CHApter 21 Transcending the Self Awe, Elevation, and Inspiration Michelle N. Shiota Todd M. Thrash Alexander F. Danvers John T. Dombrowski As described by Western science, emotion is increase in self- focused attention, as mea- fundamentally about the self. While major sured by use of first- person pronouns in theories of emotion differ in many important sentence- completion tasks (e.g., Salovey, regards, most agree that emotions reflect 1992; Salovey & Rodin, 1985; Wood, Saltz- an “assessment of one’s own current state” berg, & Goldsamt, 1990). Positive emotions (Russell, 2003, p. 149) and/or evaluation have this effect as well, provided that par- of the significance of events for one’s goals ticipants are not anticipating a subsequent and well-being (e.g., Lazarus, 1991; Scherer, task that might elicit performance concerns 2009). Positive emotions are no exception. (e.g., Abele, Silvia, & Zöller-Utz, 2005; Theories of positive emotion and analyses Silvia & Abele, 2002). Positive emotion of its neural substrates often emphasize key is thought to increase reliance on internal roles in identifying goal- conducive situa- knowledge structures and dominant modes tions and promoting approach/appetitive of cognition, another way in which the states that support acquisition of mate- mind can turn inward rather than out to the rial and social rewards (e.g., Burgdorf & environment (e.g., Bless, Bohner, Schwarz, Panksepp, 2006; Carver & White, 1994; & Strack, 1990; Bodenhausen, Kramer, & Knutson & Cooper, 2005; Watson, Wiese, Süsser, 1994; Fiedler, 2001; Forgas, 1998; Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999). Even the social although see Fredrickson, 2001, for a differ- emotions of pride in our accomplishments, ent perspective). love for attachment figures, and gratitude The emotions (awe, elevation) and emo- toward those who have helped us are argu- tional state (inspiration) addressed in this ably self- focused, reflecting on our own chapter are thought to do the opposite, turn- actions or what others do for us (Haidt & ing our minds outward rather than inward, Morris, 2009). encouraging us to transcend the self and its Emotions also tend to turn attention expectations. While they differ from each inward. Negative emotions lead to an other in important ways, awe, elevation, 362 21. Transcending the Self 363 and inspiration all involve challenging our or visual piece), conceptual breadth (e.g., a expectations about what is and what can be. work of art or literature that ties together They pull attention outside the self toward a rich range of ideas, breaking new con- something to be understood and appreci- ceptual ground), or volume of unexpected ated— a feature of the natural world, the information (e.g., the drop of pond water actions of another human being, a practical that contains an elaborate world of its or creative problem to be solved. Moreover, own). Because such stimuli are not easily they draw attention to that which is greater accounted for by one’s current understand- than the self, inviting us to transcend our ing of the world, they require “cognitive day-to-day agendas and limits. In this chap- accommodation”—updating one’s world- ter we discuss each of these three constructs, view in order to include and make sense of offering a detailed theoretical description, as the new experience. well as reviewing the available empirical evi- Consideration of awe as a possible “basic” dence. We then discuss broader issues raised emotion— a functionally discrete emotion by awe, elevation, and inspiration, offering category thought to be a product of our evo- suggestions for future research on these rela- lutionary heritage (see Shiota, Chapter 3, tively understudied states. this volume)—was long prevented by inabil- ity to identify a plausible adaptive function. However, Keltner and Haidt (2003) pro- Awe posed two ways in which awe might enhance fitness. The first of these is suggested by Albert Einstein once said, “One cannot help Einstein’s comment, quoted earlier. At the but be in awe when contemplating the mys- individual level of analysis, the cognitive teries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous and behavioral effects of awe should pro- structure of reality. It is enough if one tries mote greater encoding of new information merely to comprehend a little of the mystery from the environment, or cognitive accom- every day. The important thing is not to stop modation. All animals require knowledge questioning; never lose a holy curiosity” about their environment in order to survive. (statement to William Miller, as quoted in We humans may be unique in the extent of Einstein’s obituary in Life magazine, May our ability to gather new information from 2, 1955). Like other great thinkers, Einstein our surroundings, however, and to store that highlights the transcendence of one’s cur- information in the form of internal mental rent understanding as a core feature of awe representations or “schemas” (Piaget, 1973). in this comment, and also points the way to Schemas are efficient and protective, allow- important functions that awe might