplane for the preliminary aerial surveys. Dr. Mike Barbetti, who undertook most of the radiocarbon dating, produced dates at short notice and went to great lengths to ensure my dates were accurate. My thanks also go to John Ford of the Forestry Commission of New South Wales, who helped with the identification of wood; Dr. Doug Benson from the Royal Botanic Gardens whose comments on the original vegetation of the Cumberland Plain were greatly appreciated; Dr. Jenny Brand of the Human Nutrition Unit at Sydney University; Dr. Mike Archer from the University of New South Wales for the Shaws Creek faunal analysis; Dr. Paul Goldberg from the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, for the micromorphological analysis of sediment samples fro* the Shaws Creek excavation; Fr. Eugene Stockton for his assistance with the stone tool typology; Professor Martin Williams for the Shaws Creek stratigraphy; and the following organisations who were instrumental in allowing me to survey various areas: Penrith Lakes Development Corporation, Blue Metal Industries, O.T.C. at Doonside, Housing Commission of New South Wales, Landcom, Penrith City Council, Blacktown City Council, Blue Mountains Council, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (and in particular Mr. David Bell), and the many private landowners who gave their permission for surveys to be conducted on their land. There is also a number of Aboriginal people who have provided valuable information and assistance. Particular thanks go to Gilson Saunders, Steve Lalor, Phillip Kahn and Eddie McKenzie, all of whom were associated with the Daruk Local Aboriginal Land Council; Don Williams of the Indigenous Peoples Council; and to the many local Aboriginal people who are the descendants of the Dharug, the traditional owners of the western Cumberland Plain, in particular Mrs, June Workman and the many members of the Gale and Lock families. The Daruk Local Aboriginal Land Council, the Indigenous Peoples Council, Aboriginal Affairs Foundation and the Western Regional Land Council all provided moral support for this project. My thanks must also go to the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, who provided funds for some of the radiocarbon dating, and to the Department of Aboriginal Affairs for funding the publication of the booklet "Aborigines in the west: prehistory to present". CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background 1 1.2 Alms and Methods 4 CHAPTER 2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Archaeological background 5 2.2 Coastal plains in Australian archaeology 10 2.3 Regional problems 12 2.4 Previous archaeological research 16 2.5 Bias in site selection 23 2.6 Aims and methods 26 CHAPTER 3. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING AND RESOURCE BASE 3.1 Geology and topography 29 3.2 Soils 29 3.3 Climate 30 3.4 Hydrology 30 3.5 Current land use 31 3.6 Original vegetation 34 3.7 Plant resources 36 3.8 Faunal resources 52 3.9 Lithic resources 55 vii PAGE CHAPTER 4. ETHNOGRAPHY: SOCIAL ORGANISATION AND ECONOMY 4.1 Tribes and bands 56. 4.2 Population densities 70 4.3 Economic base 76 4.4 Stone tools 81 CHAPTER 5. SURVEY METHODOLOGY AND SAMPLING 5.1 Site survival and archaeological visibility 85 5.2 Site definition 87 5.3 Survey sampling method 88 5.4 Testing the method 93 5.5 Data recording procedures for stone artefacts 96 5.6 Data recording procedure for site location analysis 100 5.7 Computer storage of data 106 5.8 Excavation techniques 106 CHAPTER 6. SHAWS CREEK KII ROCKSHELTER SITE 6.1 Historical background 110 6.2 Aims 112 6.3 Physical setting 113 6.4 Ecological setting 114 6.5 Excavation 117 6.6 Stratigraphy 120 6.7 Faunal analysis 122 6.8 Stone tool analysis 124 6.9 Ochre 141 6.10 Bone implements 142 viii PAGE CHAPTER 6 (CONTINUED) 6.11 Backed blades and bipolars 143 6.12 Discussion 144 6.13 Conclusion 155 CHAPTER 7. EMU PLAINS OPEN SITE COMPLEX 7.1 Introduction 158 7.2 Lapstone Creek open site 158 7.3 Jamisons Creek site complex 165 7.4 Jamisons Creek surface collections 167 7.5 Jamisons Creek JC/1 excavations 176 7.6 Jamisons Creek Lower Terrace (JC/1LT) excavation 183 7.7 Evaluation of Emu Plains sites 184 CHAPTER 8. SECOND PONDS CREEK SITE COMPLEX 8.1 Introduction 188 8.2 Artefact concentrations 190 8.3 Inter-cluster patterning 195 8.4 Excavation of SPC/5 199 8.5 Discussion 204 CHAPTER 9. OTHER WESTERN CUMBERLAND PLAIN SURVEY RESULTS 9.1 Introduction 208 9.2 Emu Plains survey 208 9.3 Western bank of the Nepean River 210 9.4 Collections on the eastern side of the Nepean River 213 9.5 Agnes Banks 215 PAGE CHAPTER 9 (CONTINUED) 9.6 Castlereagh State Forest and South Windsor 218 9.7 South Creek/Ropes Creek/Shalvey area 220 9.8 Eastern Creek/Riverstone/Schofields 221 9.9 Doonside/Blacktown 226 9.10 Discussion 229 CHAPTER 10. STONE TOOL TECHNOLOGY AND ANALYSIS 10.1 Introduction 231 10.2 Methods of statistical analysis 236 10.3 Analysis of single artefact types 241 10.4 Analysis of debitage 250 10.5 Assemblages on major sites 252 10.6 Assemblages on minor sites 261 10.7 Isolated finds 262 10.8 Usewear 263 10.9 Temporal indicators 264 10.10 Pebble/core/thick flake index 266 10.11 Spatial indicators 268 10.12 Multivariate analysis 269 10.13 Discussion 277 CHAPTER 11.