Misprint by the Author in the Program-Proposal: It Should Read Bestäubungsbiologie

Misprint by the author in the Program-Proposal: It should read Bestäubungsbiologie

Der ursprüngliche Vortrag in der Senioren-Universität in der Aula der Universität Bern, ergänzt mit zusätzlichen Informationen Zur Einführung Vier Beispiele aus der Wunderwelt des Lebens, neueste Forschungs-Resultate

For the introduction: tree examples from the miracle world of life, latest research results WIE WIRD EXTERNE DNA EINGEWOBEN IN DIE CHROMOSOMEN?

Nasmyth, K. (2017) How are DNAs woven into chromosomes? Science 358 6363 589-590 pp http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/358/6363/589.full.pdf AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Genomics/Nasmyth-How-are-DNAs-wowen-into-chromosomes-2017.pdf Propaganda-Märchen: Die Prozesse der Gentechnologie (der Transgenese) und der natürlichen Mutationen seien grundverschieden: NEIN, SIE SIND IDENTISCH, ABER DAS RESULTAT KANN NEU SEIN Propaganda-Hoax: Processes of Gentech (Transgenese) and natural Mutation supposed to be basically different: NO, THEY ARE IDENTICAL, BUT THE RESULT MAY BE NEW Bereits for vielen Jahren von Nobelpreis-Träger Prof. Werner Arber von Basel publiziert und neulich wieder bestätigt im Schlussbericht des Nationalen Forschungsprogrammes NFP59: Arber, W. (2012) Gentechnik: Ursprung, Konzept, Risikoevaluation und Zukunftspotenzial Ed. Leitungsgruppe des Nationalen Forschungsprogrammes NFP 59 Nutzen und Risiken der Freisetzung gentechnisch veränderter Pflanzen Zurich und Bern 118-121, total 308 pp pp http://www.vdf.ethz.ch/service/3483/3484_Nutzen-und-Risiken-der-Freisetzung-gentechnisch-veraenderter-Pflanzen_OA.pdf AND Arber http://www.ask- force.org/web/NFP-59/Arber-Gentechnik-Ursprung-Konzept-NFP-59-Synthese-2012.pdf Report http://www.ask-force.org/web/NFP-59/NFP-59-Synthese-Nutzen-Risiken-Freisetzung-GVOs-2012.pdf Ammann Klaus (2014) Genomic Misconception: a fresh look at the biosafety of transgenic and conventional crops. A plea for a process agnostic regulation New Biotechnology 31 1 1-17 pp ISBN/1871-6784 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2013.04.008 AND open source: AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/NewBiotech/Ammann-Genomic-Misconception-printed-2014.pdf AND separate bibliography-fulltext http://www.ask-force.org/web/Genomic-Misconception/Ammann-Bibliography-fulltext-GENOMIC-MISCONCEPTION-2014.pdf Neuigkeiten/News Gene Editing kann so präzise sein, dass keine Fremd-Gene mehr in den neuen Zuchtpflanzen sind, nur noch die wenigen Moleküle, die neue Eigenschaften bewirken. Gene Editing can be so precise, that there are no foreign Genes in the new breeds, you find only the few molecules, which Make new crop. Zwei einführende Dokumente: http://www.spektrum.de/thema/crispr-cas9/1408852 https://www.ted.com/talks/jennifer_doudna_we_can_now_edit_our_dna_but_let_s_do_it_wisely Natürliche Gentech? Süsskartoffel als bekanntes Beispiel: seit ca. 8000 Jahren! Natural GMO? Sweet Potato Genetically Modified 8,000 Years Ago

Tyna Kynth Gent University Belgium Main author Of PNAS paper

http://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/05/05/404198552 natural-gmo-sweet-potato-genetically-modified-8-000-years-ago Kyndt, T., Quispe, D., Zhai, H., Jarret, R., Ghislain, M., Liu, Q., Gheysen, G., & Kreuze, J. F. (2015). The genome of cultivated sweet potato contains Agrobacterium T-DNAs with expressed genes: An example of a naturally transgenic food crop. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, http://www.ask-force.org/web/Genomics/Kynth-Genome-Cultivated-Sweet-Potato-Naturally-Transgenic-2015.pdf For those who cannot get enough science, watch http://www.scoop.it/t/articles-published-by-cip-staff/?tag=Sweet+potatoes See also the extensive documentation of Natural Transgenes of David Tribe https://gmoschool.com/2016/04/25/natural-gmos-here-there-and-everywhere/ Die Seeschnecke (Nudibranchier) hat einen neuen Trick auf Lager: (Kleptopredation): Sie wählt als Extra-Mahl nur sessile Polypen (Eudendrium racemosum) aus, die neulich Plankton gefressen hatten.

This nudibranch sea slug Cratena peregrina has a trick (Kleptopredation) for getting an extra treat by selecting as prey only sessil hydrants Eudendrium racemosum having recently fed plankton prey. cc_DSC_1983ph_Gabriella-Luongo_16x9[1].jpg

Willis, T. J., Berglöf, K. T. L., McGill, R. A. R., Musco, L., Piraino, S., Rumsey, C. M., Fernández, T. V. and Badalamenti, F. (2017) Kleptopredation: a mechanism to facilitate planktivory in a benthic mollusc Biology Letters 13 11 4 pp 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0447 AND http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/roybiolett/13/11/20170447.full.pdf AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Feed/Wills-Kleptopredation-mechanism-to-facilitate- planktovor-benthic-mollusk-2017.pdf AND comments in PhysOrg: https://phys.org/news/2017-11-marine-scientists-kleptopredationa-prey.html AND http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/10/sea-slug-has-trick-getting-extra-treat Arbeits-Zimmer von Charles Darwin In Downe Working Place of Darwin in Downe Village http://www.focus.de/wissen/wissens chaft/wissenschaft-darwin-genoss- ein-suesses- studentenleben_aid_383172.html invitation to browse in the website of the Friends of Charles Darwin http://darwin.gruts.com/weblog/archive/2008/02/ Darwin as a human being and as a scientist

See the Website of Charles Darwin, with biography, bibliography and lots of other details from his life.

See Darwin online: http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Darwin, C. (1862), On the various contrivances by which orchids are fertilized by insects and on the good effects of intercrossing The Complete Work of Charles Darwin online, Scanned, OCRed and corrected by John van Wyhe 2003; further corrections 8.2006. RN4 edn. Murray, IS: pp. 366, http://darwin- online.org.uk/content/frame set?viewtype=side&itemID =F800&pageseq=1 Bestäubungs-Ökologie Pollination Ecology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination_syndrome AND http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/pages/pollination.htm

Fenster, C.B., Armbruster, W.S., Wilson, P., Dudash, M.R., & Thomson, J.D. (2004) Pollination syndromes and floral specialization. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics, 35, pp 375-403 http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Fenster-Pollination-Syndromes-2004.pdf INCENTIVES FOR VISITING FLOWERS Plants can not move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous; literally "insect-loving" in Latin. They can be highly modified along with the pollinating insects by co-evolution. Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar. Birds and bees have color vision, enabling them to seek out "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell. Not all flower scents are appealing to humans, a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals, often called Carrion flowers including Rafflesia, the titan arum, and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and most such flowers are white. Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower#Attraction_methods Anreiz für Insektenbesuch: Quellen: Nektar, Pollen, Pseudokopulation 1. Pollenanbieter Blüten für Pollenfresser

Flowers for Pollen Eaters Papaver rhaeticum, Räthischer Mohn, yellow alpine poppy, Papaveraceae offene Anbietung der Pollen. Berninapass, Photo K.Ammann Papaver rhaeticum Cistus ladaniferus, Zistrose, Nektar- und Pollenquellen

Provence, Photo K. Ammann Cistus ladaniferus 2. Nektarien-Anbieter Presentation of nectaries Ranunculus bulbosus knolliger Hahnenfuss Ranunculaceae Photo K. Ammann, Bern Umgebung

Die gelbe «Krone» besteht aus den Nektarien, die eigentliche Krone ist grün yellow Corolla actually flower-shaped Nectaries, green perianth, the actual flower

* Ranunculus bulbosus Ranunculus bulbosus, Nektarien geformt als Kronblätter nektaries flower shaped, Ranunculaceae

* Ranunculus bulbosus, Nektarien Normales Spektrum menschliches Auge ultraviolettes Spektrum Wie die Insekten das sehen

Ranunculus repens, Kriechender Hahnenfuss

Ranunculus repens, Nektarmal in UV Perfekter Betrug mit Pseudo- Nektarien

[email protected] England, Midwest Yorks, 2007 Parnassia palustris, Sumpf-Herzblatt, Saxifragaceae Attraktive Pseudo-Drüsen anstelle von Nektar Attractive pseudo-glands offered, no nectar Hedera helix, Efeu, Araliaceae Nektarsuche Hedera Efeu Hedera helix Nektar in offenen Flächen präsentiert

