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Environmental Life Cycle Assessment and Techno-Economic Analysis of Triboelectric Cite This: Energy Environ Energy & Environmental Science View Article Online ANALYSIS View Journal | View Issue Environmental life cycle assessment and techno-economic analysis of triboelectric Cite this: Energy Environ. Sci., 2017, 10,653 nanogenerators† Abdelsalam Ahmed,‡ab Islam Hassan,‡bc Taofeeq Ibn-Mohammed,‡de Hassan Mostafa,fg Ian M. Reaney,h Lenny S. C. Koh,de Jean Zub and Zhong Lin Wang*ai As the world economy grows and industrialization of the developing countries increases, the demand for energy continues to rise. Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have been touted as having great potential for low-carbon, non-fossil fuel energy generation. Mechanical energies from, amongst others, body motion, vibration, wind and waves are captured and converted by TENGs to harvest electricity, thereby minimizing global fossil fuel consumption. However, only by ascertaining performance efficiency along with low material and manufacturing costs as well as a favorable environmental profile in comparison with other energy harvesting technologies, can the true potential of TENGs be established. This paper presents a detailed techno-economic lifecycle assessment of two representative examples of TENG modules, one with a high performance efficiency (Module A) and the other with a lower efficiency (Module B) both fabricated using low-cost materials. The results are discussed across a number of sustainability metrics in the context of other energy harvesting technologies, notably photovoltaics. Module A possesses a better environmental profile, lower cost of production, lower CO2 emissions and shorter energy payback period (EPBP) compared to Module B. However, the environmental profile of Module B is slightly degraded due to the higher content of acrylic in its architecture and higher electrical energy consumption during fabrication. The end of life scenario of acrylic is environmentally viable given its recyclability and reuse potential and it does not generate toxic gases that are harmful to humans and Published on 22 February 2017. Downloaded 29/03/2017 04:57:27. the environment during combustion processes due to its stability during exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Despite the adoption of a less optimum laboratory manufacturing route, TENG modules Received 17th January 2017, generally have a better environmental profile than commercialized Si based and organic solar cells, but Accepted 22nd February 2017 Module B has a slightly higher energy payback period than PV technology based on perovskite- DOI: 10.1039/c7ee00158d structured methyl ammonium lead iodide. Overall, we recommend that future research into TENGs should focus on improving system performance, material optimization and more importantly improving rsc.li/ees their lifespan to realize their full potential. a School of Materials Science & Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, USA. E-mail: [email protected] b NanoGenerators & NanoEngineering Laboratory, School of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5S 3G8, Canada c Design & Production Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, 11535, Egypt d Centre for Energy, Environment & Sustainability, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 1FL, UK e Advanced Resource Efficiency Centre, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 1FL, UK f Department of Electronics and Communications, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt g Center of Nanoelectronics and Devices (CND) at Zewail City and AUC, Egypt h Departments of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S1 3JD, UK. E-mail: i.m.reaney@sheffield.ac.uk i Beijing Institute of Nanoenergy & Nanosystems, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100083, China † Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/c7ee00158d ‡ A. Ahmed, I. Hassan, and T. Ibn-Mohammed contributed equally to this work. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2017 Energy Environ. Sci., 2017, 10,653--671| 653 View Article Online Analysis Energy & Environmental Science Broader context The ability of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) to convert mechanical energy from various sources into useful electrical energy has drawn attention in recent years. Given their potential for low cost energy generation for self-powered applications, it is important to assess their environmental profile and cost viability by carrying out a detailed techno-economic lifecycle assessment. This will provide an indication as to whether they constitute new environmental challenges or not. In this paper, a robust environmental life cycle assessment within a techno-economic framework is carried out for two TENG modules in the context of other energy harvesting technologies. 11 lifecycle environmental metrics as well as the energy payback periods and carbon dioxide emission factors are determined. Although the environmental impact of both modules is lower compared to traditional PV technologies, the higher quantities of acrylic in one of the modules along with energy-intensive fabrication led to a slightly higher environmental burden. Material optimization focusing on reduced material utilization as well as better fabrication processes should, however, improve their environmental profile. Uncertainty sensitivity analysis is conducted to provide deeper insights into TENGs. The current work therefore lays the foundation for future investigations into the profile of TENGs for environmentally friendly innovation in the energy sector. To have a significant impact, technological solutions capable of harvesting electricity from mechanical energy must also be competitive within the marketplace. 1. Introduction physical contact; the contact induces triboelectric charges and generates a potential drop when the two surfaces are separated The burning of fossil fuels is responsible for 480% of primary by a mechanical force, causing electrons to flow between the energy demands and current profiles reveal that the world two electrodes built on the two surfaces.3,16 Following the first remains highly dependent on carbon-based power generation publication on TENGs in 2012, huge progress has been recorded. 1 resulting in the emission of record levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). For instance, by the year 2015, the areal power density had The growth of the world economy, coupled with industrialization reached 500 W mÀ2,17 and the volume power density attained of the developing world, has resulted in a demand for energy that was 15 MW mÀ3, with an instantaneous conversion efficiency of continues to increase.2 Given the growing demand for energy and around 70%.18 TENGs boast a wide range of applications, given dwindling oil reserves, the development of alternative sustainable their capability to harvest mechanical energy from a variety of energy is of paramount importance. Energy from solar, wind and sources, including body motions, vibrations, wind and waves.19 tidal waves has the potential to be integrated with electrical power Additionally, the successful application of TENGs in self-powered grids to meet mega- to gigawatt power requirements.3 The overall chemical sensors has recently been demonstrated20–22 for driving requirements for harvesting these forms of energy are based on electrochemical processes23–25 and commercial light-emitting a number of factors including low-cost, high stability and high diodes (LEDs).26–30 efficiency.3 Several fabrication processes for TENGs have been described An increasingly wide range of mobile electronic devices in the extant literature. Specifically, four modes of operation of often connected to the Internet of Things (IoT) have not only TENGs, including vertical contact-separation mode, in-plane sliding modified our way of life but also have created the need for a mode, single-electrode mode and free-standing triboelectric- Published on 22 February 2017. Downloaded 29/03/2017 04:57:27. highly diversified energy platform.3 For applications such as layer mode were extensively described by Wang et al.3 In this medical care,4 healthcare monitoring, infrastructure monitoring, paper, attention is focused on two fabricated modules. The first environmental protection and security,manysensors,computer is a thin-film-based micro-grating triboelectric nanogenerator control circuits and antennas are required. Although the power (MG-TENG). The operation principle of the MG-TENG relies on for driving each miniature system is relatively small (from micro the coupling between electrostatic induction and the triboelectric to milli-Watt range),3 the collective number of units is forecasted effect.17,31–34 Consisting of two sets of complementary micron by Cisco (the worldwide leader in information technology) to be sized electrode gratings on thin-film polymers, the MG-TENG trillions by the year 2020.5 The use of batteries to power these harvests energy by sliding these surfaces.17 Based on previous units is currently the default solution but this is not sustainable research on this technology, a 0.6 g MG-TENG with an overall area given the large number required and their limited lifespan. of 60 cm2 and a total volume of 0.2 cm3 achieves an average Moreover, the concept of the IoT will be rendered meaningless output power of 3 W (50 mW cmÀ2 or 15 W cmÀ3) and an overall without the inherent ability of devices to be self-powered. This conversion efficiency of roughly 50%, which is sufficient to power challenge has prompted the development of nanogenerators that regular electronics such as light bulbs.17 These performance
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