serve. ing us to apply old knowledge to new situa- tions and mentally “test out” possible plans of action without actually performing those Theoretical Definition actions and facing their consequences. How- Drawing extensively on literature in phi- ever, when old schemas cannot make sense losophy, sociology, and religious studies, of a new stimulus or experience, a new one as well as psychology, Keltner and Haidt must be formed. (2003) proposed a theoretical definition of If the definition of awe offered earlier is “awe.” Their analysis identifies two themes correct, awe should reduce reliance on exist- characterizing stimuli that are likely to elicit ing schemas, heuristics, and other current the experience of awe: perceived vastness knowledge structures in processing new and need for accommodation. “Vastness” stimuli, and instead facilitate the intake of means that the stimulus strongly challenges new information and formation of new sche- the perceiver’s accustomed frame of refer- mas. Notably, this is the opposite of previ- ence. While this may be a matter of sheer ously observed effects of positive emotions, physical size (e.g., the Grand Canyon or the which typically have been found to promote Eiffel Tower), a stimulus can also be vast in greater reliance on prior schemas and other terms of explanatory power (e.g., a theory mental shortcuts in approaching the envi- of physics), social import (e.g., a person or ronment (e.g., Bless et al., 1990; Bodenhau- historical event that affects millions of peo- sen et al., 1994; Fiedler, 2001; Forgas, 1998). ple), sensory detail (e.g., a complex musical As we see below, this aspect of Keltner and 364 IV. SELECT POSITIVE EMOTIONS Haidt’s (2003) theory has been highly useful the eliciting events were described in posi- in generating empirical research. tive terms, and all emphasized some aspect At the group level of analysis, feelings of vastness in the experience. Even descrip- of awe toward powerful leaders may help tions of potentially negative or primarily stabilize social hierarchies by encouraging social events (e.g., death of a grandparent, submissive and cooperative behavior among a friend’s marriage) focused on the magni- subordinates. As a species, humans are tude of the life transition in question and “ultrasocial,” performing many tasks that the impossibility of knowing what would are crucial for survival and reproductive fit- follow, rather than personal loss or social ness (food acquisition and production, pro- pleasure. Descriptions of participants’ own tection against attack by predators and out- accomplishments as awe elicitors empha- groups, creating shelter, raising offspring) sized amazement bordering on disbelief, in large groups of loosely related individu- rather than pride. These descriptions are als (Campbell, 1983). Large groups require highly consistent with the conceptual defini- leadership to be effective, but conflict over tion of awe suggested by Keltner and Haidt leadership can be costly for both the group (2003). and the individuals in it. Drawing from phil- osophical and sociological accounts, Keltner Subjective Experience and Haidt (2003) suggest that one function and Individual Differences of awe is to provide a nonviolent mechanism for allocating power, in which potential or The subjective experience of awe is also con- actual leaders use awe- inspiring displays to sistent with the notion of self- transcendence. elicit buy-in from their communities. While Compared with those asked to relive a per- this proposal has not, to date, been trans- sonal pride- inducing accomplishment, those lated into much psychological research, it asked to relive an awe- inspiring natural is consistent with observations in sociology scene report significantly greater feelings and cultural anthropology (e.g., Durkheim, of awe, love, rapture, and contentment, as 1887/1972; Weber, 1978/2002). well as feeling that the self is small or insig- nificant, sensing the presence of something greater than the self, being unaware of nor- Empirical Research mal day-to-day concerns, feeling connected Like the other constructs addressed in this with the surrounding world, and wanting to chapter, awe has received far less empirical prolong the experience as long as possible attention than positive emotions such as joy/ (Shiota et al., 2007). Awe experiences were enthusiasm, contentment, amusement, love not rated as challenging or tiring (in fact, and pride. Nonetheless, the research cur- they were rated significantly less so than rently available for review supports the theo- accomplishments), suggesting that the kind retical portrait offered earlier. of cognitive activity involved in awe does not require effortful, controlled processing. Correlations of dispositional awe- proneness Antecedents with Extraversion (r = .34), Openness to English speakers report that awe is elicited Experience (r = .49), and Need for Cogni- by the kinds of stimuli suggested by Kelt- tive Closure (r = –.39) also link awe to a ner and Haidt’s (2003) analysis, and by the tendency to push one’s own experiential and construct definition proposed earlier.