Hedera helix, Ivy Nectar presented in open disk

* Allgemeines Thalictrum aquilegiifolium Akelei-blättrige Wiesenraute gefärbte Staubfäden als Anlockung von Blütenbesuchern coloured anther filaments as Photo K. Ammann, attraction for flower visitors Biel, Heidenweg Verbascum nigrum Schwarze Königskerze Lockt mit farbiger Staubfaden- Behaarung (Futterhaare) Blütenbesucher an

Attracts flower visitors with colourful hairs of anther filaments presented for feed

Photo K. Ammann

Verbascum nigrum Futterhaare Nektarien verborgen

Nectaria hidden Verschiedene Formen von Nektarien bei Hahnenfuss- Gewächsen (Ranunculaceae)

Various shapes of nectaries with Ranunculaceae

Nektarien Ranunculaceae Aquilegia vulgaris, Akelei, Ranunculaceae Kronblätter und Nektarien corolla and nectaries Photo K. Ammann

Aquilegia vulgaris Aquilegia vulgaris Ranunculaceae nur die Nektarien seitlich

Nectaries lateral, only Photo K. Ammann

Aquilegia vulgaris Aconitum paniculatum, Ranunculaceae, Seiten-Ansicht, view from the side

Photo K. Ammann

Aconitum paniculatum Aconitum Paniculatum Rispen-Rittersporn Ranunculaceae Nektarien versteckt in der Blütenhaube, freipräpariert

Helmet dissected: Nectaries prepared

Photo K. Ammann Aconitum Septentrionale Nordischer Eisenhut Ranunculaceae

Besonders lange Hauben

Nordig Monkshood

Particularly long hood

Aconitum septentrionale Aconitum vulparia gelber Eisenhut Ranunculaceae

Yellow Bumblebees digging holes sidewards in helmet of flowers in order to steal the pollen from the anthers

Left: Photo K.Ammann Right Wiki https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Aconitum#/media/Fil e:Aconitum_vulparia_op ened_flower.jpg

Aconitum vulparia, Hummelbesuch Hrycan, W. C. and Davis, A. R. (2005) Comparative Structure and Pollen Production of the Stamens and Pollinator- deceptive Staminodes of Commelina coelestis and C. dianthifolia (Commelinaceae) Annals of Botany 95 7 1113- 1130 pp ISBN/0305-7364 http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/ mci134 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Hryc an-Comparative-Structure- Pollen-Production-Commelina- Staminodes-2005.pdf

Siehe auch Wikipedia: https://de.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Tagblumen

Commelina coelestis, Tagblume. Gelb, auffällig gelb: Pseudo-Staubblätter Yellow and conspicous yellow pseudo-anthers Commelina erecta, Staminodien Übersicht zu den Blütenformen, Schlüssel zu Evolution und Genetik

Summary of flower shapes, key explanations to evolution and genetics

Sauquet, H., von Balthazar, M., Magallon, S., Doyle, J. A., Endress, P. K., Bailes, E. J., de Morais, E. B., Bull-Herenu, K., Carrive, L., Chartier, M., Chomicki, G., Coiro, M., Cornette, R., El Ottra, J. H. L., Epicoco, C., Foster, C. S. P., Jabbour, F., Haevermans, A., Haevermans, T., Hernandez, R., Little, S. A., Lofstrand, S., Luna, J. A., Massoni, J., Nadot, S., Pamperl, S., Prieu, C., Reyes, E., dos Santos, P., Schoonderwoerd, K. M., Sontag, S., Soulebeau, A., Staedler, Y., Tschan, G. F., Leung, A. W. S. and Schonenberger, J. (2017) The ancestral flower of angiosperms and its early diversification Nature Communications 8 ISBN/2041-1723 ://WOS:000406738800001 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Evolution/Jabbour-Renner- Phylogeny-Delphinieae-2012.pdf

More details on Ranunculaceae flower evolution:

Jabbour, F., Nadot, S., Espinosa, F. and Damerval, C. (2016) Ranunculacean flower terata: Records, a classification, and some clues about floral developmental genetics and evolution (Reprinted from Flora, vol 217, pg 64-74, 2015) Flora 221 54-64 pp ISBN/0367-2530 ://WOS:000379565000007 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Evolution/Jabbour-Reprint- Ranunculacean-flower-terata-2016.pdf Varianten der Anlockung Von Bestäubern und weitere Tricks

Variation of Pollinator Attraction and more Tricks Beispiel verblüffender Breite der Bestäubungs-Biologie: Aenderung der Blütenfarbe a) und b) erhöht Bestäubungs-Chancen: Davidia involucrata Taubenbaum

Examples of the amazing breadth of pollination ecology: The dove tree (Davidia involucrata ) has “naked” flowers that lack a perianth but are surrounded by two large bracts. These turn from green (a) to white (b) when flowers open which increases pollinator attraction

Sun, J.F., Gong, Y.B., Renner, Susanne S., & Huang, S.Q. (2008) Multifunctional Bracts in the Dove Tree Davidia involucrata (Nyssaceae: Cornales): Rain Protection and Pollinator Attraction, Vol. 171, pp. 119- 124. The University of Chicago Press for The American Society of Naturalists, http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Sun-Davidia- Multifunctional-Bracts-2008.pdf Beispiele der verblüffenden Breite von Anlockungs-Strategien: Calypso bulbosa, eine attraktive Orchideenblüte, täuscht unerfahrene Hummeln, die die Blüten bestäuben, aber keinen Nektar finden

Examples of the amazing breadth of pollination ecology: Calypso bulbosa (c), a rewardless orchid, has evolved to deceive naïve bumblebees in the early spring to effect pollination without payment in nectar

Dafni, A. (1983) Pollination of Orchis Caspia--A Nectarless Plant which Deceives the Pollinators of Nectariferous Species from other Plant Families. Journal of Ecology, 71, 2, pp 467-474 http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Dafni-Pollination-Orchis-

Deceives-1983.pdf http://pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Calypso Ackermann, J.D. (1981) Pollination Biology of Calypso bulbosa var. occidentalis (Orchidaceae), a Food Deception System. Madrono, 28, 3, pp 101-110 http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Ackermann- Calypso-bulbosa-Food-Deception-1981.pdf The perennial vine, Gelsemium sempervirens (d), contains alkaloids in all plant parts including corollas and nectar which deter floral herbivores and nectar robbers but - in high concentrations - also pollinators

Adler, L.S. & Irwin, R.E. (2005) Ecological costs and benefits of defenses in nectar. Ecology, 86, 11, pp 2968-2978 http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Adler- http://alabamaplants.com/Yellowopp/Gelsemi Ecological-Costs-Benefits-2005.pdf um_sempervirens_page.html Adler, L.S. & Irwin, R.E. (2005) Ecological costs and benefits of defenses in nectar. Ecology, 86, 11, pp 2968-2978 http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Adler-Ecological-Costs-Benefits-2005.pdf Conclusion Secondary compounds in nectar are widespread (Baker 1977, Adler 2000); however, the relationship between these compounds and plant fitness has remained poorly understood. Here we provide experimental evidence that secondary compounds in the nectar of Gelsemium generally decreased the proportion of flowers probed and time spent per flower for most floral visitors. Nectar alkaloids decreased an estimate of male plant reproduction and had little consistent effect on estimates of female reproduction. If nectar secondary compounds provide more fitness costs than benefits in Gelsemium, what maintains variation in this trait? If nectar secondary compounds are heritable, variation could be maintained through a number of mechanisms, including spatiotemporal variation in selection driven by variation in the abundance of pollinators vs. nectar robbers (Thompson and Cunningham 2002). Alternatively, the presence of alkaloids in nectar may be a pleiotropic consequence of their production in other plant tissues and transport through the phloem. To address the possibility that links between defense levels in different tissues constrain the ability of plants to evolve optimal solutions in the context of interactions with multiple antagonists and mutualists, studies of the genetic and environmental factors that determine defense expression across multiple plant tissues, including roots, leaves, stems, flowers, nectar, and fruits, will provide the most constructive ecological and evolutionary insights.

Adler, L.S. & Irwin, R.E. (2005) Ecological costs and benefits of defenses in nectar. Ecology, 86, 11, pp 2968-2978 http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Adler-Ecological-Costs-Benefits-2005.pdf Schwebefliegen (e) besuchen weites Spektrum von Blütenformen in vielen Habitaten, sie bestäuben sogar Kulturpflanzen. Obschon zahlreich, artenreich und weit verbreitet, sind sie als Bestäuber oft noch unterschätzt.

Hoverflies (e) visit flowers in a large range of habitats, they even pollinate cultivated plants. Though they are numerous, species-rich and wide-spread, their role as pollinators is often still neglected.

