Chapter 21 Transcending the Self Awe, Elevation, and Inspiration

Michelle N. Shiota Todd M. Thrash Alexander F. Danvers John T. Dombrowski

As described by Western science, emotion is increase in self-­focused attention, as mea- fundamentally about the self. While major sured by use of first-­person pronouns in theories of emotion differ in many important sentence-­completion tasks (e.g., Salovey, regards, most agree that emotions reflect 1992; Salovey & Rodin, 1985; Wood, Saltz- an “assessment of one’s own current state” berg, & Goldsamt, 1990). Positive emotions (Russell, 2003, p. 149) and/or evaluation have this effect as well, provided that par- of the significance of events for one’s goals ticipants are not anticipating a subsequent and well-being (e.g., Lazarus, 1991; Scherer, task that might elicit performance concerns 2009). Positive emotions are no exception. (e.g., Abele, Silvia, & Zöller-Utz, 2005; Theories of positive emotion and analyses Silvia & Abele, 2002). Positive emotion of its neural substrates often emphasize key is thought to increase reliance on internal roles in identifying goal-­conducive situa- knowledge structures and dominant modes tions and promoting approach/appetitive of cognition, another way in which the states that support acquisition of mate- mind can turn inward rather than out to the rial and social rewards (e.g., Burgdorf & environment (e.g., Bless, Bohner, Schwarz, Panksepp, 2006; Carver & White, 1994; & Strack, 1990; Bodenhausen, Kramer, & Knutson & Cooper, 2005; Watson, Wiese, Süsser, 1994; Fiedler, 2001; Forgas, 1998; Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999). Even the social although see Fredrickson, 2001, for a differ- emotions of pride in our accomplishments, ent perspective). love for attachment figures, and gratitude The emotions (awe, elevation) and emo- toward those who have helped us are argu- tional state (inspiration) addressed in this ably self-­focused, reflecting on our own chapter are thought to do the opposite, turn- actions or what others do for us (Haidt & ing our minds outward rather than inward, Morris, 2009). encouraging us to transcend the self and its Emotions also tend to turn attention expectations. While they differ from each inward. Negative emotions lead to an other in important ways, awe, elevation,

362 21. Transcending the Self 363 and inspiration all involve challenging our or visual piece), conceptual breadth (e.g., a expectations about what is and what can be. work of art or literature that ties together They pull attention outside the self toward a rich range of ideas, breaking new con- something to be understood and appreci- ceptual ground), or volume of unexpected ated—­a feature of the natural world, the information (e.g., the drop of pond water actions of another human being, a practical that contains an elaborate world of its or creative problem to be solved. Moreover, own). Because such stimuli are not easily they draw attention to that which is greater accounted for by one’s current understand- than the self, inviting us to transcend our ing of the world, they require “cognitive day-to-day agendas and limits. In this chap- accommodation”—updating one’s world- ter we discuss each of these three constructs, view in order to include and make sense of offering a detailed theoretical description, as the new experience. well as reviewing the available empirical evi- Consideration of awe as a possible “basic” dence. We then discuss broader issues raised emotion—­a functionally discrete emotion by awe, elevation, and inspiration, offering category thought to be a product of our evo- suggestions for future research on these rela- lutionary heritage (see Shiota, Chapter 3, tively understudied states. this volume)—was long prevented by inabil- ity to identify a plausible adaptive function. However, Keltner and Haidt (2003) pro- Awe posed two ways in which awe might enhance fitness. The first of these is suggested by Albert Einstein once said, “One cannot help Einstein’s comment, quoted earlier. At the but be in awe when contemplating the mys- individual level of analysis, the cognitive teries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous and behavioral effects of awe should pro- structure of reality. It is enough if one tries mote greater encoding of new information merely to comprehend a little of the mystery from the environment, or cognitive accom- every day. The important thing is not to stop modation. All animals require knowledge questioning; never lose a holy curiosity” about their environment in order to survive. (statement to William Miller, as quoted in We humans may be unique in the extent of Einstein’s obituary in Life magazine, May our ability to gather new information from 2, 1955). Like other great thinkers, Einstein our surroundings, however, and to store that highlights the transcendence of one’s cur- information in the form of internal mental rent understanding as a core feature of awe representations or “schemas” (Piaget, 1973). in this comment, and also points the way to Schemas are efficient and protective, allow- important functions that awe might serve. ing us to apply old knowledge to new situa- tions and mentally “test out” possible plans of action without actually performing those Theoretical Definition actions and facing their consequences. How- Drawing extensively on literature in phi- ever, when old schemas cannot make sense losophy, sociology, and religious studies, of a new stimulus or experience, a new one as well as psychology, Keltner and Haidt must be formed. (2003) proposed a theoretical definition of If the definition of awe offered earlier is “awe.” Their analysis identifies two themes correct, awe should reduce reliance on exist- characterizing stimuli that are likely to elicit ing schemas, heuristics, and other current the experience of awe: perceived vastness knowledge structures in processing new and need for accommodation. “Vastness” stimuli, and instead facilitate the intake of means that the stimulus strongly challenges new information and formation of new sche- the perceiver’s accustomed frame of refer- mas. Notably, this is the opposite of previ- ence. While this may be a matter of sheer ously observed effects of positive emotions, physical size (e.g., the Grand Canyon or the which typically have been found to promote Eiffel Tower), a stimulus can also be vast in greater reliance on prior schemas and other terms of explanatory power (e.g., a theory mental shortcuts in approaching the envi- of physics), social import (e.g., a person or ronment (e.g., Bless et al., 1990; Bodenhau- historical event that affects millions of peo- sen et al., 1994; Fiedler, 2001; Forgas, 1998). ple), sensory detail (e.g., a complex musical As we see below, this aspect of Keltner and 364 IV. SELECT POSITIVE EMOTIONS