Mayer, C.A., Lynn; Armbruster, W. Scott; Dafni, Amots; Eardley, Connal; Huang, Shuang-Quan; Kevan, Peter G.; Ollerton, Jeff; Packer, Laurence; Ssymank, Axel; Stout, Jane C.; Potts, Simon G. (2011) Pollination ecology in the 21st Century: Key questions for future research. Journal of Pollination Ecology, 3, pp 8-23 http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Mayer-Pollination-Ecology- 21fst-Century-Future-2011.pdf Rhododendron ponticum (h) is a highly invasive plant in Ireland. Though it provides food resources for generalist bumblebees, effects on native plant pollinator interactions vary with intensity of invasion.

Mayer, C.A., Lynn; Armbruster, W. Scott; Dafni, Amots; Eardley, Connal; Huang, Shuang-Quan; Kevan, Peter G.; Ollerton, Jeff; Packer, Laurence; Ssymank, Axel; Stout, Jane C.; Potts, Simon G. (2011) Pollination ecology in the 21st Century: Key questions for future research. Journal of Pollination Ecology, 3, pp 8-23 http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Mayer- Pollination-Ecology-21fst-Century- Future-2011.pdf Heterochelus chiriagricus (Striped monkey beetle), 10mm. [image by M. Picker & C. Griffiths ©, from Field Guide to Insects of South Africa, used with permission]. http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/beetles/scarabaeidae/r utelinae/hopliini.htm

In the Succulent Karoo of South Mayer, C., Soka, G., & Picker, M. (2006) Africa, monkey beetles (Hopliini) The importance of monkey beetle (Scarabaeidae : Hopliini) pollination for Aizoaceae and Asteraceae in grazed and are important pollinators of many ungrazed areas at Paulshoek, Succulent Karoo, South Africa. plant species Journal of Insect Conservation, 10, 4, pp 323-333 http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Mayer-Importance- Monkey-Beetle-2006.pdf Cephalanthera rubra, rotes Waldvögelein, Orchidaceae, Bienen, Hummeln, Glockenblumen-Mimikri

Mimikry of Campanula

Photo K.Ammann Manfredini, F., Beani, L., Taormina, M. and Vannini, L. (2010) Parasitic infection protects wasp larvae against a bacterial challenge Microbes and Infection 12 10 727-735 pp ISBN/1286-4579 ://WOS:000282906000005 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Manfredini- Parasitic-infection-protects-wasp- larvae-against-bacterial-challenge- 2010.pdf

Manfredini, F., Benati, D. and Beani, L. (2010) The strepsipteran endoparasite Xenos vesparum alters the immunocompetence of its host, the paper wasp Polistes dominulus Journal of Insect Physiology 56 3 253-259 pp ISBN/0022-1910 ://WOS:000275799700004 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Manfredini- Stepsipteran-endoparasite-Xenos- vesparum-alters-immounocompetence- host-Polistes-dominulus-2010.pdf

Manfredini, F., Dallai, R. and Ottaviani, E. (2008) Circulating hemocytes from larvae of the paper wasp Polistes dominulus (Hymenoptera, Vespidae) Tissue & Cell 40 2 103- 112 pp ISBN/0040-8166 ://WOS:000254655800005 AND Parasitic infection protects wasp larvae against a bacterial challenge http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Manfredini- Infektion durch Parasiten schützt Wespe vor Infektion durch Circulating-hemocytes-larvae-paper- Mikroben wasp-2008.pdf Sammeln von Nist-Material

Collecting nesting materials Nests are sometimes constructed within hollow twigs or other similarly constricted natural cavities, but often are in burrows in the ground. Nests are typically composed of single long columns of cells, the cells being sequentially constructed from the deepest portion of the tunnel outwards. The female places an egg in each cell with a supply of food, generally pollen, sometimes mixed with nectar. She builds a cap and walls off the cell. The larva hatches from the egg and consumes the food supply. After moulting a few times, it spins a cocoon and pupates, often after several months of hibernation as a prepupa. It emerges from the nest as an adult. Males, which are typically smaller and emerge in advance of females, die shortly after mating, but females survive for another few weeks, during which time they build new nests. Leucospidae, Sapygidae, and various cleptoparasitic megachilids, such as the closely related genus Coelioxys. Megachile rotundata and Megachile campanulae are among of the first insects documented in scientific literature to use synthetic materials for making nests.[2] Many Megachile species use cut leaves to line the cells of their nests. It is thought that the leaf discs help prevent the desiccation of the larva's food supply.[1] Various species in the genus, especially those in the subgenus Chalicodoma and related groups, do not use cut leaves to line the cells, but instead use fairly dry plant resin, which they carry in their mandibles. The subgenus Chalicodoma includes the world's largest bee, Megachile pluto, as well as one of the largest megachilids in the United States, the recently introduced Asian species, Megachile sculpturalis. Some Megachile species have no lobe (arolia) between their claws, thus are unable to climb smooth walls or More information about Megachile: glass.[ Mehr information zu Megachile in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megachile

* Nestbau Mohnbiene Blattschneider-Biene Megachile centuncularis

http://animalia-life.club/openphoto.php?img=https://62e528761d0685343e1c- f3d1b99a743ffa4142d9d7f1978d9686.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/files/80690/area14mp/image-20150506-10927-wklbix.jpg

Nestbaustoffe Megachile Blattschneider-Bienen Megachile Entwicklungs-Zyklus Megachile Development Cycle https://experiment.com/projects/does-insecticide-exposure-affect-solitary-bee-nesting-behavior Ornithidium densum, Orchidaceae Lippe mit Wachsangebot als Nestbaustoff für solitäre Bienen

Lip of flower offering wax as a raw material for nest building dolitary bees.

Photo K.Ammann Botanic Garden Bern Ornithidium densum, Orchidaceae Lippe mit Wachsangebot als Nestbaustoff für solitäre Bienen

Lip of flower offering wax as a raw material for nest building dolitary bees.

“The floral characteristics of the Heterotaxis species suggest a pollination syndrome by wasps which collect pseudopollen or wax. This pollination syndrome has been reported in other groups of Maxillaria, and according to the present results, this pollination syndrome is plesiomorphic and has evolved several times” within Maxillaria”. From Ojeda et al. 2003:

Ojeda, I., Carnevali, G., Williams, N. H. and Whitten, W. M. (2003) Phylogeny of the Heterotaxis Lindley complex (Maxillariinae): evolution of the vegetative architecture and pollination syndromes Lankesteriana 7 45-47 pp http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Ojeda-Phylogeny-Heterotsxis-Complex-Maxillaariinaie- Pollination-Synromes-2003.pdf Photo K. Ammann, Orchid House Bern Botanical Garden Schleuder-Pollinien

Pollinia ejected Darwin, C. (1862) On the various contrivances by which orchids are fertilized by insects and on the good effects of intercrossing Murray London http://darwin- online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewt ype=side&itemID=F800&pageseq=1 http://perfumenw.blogspot.ch/2011/11/catas Photo K.Ammann, Botanic Garden, University of Bern etum-expansum-minty-fresh-orchid.html

Catasetum fimbriatum, Schleuderpollinien Pollinia shot out at high speed Catasetum mit Internen Schleuder- Pollen

Catasetum with Internal Pollinia ejected

Hess Dieter (1991) Die Blüte: Eine Einführung in Struktur und Funktion, Ökologie und Evolution der Blüten. Auflage: 2. (1991) Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart, 458 pp. ISBN-10: 3800164345 AND ISBN-13: 978- 3800164349/ISBN-10: 3800164345 AND ISBN-13: 978-3800164349 https://www.amazon.de/dp/38001643 45/ref=olp_product_details?_encodin g=UTF8&me= Parfum-sammelnde Euglossa-Bienen transportieren auch angeheftete Pollinien Parfum-Sammler Euglossa gorgonensis an Gongora cf. quinquenervis Prachtbienen der Tropen

Pokorny, T., Hannibal, M., Quezada-Euan, J. J. G., Hedenstrom, E., Sjoberg, N., Bang, J. and Eltz, T. (2013) Acquisition of species-specific perfume blends: influence of habitat- dependent compound availability on odour choices of male orchid bees (Euglossa spp.) Oecologia 172 2 417-425 pp ISBN/0029-8549 ://WOS:000319077100011 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Pokorny-Acquisition-species-specific- perfume-blends-Euglossa-2013.pdf

Williams, N. H. and Dodson, C. H. (1972) SELECTIVE ATTRACTION OF MALE EUGLOSSINE BEES TO ORCHID FLORAL FRAGRANCES AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN LONG-DISTANCE POLLEN FLOW Evolution 26 1 84-& pp ISBN/0014-3820 ://WOS:A1972M135400007 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Dodson- Calaway-Biologically-Active-Compounds-in-Orchid-Fragrances-1969.pdf

Parfum-Sammler Catasetum-Blüte: Besuch von parfum- sammelnder Euglossa-Biene

Catasetum flower: Visit of Perfume collecting Euglossa bee

https://vet-magazin.com/wissenschaft/bienenkunde/Prachtbienen-Duft.html Interne Kriechgänge mit Pollinien-Anheftung