Haidt’s (2003) theory has been highly useful the eliciting events were described in posi- in generating empirical research. tive terms, and all emphasized some aspect At the group level of analysis, feelings of vastness in the experience. Even descrip- of awe toward powerful leaders may help tions of potentially negative or primarily stabilize social hierarchies by encouraging social events (e.g., death of a grandparent, submissive and cooperative behavior among a friend’s marriage) focused on the magni- subordinates. As a species, humans are tude of the life transition in question and “ultrasocial,” performing many tasks that the impossibility of knowing what would are crucial for survival and reproductive fit- follow, rather than personal loss or social ness (food acquisition and production, pro- pleasure. Descriptions of participants’ own tection against attack by predators and out- accomplishments as awe elicitors empha- groups, creating shelter, raising offspring) sized amazement bordering on disbelief, in large groups of loosely related individu- rather than pride. These descriptions are als (Campbell, 1983). Large groups require highly consistent with the conceptual defini- leadership to be effective, but conflict over tion of awe suggested by Keltner and Haidt leadership can be costly for both the group (2003). and the individuals in it. Drawing from phil- osophical and sociological accounts, Keltner Subjective Experience and Haidt (2003) suggest that one function and Individual Differences of awe is to provide a nonviolent mechanism for allocating power, in which potential or The subjective experience of awe is also con- actual leaders use awe-­inspiring displays to sistent with the notion of self-­transcendence. elicit buy-in from their communities. While Compared with those asked to relive a per- this proposal has not, to date, been trans- sonal pride-­inducing accomplishment, those lated into much psychological research, it asked to relive an awe-­inspiring natural is consistent with observations in sociology scene report significantly greater feelings and cultural anthropology (e.g., Durkheim, of awe, love, rapture, and contentment, as 1887/1972; Weber, 1978/2002). well as feeling that the self is small or insig- nificant, sensing the presence of something greater than the self, being unaware of nor- Empirical Research mal day-to-day concerns, feeling connected Like the other constructs addressed in this with the surrounding world, and wanting to chapter, awe has received far less empirical prolong the experience as long as possible attention than positive emotions such as joy/ (Shiota et al., 2007). Awe experiences were enthusiasm, contentment, amusement, love not rated as challenging or tiring (in fact, and pride. Nonetheless, the research cur- they were rated significantly less so than rently available for review supports the theo- accomplishments), suggesting that the kind retical portrait offered earlier. of cognitive activity involved in awe does not require effortful, controlled processing. Correlations of dispositional awe-­proneness Antecedents with Extraversion (r = .34), Openness to English speakers report that awe is elicited Experience (r = .49), and Need for Cogni- by the kinds of stimuli suggested by Kelt- tive Closure (r = –.39) also link awe to a ner and Haidt’s (2003) analysis, and by the tendency to push one’s own experiential and construct definition proposed earlier. In one intellectual boundaries (Shiota, Keltner, & study a sample of undergraduates was invited John, 2006; Shiota et al., 2007). to describe a recent event in which they felt awe, without further suggestion about type Physiological and Expressive Aspects of experience (Shiota, Keltner, & Mossman, 2007). The most commonly reported elici- Physiological and expressive aspects of awe tors were panoramic nature views, extraor- have not been widely studied. The one study dinary works of art or music encountered that explicitly compared autonomic nervous for the first time, and one’s own or another’s system responding in awe versus other posi- remarkable accomplishment. Notably, all of tive emotions and a neutral state found that 21. Transcending the Self 365 awe led to a pronounced and unique increase firms a consistent role of piloerection in in cardiac preejection period, indicating awe, this would suggest a novel and complex withdrawal of sympathetic nervous system autonomic profile. Much further research influence on the heart via beta1-adrenergic is needed to document the physiological receptors (Shiota, Neufeld, Yeung, Moser, aspects of awe, and to assess whether these & Perea, 2011; see Figure 21.1). This effect aspects play a role in mediating effects of is consistent with prior studies demonstrat- awe on cognitive outcomes. ing heart rate reduction during the intake of A recent study also documented a proto- information (Bradley, 2009). In this study type facial/postural expression associated awe was also associated with an increase in with awe. Participants were asked to recall respiration rate and decrease in respiratory a personal experience with awe (as well sinus arrhythmia. as several other positive emotions), then Feelings of goosebumps or “goosetingles” to freely pose the way they would express are also commonly associated with the expe- awe to others. Posed expressions commonly rience of awe (e.g., Maruskin, Thrash, & included raised inner (but not outer) eye- Elliot, 2012; Schurtz et al., 2012). Although, brows, raised eyelids, loosely opened mouth to our knowledge, this effect has yet to be with parted lips, and slight postural leaning examined via objective measures of physi- forward (Campos, Shiota, Keltner, Gon- ological responding, the subjective sense of zaga, & Goetz, 2013; see Figure 21.1). The goosetingles in awe likely reflects contrac- absence of an outer brow raise distinguished tion of piloerector muscles, making body this expression from the prototypical sur- hair stand on end and literally producing prise expression (e.g., Ekman et al., 1987), goosebumps. Piloerection is caused by acti- although both may facilitate intake of visual vation of alpha1-adrenergic receptors on information. The absence of a smile (Duch- these muscles via the sympathetic nervous enne or otherwise) is striking in comparison system—­a different mechanism from that with expressions of most other positive emo- driving the cardiac effect described earlier. tions and may emphasize the primarily cog- If future, laboratory-­based evidence con- nitive rather than affiliative nature of awe.