Rettung für die Bestäuber aus dem «Lippen-Teich» http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coryanthes Coryanthes speciosa Darwin – Kupferstich nach Lindley Pollinien (P) in Kriechgang

Darwins print, copied from Lindley German translation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coryanthes www.weloennig.de/CorCat.html Bestäubung durch Verteidigung des Territoriums

Defense of the Territorium as pollinator syndrome Oncidium (Psychopsis) Papilio

Calaway Dodson vermutet Territorial-Mimikri mit grossen tropischen Schmetterlingen zwecks Bestäubung Insektenbeine werden eingeklemmt, Bestäubung dadurch gesichert Asclepias curassavica Milkweed Pollinienbestäubung Pollination with Pollinia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asclepias 82 slide see pollination of description

http://delta-intkey.com/angio/images/ascle551.gif

http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/~kenr/prairieplants.A.html Pollination is very unusual in Milkweed, because the pollen is grouped into structures called pollinia rather than being individual grains.. The flowers of the milkweed are very smooth and quite rigid, usually pink or white pink in color, while the leaves are a rounded, oval and waxy to the touch and to view. The insects will slip into notches in the flowers, where the bases of the pollinia which are very sticky, will then attach to their feet, so that they will pull the pollen sacs free when they fly away. Some bees, including some honey bees, only gather nectar from milkweed and since they visit no where else, are not really effective as pollinators for the plants.

Asclepias variegata, White Milkweed, pollinia pollination as Orchids Insektenbesuch löst Staubfaden-Hebel aus: Pollen werden an Rücken geheftet Salvia pratensis Wiesensalbei, Lamiaceae

Hebelmechanismus Bienen Left: Salvia pratensis, Wiesensalbei

Right: Lamium maculatum, gefleckte Taubnessel

Typische Bestäubung durch Honigbienen und solitäre Bienen

Typical pollination through honey bees and solitary bees

Photo K. Ammann Salvia pratensis Wiesensalbei, Lamiaceae classic mechanism how bees press anthers on their back Lamium orvala, Karawanken, pollination with bumble bees Lamium maculatum gefleckte Taubnessel Lamiaceae Bestäubung Hummeln und Bienen

Spotted Dead Nettle Pollination Bumble bees and bees

Photo K. Ammann Galeopsis speciosa prächtiger Hohlzahn Scrophulariaceae

Parkverbot oben, Leitplanken seitlich, Gelbes Saftmal als Verkehrs-Zeichen Typische Bienen-Bestäubung above: no parking guard rails sidewards yellow and purple nectar traffic sign classic honey bee pollination Pedicularis tuberosa knolliges Läusekraut Scrophulariaceae Asymmetrische Blütenform Nur spezialisierte Bestäuber können mit kräftigem Zwick in die Blüte gelangen

asymmetric flowers only specialists can enter the flowers with a special trick. From:

Faegri Knut (1979) The Principles of Pollination Ecology (Pergamon International Library of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Social Studies) Revised Edition Pergamon Pr; Revised edition (September 1, 1979) 272 pp ISBN-10: 0080213383 AND ISBN-13: 978-0080213385/ISBN-10: 0080213383 AND ISBN-13: 978-0080213385 https://www.amazon.com/Principles-Pollination-International-Technology- Engineering/dp/0080213383/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1510304163&sr=1- 2&keywords=Faegri+Knut+pollination Bibl. KA Tagfalter-Bestäubung

Butterfly-Pollination Schmetterlings-Bestäubung Die Blüten sind oft gross und auffällig, rot oder lavendel, haben oft einen Landeplatz und gewöhnlich haben sie Anlockungs-Düfte,die aber oft in Europa fehlen. Da die Schmetterlinge keinen Pollen fressen (mit einer Ausnahme), ist mehr Nektar angeboten. Die Blüten haben einfache Nektar-Male, der Nektar meist versteckt in engen Röhren oder Spornen, der von den langen Rüsseln der Bestäuber erreicht werden kann.

Butterfly pollination (psychophily) Butterfly-pollinated flowers tend to be large and showy, pink or lavender in colour, frequently have a landing area, and are usually scented, but many examples in Central Europe lack sents. Since butterflies do not digest pollen (with one exception), more nectar is offered than pollen. The flowers have simple nectar guides with the nectaries usually hidden in narrow tubes or spurs, reached by the long tongue of the butterflies. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination_syndrome#Bee_pollination_.28melittophily.29 Dianthus glacialis, butterfly pollination, long proboscis Silene (Melandrium) rubrum narrow entrance long proposcis

Butterfly pollination Dianthus armeria Rauhe Nelke Caryophyllaceae

Bestäubung: Tagfalter

Deptford Pink Pollination: Butterflies

Photo K. Ammann

Cirsium oleraceum Kohldistel Asteraceae viele Bestäuber Parnassius apollo Apollo-Falter auf Centaurea spinosa Kure Mountains, Turkey

Apollo butterfly On Centaurea spinosa Kure Mountains, Turkey

www.pbase.com/efratnakash/image/80997440 Gymnadenia conopea, Mückenhandwurz Orchidaceae, Schmetterlings- Bestäubung: Nektar in Sporn erreichbar durch lange Saugrüssel butterfly pollination: long spur reached with long insect tongue

Photo K. Ammann Lilium bulbiferum Feuerlilie Liliaceae

Tagfalter Weisse Streifen: Nektar-Röhren

Butterfly Pollination (Psychophily) White tubes at base of Lily flowers are the nectary tubes

Photo K. Ammann Gentiana bavarica, Schmetterlings- Bestäubung trotz blauer Farbe. Butterfly pollination despite of blue color.

Photo K. Ammann Gornergrat, Zermatt Nachtfalter-Bestäubung

Moth-Pollination Moth pollination (phalaenophily) Day-flying sphinx moth nectaring on Brazilian verain Among the more important moth pollinators are the hawk moths (Sphingidae). Their behaviour is similar to hummingbirds: they hover in front of flowers with rapid wingbeats. Most are nocturnal or crepuscular. So moth-pollinated flowers tend to be white, night-opening, large and showy with tubular corollas and a strong, sweet scent produced in the evening, night or early morning. A lot of nectar is produced to fuel the high metabolic rates needed to power their flight. Other moths (Noctuids, Geometrids, Pyralids, for example) fly slowly and settle on the flower. They do not require as much nectar as the fast-flying hawk moths, and the flowers tend to be small (though they may be aggregated in heads) (Oliveira et al. 2004).

day-flying sphynx moth nectaring on Brazil vervain Platanthera chlorantha Darwin, Charles German translation

Klebe-Scheibe wg. grossköpfigen Nacht faltern entfernt stehend

Viscidium in distant position for big moths

Darwin, C. (1862) On the various contrivances by which orchids are fertilized by insects and on the good effects of intercrossing Murray London http://darwin- online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=F8 00&pageseq=1 Platanthera chlorantha, Klebescheiben entfernt stehend. Viscidium distant, for big insect heads (moths) Photo K. Ammann Platanthera chlorantha, Bestäubungs-Experiment mit Bleistift-Stumpf wg. entfernten Klebescheiben Pollination experiment with reverse pen, viscidia distant Photo K. Ammann Platanthera chlorantha, grünliche Kukuksblume Die Pollinien neigen sich zusammen, nicht nach vorne nach Anheften experiment with reverse pen, after a few seconds pollinia move inwards. Photo K. Ammann Some moth species, however, are exceptional pollinators. Especially well known are the "hummingbird moths" of the Family Sphingidae.

www.kidsbutterfly.org/faq/general/14 In 1862, Charles Darwin predicted the existence of one of the most extreme pollinators after he received an orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale) with a foot- long tube leading to its nectar depository. Darwin predicted that an insect with an extremely long feeding structure, or proboscis, would eventually be discovered in the orchid's homeland of Madagascar.

In 1903, naturalists found Morgan's sphinx moth (Xanthopan morgani), a Madagascan moth with a proboscis that is just over 30 centimeters (one foot) long. Unfortunately, Darwin didn't survive to see the moth that fit his theory. He died two decades before the moth fluttered into a collector's clutches.

Nachtfalter-Bestäubung Wegen langem Sporn, durch Darwin vorausgesagt

Orchidaceae moth pollination due to long spur predicted by Charles Darwin

Bestäuber später gefunden: Pollinator found later: Xanthopan morgani praedictus Angraecum sesquipedale http://www.criptozoo.com/absolutenm/templates/skin.asp?articleid=217&zoneid=1 http://darwin.gruts.com/weblog/archive/2008/02/ Charles Darwin famously predicted the existence of a species of Madagascan moth (since aptly named Xanthopan morgani praedicta), based on the shape of the nectaries of a species of orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale). Might it not be possible to take a leaf out of Darwin's book and make similar deductions retrospectively? Could parasitologists not study tetrabothiids and other modern parasites, and make deductions about their extinct ancestral hosts' lifestyles? Bulbophyllum nocturnum J.J.Verm., de Vogel, Schuit. & A.Vogel: A, habit; B, flower; C, dorsal sepal, petal, lip and lateral sepal; D, lip; E, column and lip; F, pollinia; G, anther. All after Hortus Botanicus Leiden cult. 20080300 (drawing J.J.V.).

C: appendices, probably attract Unknown pollinators (flies?)

Schuiteman, A., Vermeulen, J.J., De Vogel, E.D., & Vogel, A.R.T. (2011) Nocturne for an unknown pollinator: first description of a night-flowering orchid (Bulbophyllum nocturnum). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 167, 3, pp 344-350 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095- 8339.2011.01183.x AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Schuiteman- Bulbophyllum-nocturnum-2011.pdf Bulbophyllum nocturnum Mit Anhängseln unbekannter Funktion, vielleicht Futterhaare?

Appendices of unknown function, maybe offered for feed to attract unknown pollinator ?

http://www.trouw.nl/tr/nl/4332/Groen /article/detail/3046913/2011/11/23/ De-knoppen-leken-steeds-te- verwelken.dhtml Perfect floral gift for a loved one, no? (Bulbophyllum nocturnum by Andre Schuiteman)

http://thethao.tuoitre.vn/The-thao/466211/Phat-hien-loai%C2%A0hoa-lan-dau-tien-no-ve-dem.html Bestäubung durch Beuteltiere (Australien) Marsupian-Pollination Found only in Australia, the feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus) is the smallest of the gliding possums and one of the smallest gliding mammals in the world (2) (3) (4). This tiny marsupial has a narrow gliding membrane, known as a ‘patagium’, which consists of a fold of skin that stretches between the limbs (3) (4) (5) and which is retracted when not in use (2). Compared to that of other gliding possums, the patagium of the feathertail glider has a relatively small surface area, but its effective size is increased by a fringe of hairs along its edges (2) (5). The ... •Image credit •Link to this image

Banksia attenuata Proteaceae grobe Bürsten-Blüten-Stände, robuste Staubblätter und Narben mit Beutelmäusen

Sturdy Flowers with stiff pollen stamens and stigmata Pollination through marsupian mice feeding http://www.alamy.com/stock - on - nectar - 3808073.html - photo - australia - queensland - atherton - spectacled - flying - fox -

File:Grey-headed Flying Fox (IMG0526).jpg - Wikimedia CommonsWikimedia Commons1800 × 1200Search by imageFile:Grey-headed Flying Fox (IMG0526).jpg Banksia integrifolia, Proteaceae, West-Australien

Beutler- Bestäubung Marsupian Pollination

Photo K.Ammann Banksia attenuata, Proteaceae, Bestäubung durch Beutler und Vögel

Pollination: Marsupians and Birds

Photo K. Ammann Callistemon speciosum Myrtaceae Bottle Brush Tree

Bestäubung: Beutler und Vögel

Pollination: Marsupians and Birds

Photo K. Ammann Fledermaus-Bestäubung Bat- Pollination Carpobrothus edulis, Mesembryanthe maceae

Bestäubung: Fledermäuse

Bat Pollination

Photo K. Ammann Also invasive species Mediterranean coasts Solandra nitida, Solanaceae, Bestäubung: Fledermäuse

Bat Pollination

Photo K.Ammann Jamaica Dombeya wallichii Sterculiaceae, Madagaskar Bestäubung durch Fledermäuse

Bat Pollination

Photo K. Ammann Botanic Garden Bern

Thunbergia japonica Acanthaceae Grosse Hautflügler Fledermäuse, Vögel robuste Trompeten- Form

Pollination: Bats and Birds Robust Trumpet shape

Photo K. Ammann Botanic Garden Bern Solanaceae Cobaea sp. Underwoods longtongued Bat Tylonycteris underwoodii

A bromeliad plant flower, with an orange nectar bat using its long tongue like a straw to sip nectar. Credit Merlin D. Tuttle/Science

Source http://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/06/science/b ats-nectar.html

Nachev, V., Stich, K. P., Winter, C., Bond, A., Kamil, A. and Winter, Y. (2017) Cognition-mediated evolution of low-quality floral nectars Science 355 6320 75-78 pp doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074144 http://www.www/ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Nachev-Cognition-mediated-evolution-low-quality-floral-nectars-2017.pdf

Nachev, V., Stich, K. P. and Winter, Y. (2013) Weber’s Law, the Magnitude Effect and Discrimination of Sugar Concentrations in Nectar-Feeding Animals PLOS ONE 8 9 e74144 pp http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0074144 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Nachev-Webers-Law-Magnitude-Effeddt-Nectar-Feeding-Animals-2013.pdf Saguaro Cereus giganteus

Fledermäuse Agave sp. Agavaceae Fleder- mäuse Banksia attenuata Proteaceae Beutler und Vögel Melaleuca quinquenervia Myrtaceae

Bestäubung durch Beutler und Vögel

Pollination: Marsupians and Birds

Photo K.Ammann Perth, Australia Opuntia humifusa, niederliegende Opuntie, In der neuen Welt: Fledermäuse

Introduced in The Wallis, Ch Pollinators?

Photo K. Ammann Wallis, Sion Vogel-Bestäubung

Bird- Pollination Aechmea sp. Bromeliaceae Hochblätter rot Kolibri Cata, Venezuela Aechmea, Bromeliaceae, rote Hochblätter Nektar weisslich eintrocknend, Kolibri, Cata, Venezuela Kolibri – Bestäubung von Caesalpinia

Colibri Pollination for «Pride of Barbados»

https://www.google.com/search?newwindow=1&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1646&bih=818&ei=42sJWo3vD8iN0gWvxZvgBg&q=Tylonicteris+underwoodii+pollination&oq=Tylonicteris+underwo odii+pollination&gs_l=img.12...1449.14574.0.17087.48.41.7.0.0.0.81.2291.39.39.0....0...1.1.64.img..2.9.604.0..0j0i10k1j0i10i24k1j0i24k1.0.golgvwlqox4#imgrc=ZiRu9NIIYE-7lM: Columnea Gesneriaceae Vogel-Bestäubung Bird-Pollination

botit.botany.wisc.edu/.../ Gesneriaceae/Columnea/ Cattleya aurantiaca, Orchidaceae, Vogel- Bestäubung Bird Pollination

Photo K. Ammann, Bern Botanic Garden Cestrum hirtum, Solanaceae, Kolibri-Bestäubung, Trotz weisser Blütenfarbe

Jamaica Mist forests Pollination: Colibris Despite of white flower color

Photo K. Ammann Strelitzia reginae, Musaceae, Südafrika, Vögel stehen auf Antheren

Birds stand on Anthers

Photo K.Ammann Botanic Garden Bern Columnea fawcettii, Gesneriaceae, epiphytisch, Jamaica, Vogel-Bestäubung

Epiphyte pollinated With Birds

Photo K. Ammann Hope Gardens, Jamaica Amherstia nobilis, Caesalpiniaceae, ursprünglich Ostasien, Vogel- Bestäubung

Bird Pollination, Origin: Eastern Asia

Photo K. Ammann Hope Gardens Jamaica Male Stich Bird, New Zealand, Pacific Islands

https://www.birdoftheyear.org.nz/

Anderson, S.H., Kelly, D., Ladley, J.J., Molloy, S., & Terry, J. (2011) Cascading Effects of Bird Functional Extinction Reduce Pollination and Plant Density Science, Science 1199092 Published online 3 February 2011 pp http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Anderson-Cascading-Effects-Birds-Extinction-2011.pdf AND http://www.sciencemag.org/search?site_area=sci&fulltext=%22dave%20kelly%22&submit=yes Supporting Material http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Anderson-Cascading-Effects-Birds-Extinction-Supporting-2011.pdf http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2011/02/02/science.1199092/suppl/DC1 AND blog material http://www.ouramazingplanet.com/birds-plants- pollination-biodiversity-loss-1058/

A male stitchbird (or hihi) on Tiritiri Matangi Island. This important pollinator vanished off the North Island with the arrival of mammalian predators 140 years ago, but persists on nearby islands. Where stitchbirds and bellbirds survive, the pollination mutualism still works well. Credit: Dave Kelly, University of Canterbury http://www.ouramazingplanet.com/birds-plants-pollination-biodiversity-loss-1058/ for successful fruit set. [Photo: M Walters]M [Photo: set. fruit successful for visitors bird require flowers the so is finished, presentation pollen bird. a has been visited by elongates after stigma The flower the pollen fused disc if whichridged is marked and the long tube, corolla 10 mm narrowshowing the underneath, Aof flower Rhabdothamnus solandri viewed viewed from on the mainland, but not on islands (post hoc tests, see text). flowers did significantly worse than hand from fruit size). In both cases, natural (unmanipulated) set densities remain high. (A) Pollination success (mean fruit % extinct, but not on adjacent offshore islands where bird Zealand mainland, where its bird pollinators are functionally shrub Evidence for strong pollen limitation for the ± SEM). (B) Seeds per fruit (mean and SEM, estimated Rhabdothamnus solandri on the New - pollinated flowers birdpollinated Anderson et al. 2011 significantly fewer seedlings on the mainland ( sites had similar adult densities ( and the mainland (lowbird densities). Island and mainland centered on juvenile (<30 cm) solandri on the mainland: densities of adult (≥30 cm tall) and Evidencefor regeneration failure of R. solandri adults, on islands (high bird densities) R. solandri plants (mean P = 0.56), but there were Rhabdothamnus ± SEM) in plots P = 0.020).