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00 Change in PEP (ms)

–0.50

–1.00

Neutral Attachment Love Amusement Enthusiasm Nurturant Love Awe

FIGURE 21.1. Prototype facial expression and baseline-­to-trial change in cardiac preejection period associated with awe. Prototype facial expression is based on data from Campos, Shiota, Keltner, Gon- zaga, and Goetz (2013). Graph of change in cardiac preejection period is reprinted with permission from Shiota, Neufeld, Yeung, Moser, and Perea (2011). Copyright 2011 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission. 366 IV. SELECT POSITIVE EMOTIONS

Implications for Cognition, Perception, aspect of the awe experience. Experimen- and Self‑Concept tally elicited awe has been found to alter the self-­concept in a way consistent with this So far, the bulk of empirical research on proposed aspect, increasing the number of awe has emphasized this emotion’s effects “universals” such as “I am a human” and on cognition, perception, and self-­concept. “I am a living being” offered by participants Although this research is still very young, as self-­descriptors in the Twenty Statements some studies already support the proposal Test (Shiota et al., 2006), and increasing feel- that awe inhibits reliance on previously held ings of oneness with others “in general,” as schemas, mental heuristics/shortcuts, and well as with personal friends (Van Cappel- other internal knowledge structures in pro- len & Saroglou, 2012). Other studies have cessing new information. For example, one found that viewing awe-­inspiring videos on set of studies found that participants who had nature and childbirth led to an increase in just completed an awe-­induction task were spirituality, defined as a “tendency to orient less influenced than those in a neutral condi- oneself toward a larger transcendent real- tion by persuasive messages containing sev- ity” (Saroglou, Buxant, & Tilquin, 2008, eral weak arguments (Griskevicius, Shiota, p. 169). This effect was not observed after & Neufeld, 2010). Previously, other positive participants viewed a comic video, and the emotions had been found to increase one’s effect did not extend to formal religiosity. susceptibility to weak but prolific persuasive Instead, awe appeared to have a distinctive messages relative to a neutral control, indi- effect on participants’ sense of themselves as cating reliance on a simple “more is better” part of a vast, greater, and meaningful real- heuristic. Griskevicius and colleagues (2010) ity. replicated this original finding with antici- Most recently, new studies have examined patory enthusiasm, amusement, content- the implications of awe for our perception ment, and love for attachment figures, but of time, and the downstream effects of low awe showed the opposite effect. Preliminary time pressure for prosocial behavior and studies are also finding that awe, relative to well-being (Rudd, Vohs, & Aaker, 2012). other positive emotions, leads to reduced Across three studies, experimentally elic- reliance on stereotypes in rating the person- ited awe was found to increase the percep- alities of people in fictional profiles (Yee & tion of available time and reduce feelings of Shiota, 2013), as well as a more conserva- impatience. These changes mediated effects tive bias in deciding whether or not specific of awe on self-­reported willingness to volun- details were present in a lengthy audio story teer time to help others, preference for expe- about a common event—going out to dinner riences rather than material objects, and life at a romantic restaurant (Danvers & Shiota, satisfaction. In interpreting these effects, 2013). Rudd and colleagues (2012) suggest that, as Much further research is needed to exam- a consequence of need for accommodation, ine the implications of awe for activation the experience of awe focuses our attention and use of internal knowledge structures, on the present moment, effectively stretch- such as mental schemas, and to establish ing it out. Further research efforts examin- the specific mechanisms and boundary con- ing the effects of awe on attention per se are ditions of these effects. In developing this suggested by this analysis, and mediation research, it is important to note that demon- studies would be a helpful addition to this strating reduced reliance on prior knowledge new line of research. structures does not necessarily demonstrate When asked to offer examples of things increased effective intake of information that elicit awe, laypeople and great thinkers from the environment; these processes are alike tend to point to the natural world, or dissociable and must be demonstrated using to physical creations that, though conceived different measures. and built by humans, give a sense of tran- Studies of schema/heuristic activation scending human capacity. Awe may also emphasize the “need for accommodation” have an amoral quality, in that vastness and aspect of awe. Other studies of cognitive need for accommodation may characterize outcomes have emphasized the “vastness” great horrors as well as great beauty. We 21. Transcending the Self 367 now turn to a second self-­transcending posi- Campos, Keltner, & Hertenstein, 2004). tive emotion, elevation, which places greater At the individual level of analysis, elevation emphasis on social elicitors and the exempli- helps us to identify exemplary cooperators fication of moral values. and good trade partners by triggering affec- tion for those who display altruism (Haidt, 2000). People who prioritize other people’s Elevation interests are good relationship partners, and elevation may help point our attention When witnessing an exemplary moral act toward these individuals (Frank, 1988). At performed by another person, we may the group level, elevation can help support experience a powerful emotional response. community norms of helping. When one Haidt (2000) has identified this response member of a group helps, other members are as the emotion elevation, “a warm, uplift- likely to see—and respond by helping yet ing feeling that people experience when they other group members. Haidt (2000) likens see unexpected acts of human goodness, this elevation-­driven upward spiral of help- kindness, and compassion” (pp. 1–2). Kelt- ing within the group to the upward spiral of ner and Haidt (2003) propose that eleva- individual positive emotion