Anderson et al. 2011 Melicytus Melicytus ramiflorus Geniostoma or ligustrifolium (see text). significantly higher in sown plots for to adjacent unsown plots. Seedling density 5 after years was augmentation plots on the mainland in April 2003, compared from SEM) three species sown into 10 20 x seed cm solandri: densities of seedlings October in 2008 (mean Evidence seed for limitation of Rhabdothamnus R. solandri, R. solandri, but not for ± Käfer-Bestäubung beetle-pollination Viburnum opulus, gemeiner Schneeball, Käfer usw. Common Snowball, Beetles etc. Photo K. Ammann Nymphaea alba, weisse Seerose, Nymphaeaceae, Käfer- Bestäubung

Nymphaea alba European White Waterlily Beetle Pollination

Photo K. Ammann Nymphaea alba, weisse Seerose, Nymphaeaceae, Käfer- Bestäubung

Nymphaea alba European White Waterlily Beetle Pollination

Photo K. Ammann Thalictrum flavum gelbe Wiesenraute Ranunculaceae Canthariden Weichkäfer-Bestäubung

Thalictrum flavum Fen rue, false rhubarb Pollination through Cantharidae beetles

Photo K. Ammann Asarum europaeum, europäische Haselwurz, Aristolochiaceae Käfer-Bestäubung

Asarum Europaeum European Hazelwort Beetle Pollination

Photo K. Ammann Asarum europaeum, europäische Haselwurz, Aristolochiaceae Käfer-Bestäubung

Asarum Europaeum European Hazelwort Beetle Pollination

Photo K. Ammann Käfer- und Fliegenbestäubung

Beetle and Fly- pollination Peucedanum austriacum Österreichischer Haarstrang

Bestäubung durch Käfer, Fliegen usw.

Peucedanum austriacum Austrians Milk-Parsley

Pollination: Beetles, Flies etc.

Photo K. Ammann Heracleum sphondylium, Bärenklau, Käfer, Fliegen- Bestäubung.

Common Hogweed, Pollination: Beetles, Flies

Photo K. Ammann Heracleum sphondylium, Bärenklau, Käfer, Fliegen- Bestäubung. Randblüten mit Schaufunktion

Common Hogweed, Pollination: Beetles, Flies Lateral Corollas With attraction function

Photo K. Ammann Anthriscus silvestris, Wiesenkerbel, Früchte mit Nektar-Scheiben

Woodland Chervil Fruits with Nectar Disks

Photo K. Ammann Veronica filiformis, Faden-Ehrenpreis, Scrophulariaceae, Fliegenbestäubung

Slender Speedwell Scrophulariaceae Flie-Pollination

Photo K. Ammann Veronica cymbalaria, Scrophulariaceae Fliegenbestäubung

Pale Speedwell Glandular Speedwell Flie Pollination

Photo K. Ammann Euphrasia minima, Scrophulariaceae, Kleiner Augentrost, Fliegenbestäubung

Dwarf Eyebright Scrophulariaceae Flie Pollination

Photo K.Ammann Tozzia alpina, Tozzie, Scrophulariaceae, Fliegenbestäubung

Alpine Tozzia Scrophulariaceae Flie Pollination

Photo K.Ammann Sarracenia flava, gelbe Sarrazenie, karnivor, Insektenfallen, fliegenbestäubt

Yellow Sarracenia Carnivorous leaves Insect traps Flie Pollination

North Carolina Photo K. Ammann

Arum maculatum Spatha und warmer Kolben mit Aasgeruch Unten: Reusenfalle Fliegenbestäubung

Cuckoo Pint Spadix with warm spathe with faecal odor (ca. 15° warmer than environment) Flie trap pollination

Photo K. Ammann Arum maculatum Spatha, Kolben und Reusenfalle behält Fliegen bis Sie eingepudert sind mit Pollen

Cuckoo Pint Spadix with warm spathe above The insects are trapped beneath the ring of hairs and are dusted with pollen by the male flowers before escaping and carrying the pollen to the spadices of other plants, where they pollinate the female flowers.

Photo K. Ammann Arum maculatum Aronstab Left: Flug- und Gleitbahnen der Fliegen

Cuckoo Pint Left: Traces of pollinators: Flights and gliding

Right: Unterer Blütenteil voll mit Bestäuber-Fliegen Lower part of inflorescence Full of pollinator flies

http://www.british-wild- flowers.co.uk/L- Flowers/Lords%20&%20Ladies. htm Arum maculatum Aronstab Links: Junge Insektenfalle: Antheren Geschlossen, mit Nektar-Tropfen

Left: young insect trap Anthers closed, with droplets of nectar

Right: Old Insect-Trap Hairs dried out Anthers open No nectar droplets remaining The titan arum or Amorphophallus titanum is a flowering plant with the largest unbranched inflorescence in the world. The largest single flower is borne by the Rafflesia arnoldii; the largest branched inflorescence in the plant kingdom belongs to the Talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera). The titan arum was originally discovered by an Italian botanist, Odoardo Beccari, in Sumatra in 1878. It thrives at the edges of rainforests near open grasslands. Though found in many botanic gardens around the world it is still indigenous only to the tropical forests of Sumatra. Due to its fragrance, which is reminiscent of the smell of a decomposing mammal,[1] the titan arum is also known as a carrion flower, the "Corpse flower", or "Corpse plant" (in Indonesian, "bunga bangkai" – bunga means flower, while bangkai means corpse or cadaver; for the same reason, the same title is also attributed to Rafflesia which, like the titan arum, also grows in the rainforests of Sumatra).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_arum Ollerton, J. & Raguso, R.A. (2006) The sweet stench of decay. New Phytologist, 172, 3, pp 382-385 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Pollination/Ollerton-Sweet-Stench-2006.pdf Fig. 1 The scent space of sapromyiophilous stapeliads and aroids. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis of the major scent compounds present in the odour profiles of 15 species of stapeliads (Apocynaceae subfamily Asclepiadoideae, tribe Ceropegieae, subtribe Stapeliinae; data from Jürgens et al., 2006), plus 11 species of Arum, 20 species of Amorphophallus and two species of Pseudodracontium (Araceae; data from Kite et al., 1998). NMDS was performed using a binary (presence-absence) matrix of the 48 plant species and the 54 most abundant (≥ 10% volume) compounds from their scent profiles, resulting in a two-dimensional plot using Euclidean distances between species. Unidentified compounds were omitted from the analysis. Several Amorphophallus species have identical oligosulphide odours and thus occupy the same loci in scent space. Chemical structures indicate scent components that contributed most to the separation of clusters in scent space (Jürgens et al., 2006), and are (clockwise from top): hexanoic acid, p-cresol, octanal, dimethyl disulphide and 2-heptanol (centre). Trimethyl amine (upper left) confers a dead-fish odour to Amorphophallus brachyphyllus (Kite & Hetterscheid, 1997), and is predicted to be present in stapeliads such as Huernia thuretii (not yet studied), which would expand the stapeliad domain in scent space.

Ollerton, J. & Raguso, R.A. (2006) The sweet stench of decay. New Phytologist, 172, 3, pp 382-385 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Pollination/Ollerton-Sweet-Stench-2006.pdf http://www.bulbsociety.org/GALLERY_OF_THE_WOR LDS_BULBS/GRAPHICS/Arum/Arum_palaestinum/Ar um_palaestinum.html

Arum palaestinum

http://picsicio.us/keyword/arum%20palaestinum/ These are vinegar flies trapped in the calyx of the lily Arum palaestinum. Credit: Johannes Stökl, Curr. Biol., Oct. 7, 2010

Deceitful lily fools flies Solomon's lily imitates a yeasty odor to lure vinegar flies into a trap

Stökl, J., Strutz, A., Dafni, A., Svatos, A., Doubsky, J., Knaden, M., Sachse, S., Hansson, B.S., & Stensmyr, M.C. (2010) A Deceptive Pollination System Targeting Drosophilids through Olfactory Mimicry of Yeast. Current Biology, In Press, Corrected Proof, pp http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VRT- 51618H5-5/2/4786042e3ee7f68188f5197d1a0d7016 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Stoekl- Deceptive-Pollination-2010.pdf

2010.pdf

51618H5

http://www.ask

Pollination

Deceptive

Stökl, J., Strutz, A., Dafni, A., Svatos, A., Doubsky, J.,Knaden, M., A., Doubsky, A., Svatos, A., Dafni, Stökl,J., Strutz, M.C. (2010) S.,B.S.,Hansson, Stensmyr, & Sachse, Olfactory through Drosophilids Targeting System Pollination Deceptive A Proof,pp InCorrectedPress, Biology, Current Yeast. ofMimicry http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VRT AND 5/2/4786042e3ee7f68188f5197d1a0d7016 force.org/web/Pollination/Stoekl

(C) Headspace odor of A. palaestinum (orange trace) and electro-antennograms (EADs) from females of D. melanogaster and D. simulans. The EAD traces shown are the averages of five runs, respectively. Numbers in the EAD trace refer to peaks that elicited antennal reactions in either of the species; blue numbers denote peaks yielding fully reproducible response: (1) acetoin; (2) 1-hexanol; (3) acetoin acetate; (4) 2,3- butanediolacetate (4i, threo; 4ii, erythro); (5) unknown; (6) 1-propionylethyl acetate; (7) ethyl hexanoate; (8) hexyl acetate; (9) 2,3- butanedioldiacetate; (10) 2-phenethyl alcohol; (11) 2-phenethyl acetate; and (12) geranylacetone. Flowers of Ceropegia arabica (Apocynaceae) are pollinated by small Diptera in common with all other members of the genus studied to date (Ollerton et al. 2009). Photograph by Sage Reynolds

Ollerton, J., Masinde, S., Meve, U., Picker, M., & Whittington, A. (2009) Fly pollination in Ceropegia (Apocynaceae: Asclepiadoideae): biogeographic and phylogenetic perspectives. Annals of Botany, 103, 9, pp 1501-1514 http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Ollerton- Fly-Pollination-Ceropegia-2009.pdf

Stapelia Huernia Aasblume

Bestäubung durch Aasfliegen

Stapelia sp. Carrium flower

Pollination: Flesh Flies

Photo K. Ammann Botanic Garden Bern Stapelia variegata Botanischer Garten Bern Aasfliegen-Bestäubung

Stapelia variegata Botanic Garden Bern Pollination with Flesh-Flies

Photo K. Ammann Rafflesia pricei, Sabah, Borneo Tambunan Rafflesia Centre in the Crocker Range National Park, Sabah, Malaysia Bestäubung: Aasfliegen Pollination: Flesh Flies

Photo K.Ammann Rafflesia arnoldii Arnolds Rafflesia, Indonesien

Bestäubung: Aasfliegen

Pollination: Flesh Flies

http://lemberk.vcm.cz/cestopisy/rafflesia2.htm provincie Benkulu ve střední Sumatře a Západní Kalimantan (Indonésie), západní Sarawak (Malajsie) Rafflesia: Big Daddy of the Spurge Family Unassuming cousin, Euphorbia baylissii Photo: Frank Vincentz, via Wiki

Davis, C. C., Latvis, M., Nickrent, D. L., Wurdack, K. J. and Baum, D. A. (2007) Floral Gigantism in Rafflesiaceae Science 1135260 pp http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1135260v1 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Davis-Rafflesia- Gigantism-Evolution-2007.pdf Bulbophyllum careyanum Orchidaceae

Bestäubung: Aasfliegen

Bulbophyllum careyanum Orchidaceae

Pollination: Flesh Flies

Photo K. Ammann, Botanic Garden Bern Bulbophyllum careyanum Orchidaceae

Bestäubung: Aasfliegen

Bulbophyllum careyanum Orchidaceae

Pollination: Flesh Flies

Photo K. Ammann, Botanic Garden Bern Pseudocopulation describes behaviors similar to copulation that serve a reproductive function for one or both participants but do not involve actual sexual union between the individuals. It is most generally applied to a pollinator attempting to copulate with a flower. Some flowers mimic a potential female mate visually, but the key stimuli are often chemical and tactile.[1] This form of mimicry in plants has been titled Pouyannian mimicry.[2] Orchids commonly achieve reproduction in this manner, secreting chemicals from glands called osmophores located in the sepals, petals, or labellum, that are indistinguishable from the insect's natural pheromones. The pollinator then has a pollinia attached to its body, which it transfers to the stigma of another flower when if it attempts another 'copulation'. Pollinators are often bees and wasps of the order Hymenoptera, and flies. from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudocopulation

Papadopulos, A. S. T., Powell, M. P., Pupulin, F., Warner, J., Hawkins, J. A., Salamin, N., Chittka, L., Williams, N. H., Whitten, W. M., Loader, D., Valente, L. M., Chase, M. W. and Savolainen, V. (2013) Convergent evolution of floral signals underlies the success of Neotropical orchids Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 280 1765 http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royprsb/280/1765/20130960.full.pdf AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Papadopulos-Convergent-evolution-floral-signals-underlies-success-neotropical-orchids-2013.pdf Siehe Papadopulos 2013 vorheriges Dia vorheriges 2013 Papadopulos Siehe

Aehnlichkeiten der Blüten verschiedener Familien, Selektion durch Bestäuber: Oncidium Orchidaceae links, Mitte Stigmatophyllon, Malpigiaceae und rechts Rossioglossum amplicatum Orchidaceae Floral resemblance of Stigmaphyllon sp. (centre; Malpighiaceae) and Oncidiinae orchids Trichocentrum ascendens and Rossioglossum ampliatum (left and right; Oncidiinae: Orchidaceae). Bestäubung mit Pollinien

Pollination with Pollinia Darwin, C. (1862) On the various contrivances by which orchids are fertilized by insects and on the good effects of intercrossing, The Complete Work of Charles Darwin online, Scanned, OCRed and corrected by John van Wyhe 2003; further corrections 8.2006. RN4 edn. Murray, London, pp 366 http://darwin- online.org.uk/content/fram eset?viewtype=side&itemI D=F800&pageseq=1 1: 3 sepals (outer) and 3 pepals (inner whirl

3: central stamen, Anther, carries 2 pollinia

2: gynostemium or 4: two other stamen reduced to

column staminodes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid

5: Rostellum 7: ovary, inferior 9: stigma- covers cave sticky 8: spur, in disks Orchis and 6: Labellum Dactylorhiza without nectar Asclepias curassavica. One flower with the gynostegium in longitudinal section. Note the gland (corpusculum) and pollinia in the upper left. The corolla tube has been dissected to show the 2 free, superior ovaries, while the top of the gynoecium is connate and then adnate to the androecium to form part of the gynostegium. Asclepias curassavica pollination bee asperula Asclepias www.sbs.utexas.edu/.../asclepias_asperula.htm Rosmarinus officinalis Rosmarin Lamiaceae Bestäubung durch Dolchfliege Rücken mit grauen Pollen

Pollination: Stiletto Fly Back with grey pollen

Photo K. Ammann Provence, France http://www.denniskunk el.com/DK/Plants/893 1B.html

http://www.orchids.co.in/plant-facts/orchid-pollination.shtm In the tribe Orchideae , the pollinia are included in special bags called bursicles ,which slit open upon maturation . As soon as the insect enters the flower, the two viscidia attach themselves to the two sides of the insect’s head. When the insect leaves the flower , the two pollinia are drawn from the bursicles and carried away on the insect’s head. By a special hygrophilous quality of the caudicle ,the pollinia which are at first held upright on the insect’s head slowly bend forward , till it comes to occupy a position at right angles to the insect’s head . In this position ,when the insect visits the next flower , the pollinia immediately come in contact with the stigma . This hygrophilous nature of the caudicle is characteristic of some of the advanced Sarcanthine orchids such as Vanda teres , Luisia sp.etc. Here the caudicle is transparent and ribbon-shaped . Immediately after removal from the anther it appears straight . But while it is being carried on the insect’s head, it absorbs it appears straight . But while it is being carried on the Dactylorrhiza insect’s head , it absorbs water and curves in an S-shaped manner bringing the pollinia forward , so that they are deposited on the stigma maculata of the flower which the insect visits next Orchis purpureus, Purpur- Knabenkraut, Orchidaceae, Pollinien-Versuch

Lady Orchid Pollinia Experiment

Photo K. Ammann Hofenwald Bern

Himantoglossum hircinum Bocks-Riemenzunge Bestäubung mit Andrena solitäre Biene Pollination with Andrena sp. solitary Bee

http://www.europeanorchids.com/index.php/en/photographs/pollin ators/image?view=image&format=raw&type=img&id=412

Photo K.Ammann Orchis morio, kleine Orchis, Orchidaceae,

Bienen- Bestäubung

Small Orchis Bee Pollination

Photo K.Ammann Bern Hofenwald Orchis coryophora Wanzen-Knabenkraut

Orchidaceae

Bienen-Bestäubung

Bee Pollination

Photo K.Ammann Wallis, Sion Orchis papilionaceae Schmetterlings- Knabenkraut Orchidaceae