and well-being tion shares with awe the feature of need for in Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-­and-build accommodation, but that elevation need not model (see Tugade, Devlin, & Fredrickson, involve the perceptions of vastness or power Chapter 2, this volume). that characterize awe. Elevation is most commonly elicited by others’ actions exem- Empirical Research plifying virtues such as charity, gratitude, courage, and loyalty (Haidt, 2000; Landis Although elevation was only recently pro- et al., 2009). posed as a distinct positive emotion con- struct, research has identified several of its characteristics and effects. Elevation is most Theoretical Definition commonly elicited by “seeing someone else Theoretical analyses of elevation emphasize give help or aid to a person who was poor its role as a “moral emotion,” guiding our or sick, or stranded in a difficult situation” judgments of others’ morality and our own (Haidt, 2000, p. 2), but it may be evoked subsequent moral decision making in ways by actions exemplifying other moral values, that bypass and may even precede logical particularly those emphasizing social con- moral reasoning (Haidt, 2001, 2003; Hor- nection (Haidt, 2000; Landis et al., 2009). berg, Oveis, & Keltner, 2011). In this sense, elevation may be the opposite of disgust, Individual Differences a negative emotion that frames the social world in terms of a contrast between deg- The tendency to experience elevation may radation and moral purity, much as physical be a stable personality trait. Landis and col- disgust emphasizes the contrast between dis- leagues (2009) examined the relationship ease or filth and cleanliness (Haidt, 2000, of self-­reported disposition to experience 2001; Rozin, Haidt, & McCauley, 2000). elevation with various personality traits, This aspect of elevation points to a pos- spirituality, and self-­reported altruism in sible adaptive function. Elevation inspires us a sample of 188 undergraduates (Costa & to help others, but it also helps those who McCrae, 1992; Piedmont, 2004; Rush- experience it. As members of an ultrasocial ton, Chrisjohn, & Fekken, 1981). While species humans feel a need to belong, and we supporting the notion of individual differ- derive great adaptive benefit from cooperat- ences in elevation-­proneness, the research ing with group members in interdependent identified two distinct factors in this trait. relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Items loading heavily on “Elevation-­Factor Campbell, 1983). Emotions—­especially I” emphasized connectedness to others, positive emotions—­can help support the whereas those loading on “Elevation-­Factor process of forming and maintaining strong, II” emphasized physiological reactions expe- healthy relationships of this kind (Shiota, rienced while witnessing acts of helping. 368 IV. SELECT POSITIVE EMOTIONS

Importantly, these two factors were linked ment of oxytocin and comparison of eleva- to somewhat different aspects of personal- tion to a neutral control condition are both ity. Factor I (connectedness) predicted self-­ needed before strong conclusions are war- reported altruism, whereas Factor II (physi- ranted, these results suggest one possible ological reactions) did not. Instead, Factor hormonal mechanism underlying physiolog- II better predicted self-­reported spiritual ical aspects of elevation. transcendence and Openness to Experience. Recent research using a modified version of Implications for Prosocial Behavior the Elevation Scale suggests the possibility and Cooperation of a third factor emphasizing an affective component, which captures feeling like a The best-­documented effect of elevation is its better, more open person (Vianello, Gal- ability to inspire one’s own prosocial behav- liani, & Haidt, 2010). ior. Witnessing an altruistic act increases motivation to perform prosocial and affili- ative actions, and views on humanity as a Physiological Aspects whole may improve (Haidt, 2000). In one Elevation has been associated with subjec- set of experiments, participants watched tive physical sensations, such as feelings of either an elevation-­inducing video clip, warmth in the chest, as well as some objec- showing professional musicians express- tive physiological changes (Haidt, 2000; ing gratitude toward the teachers who had Silvers & Haidt, 2008). Thomas Jefferson mentored them, or a neutral emotion video once suggested that reading about virtue can (Schnall et al., 2010). Those who saw the elicit “dilation of the breast” (cited in Haidt, elevation video were more likely to volun- 2003, p. 275), but participants experiencing teer to help with a subsequent, unpaid study. elevation in empirical studies also describe a In a second study, participants viewed an feeling of warmth in the chest (Haidt, 2000; elevation-­inducing, neutral, or funny video Schnall, Roper, & Fessler, 2010). The physi- clip and were then asked to help the experi- ological mechanisms underlying this sensa- menter by completing boring math problems tion have not yet been established and merit for as long as they were willing, ostensibly new research. Videos that inspire elevation for the purpose of establishing norms for the have been found to produce a decrease in task. Participants in the elevation condition vagal parasympathetic influence on the helped for significantly longer than those in heart (Silvers & Haidt, 2008), but it is not either the humor or neutral conditions (41 clear whether this would account for the minutes compared to 24 and 20 minutes). subjective sensations of warmth described Importantly, helping time was strongly pre- earlier. More research is needed to establish dicted by self-­reported aspects of subjective whether elevation has a distinctive physi- elevation, such as wanting to help others and ological profile across a range of autonomic feeling optimistic about humanity, but not nervous system mechanisms. by overall positive affect. In addition to this Elevation may increase circulating levels laboratory-­based, experimental research, a of the hormone oxytocin, which is known to study of college students on a service trip support lactation, as well as pair-­bonding, found that those who reported more intense in humans and a number of other mammals and frequent experiences of elevation during (Insel & Hulihan, 1995; Silvers & Haidt, the trip performed more trip-­related volun- 2008). In an indirect test of the hypothesis teer activities after returning (Cox, 2010). that elevation promotes oxytocin release, Elevation elicited by a leader can affect Silvers and Haidt (2008) asked nursing followers’ ethical inclinations, with down- mothers and their babies to watch video stream implications for cooperative behav- clips inducing either elevation or amuse- ior in and commitment to the workplace ment. Mothers watching the elevation video (Vianello et al., 2010). In one study, work- were more likely to nurse, leak milk into ers at an Italian company read scenarios a nursing pad, and hug their children—­all about a fictitious leader. When the leader actions linked to oxytocin in prior research. was described as interpersonally fair, work- Although replication with direct measure- ers reported higher intentions to perform 21. Transcending the Self 369

“Organizational Citizenship Behaviors” being inherent in the inspiration construct reflecting altruism, courtesy, and compli- itself. Rather than an emotion, one may ance at work, as well as greater affective conceptualize inspiration as a psychological commitment to their organization. In a state that varies in intensity over time and study of nurses in a public hospital, the across individuals. In this sense, inspiration current supervisors’ fairness and tendency may be present as an element in a variety of to self-­sacrifice predicted elevation in the self-­transcending positive emotions, includ- nurses under their management, which in ing elevation, admiration, and awe. More- turn predicted greater commitment and over, it is helpful to think of inspiration as organizational citizenship intentions (medi- an episode including multiple processes that ation analyses demonstrated a significant unfold across time. effect). A similar effect was reported with a sample of preschool teachers. Theoretical Definition Awe and elevation have typically been described by psychologists as possible Thrash and Elliot (2003) proposed that “basic” or “discrete” emotions—­complex three core characteristics are necessary and packages of cognitive, physiological, expres- collectively sufficient to define the subjec- sive, and behavioral responses to particular tive state of inspiration in a way that distin- kinds of eliciting situations, thought to serve guishes it from other constructs: transcen- fairly specific adaptive functions in the con- dence, evocation, and approach motivation. text of those situations. The next construct “Transcendence” refers to gaining an aware- we discuss, inspiration, has not been con- ness of possibilities that are better than the ceptualized in this way. However, the expe- current state of affairs. “Evocation” refers rience of inspiration is rich with positive to the passive manner by which inspiration affect, and it is interesting to consider how occurs; one does not feel directly responsible inspiration might intersect with the experi- for becoming inspired, and ascribes respon- ence of self-­transcending positive emotions. sibility for inspiration to something beyond one’s own will. Finally, inspiration involves an intensified “approach motivation” that Inspiration compels one to transmit, express, or actual- ize one’s new idea or vision. Although the intellectual history of inspira- Thrash and Elliot (2004) further proposed tion is deep and broad, scientific research that an episode of inspiration can be decom- on inspiration began just in the last decade. posed into two conceptually and empirically According to the Oxford English Diction- distinct processes: being inspired by and ary, inspiration can be defined as “a breath- being inspired to. Being inspired by refers to ing in or infusion of some idea, purpose, being moved by the perceived intrinsic value etc. into the mind; the suggestion, awaken- of an eliciting object, whether that object is ing, or creation of some feeling or impulse, a work of art, a creative idea, a role model, especially of an exalted kind” (Simpson & or other exemplar. Being inspired to refers Weiner, 1989, p. 1036). Inspiration is not to the motivation to transmit or extend the an emotion, although instances of inspira- valued qualities exemplified in that object. tion are certainly emotion-­laden (Thrash & These processes are linked differentially to Elliot, 2003, 2004). Whereas emotions are the core characteristics of inspiration, such typically defined in terms of specific kinds of that being inspired by involves transcen- eliciting situations, such as “loss of a loved dence and evocation, and being inspired to one” (sadness) or “observing acts of human involves approach motivation. This framing goodness” (elevation), inspiration can be suggests a temporal sequence for the core elicited by a wide variety of highly valued characteristics of inspiration that has been objects or events. Emotions are also thought helpful in guiding empirical research. Tran- to activate specific motivational goals. Inspi- scendence and evocation are intertwined as ration involves an important motivational two aspects of the same process. As Thrash component, but the actual goal depends on and Elliot put it, one cannot actively awaken the thing that elicited inspiration rather than oneself to better possibilities through an 370 IV. SELECT POSITIVE EMOTIONS

act of will any more than one can awaken lowed by vigorous writing), and between oneself from sleep; transcendence requires embodying the virtues of Poe and Christ evocation. However, the inspired by pro- (e.g., admiration of a role model, followed cess responsible for transcendence and by motivation to pursue a future self mod- evocation is separable from the inspired to eled after the role model). motivational process to which it gives rise. While it is important to differentiate these Empirical Research two processes, disinterested appreciation of the evocative object (i.e., being inspired The theoretical model described earlier links by) often sparks a nondisinterested motiva- diverse instances of inspiration, which may tion to transmit the qualities exemplified in be superficially quite different, to a process that object (i.e., being inspired to). If such a that is fundamentally similar. Regardless of desire is sparked, then a full episode of inspi- content domain and form of transmission, ration is present. one is moved by an intrinsically valued stim- The proposed link between the inspired ulus object, then compelled to transmit its by and to processes highlights the function inspiring qualities to a new object. Empirical inspiration may serve. Specifically, inspira- research has tested a number of these propo- tion is posited to mediate transmission of a sitions regarding the construct of inspira- perceived intrinsic value, exemplified by the tion, as well as implications of inspiration inspiration-­evoking stimulus, into future for a variety of important outcomes. acts and/or creations (Thrash, Maruskin, Cassidy, Fryer, & Ryan, 2010). For instance, Subjective Experience parents who are particularly selfless and caring (antecedent stimulus) are likely to be Research on the subjective experience of inspiring (mediator) to their children, who inspiration has supported the construct may in turn strive to be more selfless and validity of the theoretical model described caring themselves (future consequence). This earlier. In a study by Thrash and Elliot mediation process may take any of several (2004), participants were asked to write forms, depending on the nature of the evok- about an occasion when they were inspired. ing object—­one may seek to embody a role Compared with control experiences, inspi- model’s virtue (as in the previous example), ration experiences were found to involve to record the content of a spiritual revela- elevated levels of variables representing the tion, or to actualize a creative idea. proposed core characteristics of transcen- Whereas prior theorists have generally dence (e.g., spirituality), evocation (e.g., emphasized differences among domains of passive self), and approach motivation (e.g., inspiration (e.g., creative, spiritual), distin- activated positive affect [PA]). In subsequent guishing among these forms of transmission studies, Thrash and Elliot contrasted inspi- may do a better job of carving nature at its ration with another appetitive state: acti- joints. For instance, the domain of “cre- vated PA. As expected, inspiration involved ative inspiration” is too heterogeneous to a comparable level of approach motivation be regarded as a type of inspiration—­being but higher levels of transcendence and evo- inspired to record a verse of poetry that cation. Thrash (2007) further differentiated comes to mind spontaneously is quite dif- inspiration and activated PA by document- ferent from being inspired to embody some ing different distributions of these states characteristic of a particular poet, such as across days of the week. Whereas activated Edgar Allen Poe. Likewise, the domain of PA was relatively stable across days of the “spiritual inspiration” is heterogeneous—­a week, inspiration declined on weekends. prophet’s inspiration to record the content This divergence was most pronounced on of a revelation as scripture is quite differ- Fridays, which apparently are more condu- ent from a reader’s inspiration to be more cive to fun and leisure than to embodying Christ-like. Organizing these instances of virtue or channeling one’s Muse. inspiration by form of transmission rather The distinction between inspired by and than content domain, one sees important to processes has also received empirical sup- similarities between recording poetry and port (Thrash & Elliot, 2004). In a confirma- scripture (e.g., spontaneous insight, fol- tory factor analysis of state inspiration items, 21. Transcending the Self 371 being inspired by and being inspired to con- Thrash, Maruskin, and colleagues (2010) verged as indicators of a general inspiration reported similar findings in the context of construct, while still having the hypoth- the creative process. In a cross-­lagged analy- esized distinct associations with indicators sis of data from a 5-week panel study, they of transcendence, evocation, and approach found that creative insight early in the study motivation. Specifically, being inspired by preceded appraisals of inspiration at later was uniquely positively related to transcen- time points during the writing process. Trait dence and evocation, whereas being inspired openness to aesthetics predicted creativity to was uniquely negatively related to tran- of individuals’ initial ideas, and in turn the scendence and evocation, and uniquely posi- tendency to feel inspired. Behavioral activa- tively related to approach motivation. tion system (BAS) scale scores, an indica- tor of approach temperament, did not pre- dict the creativity of initial ideas; rather, it Antecedents amplified the effect of the creativity of this Research on the antecedents of inspiration idea on inspiration. Across both these lines has identified situations and states that of research, openness-­related traits predis- function as proximal antecedents, as well posed individuals to the proximal elicitors as personality traits that function as distal of inspiration; thereafter, approach tempera- antecedents. In some studies, proximal ante- ment facilitated inspired motivation. cedents have been operationalized in terms of specific sources of intrinsic value in spe- Individual Differences cific eliciting objects (e.g., extraordinary competence in role models; Thrash, Elliot, Thrash and Elliot (2003) developed and Maruskin, & Cassidy, 2010); in other stud- validated an 8-item trait questionnaire, the ies, proximal antecedents have been opera- Inspiration Scale. This measure comprises tionalized in terms of more general insight four stem statements (e.g., “I feel inspired”), or “illumination” experiences that are pos- each of which is rated in terms of both fre- ited to accompany any of a variety of elicitor quency and intensity using 7-point Likert objects. scales. The frequency and intensity sub- Thrash and Elliot (2004) proposed that scales tend to be highly correlated and may the antecedents of inspiration are quite dif- be combined into an overall index of inspi- ferent than those of other appetitive states ration, but they may also be used individu- (e.g., activated PA) because inspiration ally to measure inspired by versus to pro- begins with the nonmotivational process of cesses as needed (Thrash & Elliot, 2004). being inspired by. They found that the ten- Instructions may be adapted for assessment dency to become inspired in daily life was of inspiration over specified time periods, predicted proximally by the experience of such as the prior week (Thrash, Maruskin, illumination (but not by reward salience) et al., 2010) or half-day (Thrash, Elliot, et and distally by openness-­related traits (but al., 2010), or to assess inspiration in specific not by approach temperament). The ten- domains, such as stages of the creative pro- dency to experience activated PA in daily cess (Thrash, Maruskin, et al., 2010). life showed the opposite pattern; it was pre- The Inspiration Scale has strong psy- dicted proximally by reward salience and chometric properties, demonstrating the distally by approach temperament. Although expected frequency-­versus-­intensity two-­ approach temperament did not predispose factor structure suggested by the inspired individuals to become inspired more often, by versus to distinction. Inspiration is also it did predict inspiration intensity and moti- factorially distinct from activated PA, the vation strength during episodes of inspira- strongest known correlate of inspiration. tion. In summary, consistent with the by–to The Frequency and Intensity subscales, as distinction, openness-­related traits predis- well as the overall Inspiration Index, are pose individuals to the kinds of illumination internally consistent, with Cronbach alphas experiences that precede inspiration; once above .90. Scores on the two subscales pre- the individual is inspired by something, the dict inspiration frequency and intensity, approach temperament system is recruited respectively, as assessed using daily diary to support motivation and action. methods. Two-month test–­retest reliabilities 372 IV. SELECT POSITIVE EMOTIONS

are high, r = .77, for both subscales. Finally, tion has a cross-­lagged effect on subsequent the Inspiration Scale has invariant measure- self-­reported creativity. Thrash and Elliot ment properties (e.g., factor structure, load- also found that frequency of felt inspiration ings, and intercepts) across time (2 months) among U.S. patent holders was related to the and across populations (university alumni, number of patents held, an objective indica- patent holders). tor of creative output. In addition, patent Trait inspiration, as assessed by the Inspi- holders were found to experience inspiration ration Scale, converges meaningfully with more frequently and intensely than individu- a variety of individual difference variables. als from a matched comparison sample. Regarding Big Five traits, Thrash and Elliot In three studies by Thrash, Maruskin, (2003) theorized that Openness to Experi- and colleagues (2010), felt inspiration dur- ence should promote the process of being ing the writing process was found to predict inspired by, whereas Extraversion, an indi- expert ratings of the creativity of the com- cator of approach temperament (Elliot & pleted written products. These findings held Thrash, 2002), should promote the process regardless of the type of writing (scientific of being inspired to. As expected, Openness writing, poetry, mystery stories), research to Experience and Extraversion have consis- context (naturalistic, laboratory), and level tently emerged as significant and robust pre- of analysis (e.g., across persons, across writ- dictors of trait inspiration (Thrash & Elliot, ten pages). Moreover, the findings were 2003; Thrash, Elliot, et al., 2010; Milyavs- robust when a variety of covariates were kaya, Ianakieva, Foxen-Craft, Colantuoni, controlled, including aptitude (e.g., Scholas- & Koestner, 2012). In contrast, Neuroti- tic Aptitude Test [SAT] verbal scores), traits cism, an indicator of avoidance temperament (e.g., openness), states (e.g., PA), behaviors (Elliot & Thrash, 2002), has consistently (e.g., deletion), and other aspects of writing failed to predict inspiration. Conscientious- quality (e.g., technical merit). ness and Agreeableness have shown weak We have noted that the creativity of a and sporadic relations to inspiration. writer’s initial idea is an antecedent of felt Those higher in trait inspiration are also inspiration, and that the creativity of the higher in intrinsic motivation, BAS strength, completed product is a consequence, a pat- absorption, work-­mastery motivation, tern that is consistent with the posited trans- activated PA, optimism, perceived compe- mission function. Thrash, Maruskin, and tence, self-­esteem, and self-­determination colleagues (2010) tested this transmission (Thrash & Elliot, 2003). Students higher in model directly in two studies. As expected, trait inspiration are more likely than those inspiration was found to mediate the relation lower in trait inspiration to pursue majors between the creativity of the seminal idea in the humanities, and they pursue more and the creativity of the completed product. majors simultaneously (Thrash & Elliot, Other covariates of inspiration (effort, awe, 2003). These studies provide further sup- activated PA) did not mediate transmission port for the theoretical model of inspiration of creativity, suggesting that the transmis- described earlier, with particular emphasis sion function is unique to inspiration. on the inspired by versus to processes. Thrash, Maruskin, and colleagues (2010) also proposed that inspired action is likely to be efficient and productive because the Implications for Creativity, Productivity, inspiring object provides a concrete exem- and Well‑Being plar to serve as a guide. For instance, The transmission function of inspiration inspired writing is expected to proceed flu- implies a variety of desirable consequences. idly because it is guided by a compelling Here we review evidence that inspiration idea; uninspired writing proceeds without leads to enhanced creativity, work efficiency such guidance, resulting in a more labored and productivity, and well-being. process. Thrash, Maruskin, and colleagues Findings from a number of studies sup- used a screen capture technique to test this port a relation between inspiration and cre- proposal—“efficiency” was defined as the ativity. Thrash and Elliot (2003) found that proportion of typed words that were retained trait inspiration is positively related to a trait in the completed product, and “productiv- measure of creativity; moreover, inspira- ity” was defined as the number of words 21. Transcending the Self 373 in the final product, after they adjusted for Empirical research on positive emotion writing time. As predicted, inspiration while is still young enough that findings on this writing positively predicted both efficiency kind of positive emotion are sometimes and productivity. It is noteworthy that this generalized to all positive affect. One such efficiency and productivity did not come at finding was emphasized at the beginning of the cost of writing quality; indeed, inspira- the chapter—­the tendency for positive emo- tion predicted greater creativity in this same tion to turn our focus inward toward the study. self, its assumptions and its needs. One of Finally, Thrash, Elliot, and colleagues our key aims in this chapter was to describe (2010) proposed that inspiration should pro- three positive emotion/emotional constructs mote psychological well-being. Two variables whose theoretical definitions predict sharp known to promote well-being were expected divergence from the characteristics of posi- independently to mediate this effect: grati- tive emotion in the context of short-term tude and purpose in life. Being inspired by rewards. Awe, elevation, and inspiration was posited to promote a sense of gratitude all direct attention firmly outside the self, toward the source of inspiration, and being away from one’s mundane expectations and inspired to was posited to instill a sense of immediate needs. These three constructs direction and purpose. In one study, viewing do not exhaust the list of self-­transcending a Michael Jordan highlight film was found emotional states. Compassion, amusement, to increase activated PA, and this effect and admiration, among others, may also was explained by inspiration. In two cross-­ focus attention away from the self (Haidt lagged longitudinal studies, trait inspiration & Morris, 2009). What is distinctive about was found to lead to increases in a variety awe, elevation, and inspiration is the element of positive well-being variables, such as acti- of “breaking set” in terms of beliefs about vated PA, life satisfaction, vitality, and self-­ what is possible, focusing attention not actualization. These findings held when a only outside the self but also on that which variety of covariates (e.g., the Big 5 traits, is greater than the self and beyond its per- social desirability biases, and initial levels of ceived boundaries. well-being) were controlled. In a diary study, Moving beyond reward acquisition and morning inspiration was found to predict personal need fulfillment as the basis for pos- evening levels of well-being variables. These itive emotion need not undercut the poten- effects were mediated partially by gratitude tial for talking about these states in terms and partially by purpose. Milyavskaya and of adaptive function. In fact, proposed func- colleagues (2012) recently reported that trait tionality was a key basis for hypotheses in inspiration predicts greater progress toward each of the lines of research described here. personal goals, and they proposed that goal Once we acknowledge that adaptiveness progress may serve as an additional media- reflects “total lifetime fitness consequences” tor of the relation between inspiration and (Cosmides & Tooby, 2000, p. 96), as well well-being. as immediate consequences for survival, we open to door to emotional mechanisms that treat knowledge about the world, the well- Conclusions and Future Directions being of other people, and the transmission of key social values as important fitness-­ Psychological research on positive emo- relevant resources. Indeed, the broaden-­ tion was long delayed, compared with that and-build model emphasizes this aspect of on negative emotions such as fear, sadness, the function of positive emotion—­impact on anger, and disgust, by difficulty identifying enduring personal resources, not just short- plausible adaptive functions that could pro- term rewards (e.g., Fredrickson, 2001). vide a foundation for clear construct defini- One more substantial challenge to fram- tion and hypothesis generation. While this ing these states in evolutionary terms lies in has certainly changed in the new millen- the very feature that binds them together. nium, much research on positive emotion has The notion of “breaking set” implies that a solved the “function” problem by emphasiz- mental set is present in the first place, and ing its role in the immediate pursuit, acquisi- that it can be broken based on new expe- tion, and consumption of material rewards. rience. This requires a number of cognitive 374 IV. SELECT POSITIVE EMOTIONS processes—­schema formation, exemplar tive emotions, and emotional states such identification, abstract thinking, and so as inspiration, offer tremendous potential forth—that may be uniquely human. This to enrich our understanding of the human feature presents something of a dilemma condition. Emotions are often thought of as for theories of awe and elevation, which the bestial, selfish, irrational side of human have been posited as emotional responses nature. What if emotions also support the that (presumably) draw upon mechanisms best human nature has to offer? Much work with roots deep in our evolutionary past. To has yet to be done before we can answer this truly understand these states, it would help question. to know their origin, as well as their cur- rent form. To address this dilemma, theo- rists may need to consider these states as Acknowledgments exaptations of more evolutionarily ancient processes. Such an approach could provide Contribution by Michelle N. Shiota and Alex- further guidance for hypotheses regarding ander F. Danvers to the writing of this chapter overlap with other positive emotional states, was supported by a grant from the John Temple- some of which are already more widely stud- ton Foundation. The opinions expressed in this ied. chapter are those of the authors, and do not nec- As is clear from this overview, empirical essarily reflect the views of the John Templeton research on self-­transcending positive emo- Foundation. tion is still very new, and has been limited to the efforts of a small number of laboratories. Potential future directions are many. Most References research so far has been on social and cog- nitive implications of these states, but many Abele, A. E., Silvia, P. J., & Zöller-Utz, I. (2005). gaps remain to be filled. Research on awe Flexible effects of positive mood on self-­ has emphasized a limited number of high- focused attention. 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