Bienen Sexuelle Anlockung durch Pseudo-Kopulation

Sexual attraction: pseudocopulation Ophrys insectifera, pseudo copulation as incentive

* Ophrys insectifera: Pseudocopulation Ophrys insectifera, Fliegen-Ragwurz

Bestäuber Gorytes mystaceus, Grabwespe

Pollinator: Gorytes mystaceus

Kral Karl (2016) Implications of insect responses to supernormal visual releasing stimuli in intersexual communication and flower-visiting behaviour: A review European Journal of Entomology 113 429-437 pp ISBN/1802-8829 ://WOS:000390094600002 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Pollination/Kral- Implications-insect-responses-supernormal-visual-releasing-stimuli-intersexual- communication-2016.pdf http://sphn.org/?q=node/102 Ophrys fuciflora = holosericea

Orchidaceae

Mimikri für das Anlocken von männlichen solitären Bienen für eine Pseudo-Kopulation, die die Bestäubung sichert

Mimikri for attracting male solitary bees for pseudo copulation

Photo K. Ammann ob Landeron, Jura

Ophrys fuciflora Hummel-Ragwurz Ophrys fuciflora = holosericea

Zwei Männchen auf einer Hummel-Ragwurz http://sphn.org/?q=node/102 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophrys_fuciflora Eucera berlandi bestäubt Ophris helenae http://picssr.com/photos/adrien2008/favorites/page4?nsid=20973851@N03

Eucera longicornis bestäubt Ophys fuciflora http://www.afblum.be/bioafb/especes/orchidac/orchidac.htm Ophrys scolopax Schnepfen-Ragwurz Orchidaceae

Mimikri für die sexuelle Attraktion von männlichen solitären Bienen zwecks Pseudokopulation

Mimikri for attracting male solitary bees for pseudo copulation

Photo K.Ammann Provence, France

Ophrys scolopax Ophrys lutea Gelbe Ragwurz Orchidaceae

Mimikri für die Attraktion von Männlichen Solitär-Bienen zwecks Pseudokopulation, Kopf nach unten

Mimikri for attracting male solitary bees for pseudo copulation

Photo K.Ammann Provence, France

Ophrys lutea Ophrys lutea Orchidaceae Links: Perfekte Zeichnung auf der Lippe von Ophrys lutea right, below: Mimikri for attracting male solitary bees for pseudo copulation head down

Andrena Hesperia männlich, male Foto Pietro Niolu

https://www.fli ckr.com/photo s/14260865@ N07/45377866 Photo K. Ammann 03/ Provence, France Ophrys lutea Duftstoffe Gaschromatographie Duftstoffe Gaschromatographie Sexuell angelockte männliche Bestäuber Neuzeleboria cryptoides am Blütenstiel von Chiloglottis trapeziformis

The sexually attracted male pollinator Neozeleboria cryptoides on the stem of the orchid Chiloglottis Photo Mark Clements trapeziformis http://www.cpbr.gov.au/cpbr/orchids/index.html

Die «Common Dragon Orchid (Drakonorchis barbarossa) rechts: Aus West-Australien täuscht sie flügellose weibliche Wespe vor, um Männchen anzulocken für eine Pseudo-Begattung The Common Dragon Orchid (Drakonorchis barbarossa) – a unique western Australian ground orchid that mimics a wingless female www.anu.edu.au/BoZo/ orchid_pollination/ wasp to entice the male to mate, to effect pollination Australisches Beispiel Pseudokopulation 1

theorchid

) with a with ) previousflower

on on the of labellum

cryptoides

pseudocopulation

carrying that carrying (pollinia)pollen was removed

prior prior to attempted mating with the flower

Neozeleboria

). During this During ). process takeremovalpollen place.will

trapeziformis

pseudocopulation

The The malepollinator Chiloglottis during attempted ( copulation

Chiloglottis ( www.anu.edu.au/BoZo/ orchid_pollination/ The malepollinator Australische Beispiele Pseudokopulation 2 Ophrys apifera Bienen-Ragwurz Orchidaceae

Ausnahme: Selbstbestäubung Trotz perfekter Mimikri für Pseudo-Kopulation

Auto-pollination despite of perfect mimikri for pseudo copulation

Photo Klaus Ammann, Jura Südhang bei Landeron

Ophrys apifera autogam Ophrys apifera Bienen-Ragwurz Orchidaceae

Ausnahme: Selbstbestäubung Trotz perfekter Mimikri für Pseudo-Kopulation

Auto-pollination despite of perfect mimikri for pseudo copulation

Photo Klaus Ammann, Jura Südhang bei Landeron

Ophrys apifera autogam Erich Nelson: Autopoiesis – Beweis H-förmiges Lippenmal (Speculum) als urprüngliches Merkmal

Eric Nelson: Autopoiesis proof: H- shaped speculum as ancestral character

Nelson: ursprüngliches Lippenmal Nelson, E. (1957) Gesetzmassigkeiten Der Gestaltwandlung Im Blutenbereich, Ihre Bedeutung Fur Das Problem Der Evolution - Reply Evolution 11 1 108-110 pp ://A1957XE14800011 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Evolution/Nelson-Self- Organization-Reply-1957.pdf

Stebbins, G. L. (1957) Regularities of Transformation in the Flower Evolution 11 1 106-108 pp ://A1957XE14800010 Nelson. Autopoiesis proof: compact speculum as evolutionary AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Evolution/Stebbins-Regulatities- derived character ENelson-1957.pdf

Nelson abgeleitetes Lippenmal Cephalanthera rubra, rotes Waldvögelein, Orchidaceae, red Helleborine Bienen, Hummeln, Anlockung durch Glockenblumen- Mimikri

Bees, Bumblebees Attraction through Mimikri of Campanula Insekten-Biodiversität ist bedroht

Threatened Insect Populations Heutige und frühere Reduktion der Biodiversität, ein Problem, das wir vernünftig lösen müssen

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.png Trewavas, A. J. (2001) The population/biodiversity paradox. Agricultural efficiency to save wilderness Plant Physiology 125 1 174-179 pp ://WOS:000167544600048 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Biotech-Biodiv/Trevavas-population-biodiversity- paradox-Agricultural-efficiency-save-wilderness-2001.pdf Gefährdungs- Bilanzen bedrohte Arten in der Schweiz

2009

Abb. 42 > Gefährdungsbilanzen Bedrohte Arten, eingeteilt nach Artengruppen und Gefährdungskategorien. Als Rote-Liste-Arten gelten Arten, die einer der fünf Gefährdungskategorien von Rot bis Orange zugeteilt sind. Besonders gefährdet sind die Reptilien und Amphibien: 79 Prozent der Reptilien- und 70 Prozent der Amphibienarten stehen auf der Roten Liste. Quelle: BDM- Indikator «Gefährdungsbilanzen (Z5)». Artengruppe (Anzahl beurteilte Arten) Amphibien (20) Grosspilze (4960) Farn- und Blütenpflanzen (3144) Moose (1093) Baumbewohnende Flechten (520) Erdbewohnende Flechten (266) Brutvögel (195) Heuschrecken (105) Libellen (72) Fische/ Rundmäuler (55) Reptilien (19) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Weltweit ausgestorben In der Schweiz ausgestorben Vom Aussterben bedroht Stark gefährdet Verletzlich Potenziell gefährdet Nicht gefährdet Ungenügende Datengrundlage Koordinationsstelle Biodiversitäts-Monitoring Schweiz (2009) Zustand der Biodiversität in der Schweiz. Ergebnisse des BiodiversitätsMonitorings Schweiz (BDM) im Überblick. Stand: Mai 2009 Bundesamt für Umwel BAFU Bern 112 pp http://www.sib.admin.ch/fileadmin/_migrated/content_uploads/UZ-0911-D.pdf AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/biodiversity/BDM-Zustand-der-Biodiversitaet-in-der-Schweiz-2009.pdf Researchers have found an imported virus that may be associated with the sudden disappearance of honey bees in the United States, known as colony collapse disorder (CCD). This baffling syndrome, which earlier this year made headlines around the world, may have afflicted as many as 23% of beekeepers in the United States and caused losses of up to 90% of hives in some apiaries. The identification of a suspect is an important step, says Nicholas Calderone of Cornell University. “Before, we didn’t even have circumstantial evidence.”

Stokstad, E. (2007) GENOMICS: Puzzling Decline of U.S. Bees Linked to Virus From Australia. Science %R 10.1126/science.317.5843.1304, 317, 5843, pp 1304-1305 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Bees/Stockstad-IAPV-Culprit-2007.pdf Stokstad, E. (2007) ENTOMOLOGY: The Case of the Empty Hives. Science %R 10.1126/science.316.5827.970, 316, 5827, pp 970-972 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Bees/Stockstad-Empty-2007.pdf much more information, and stating that the CCD case is still open: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_Collapse_Disorder http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,473166,00.html Propagand Anti cheap Baseless - GM - and a Final remarks about bee pollination Example from the PRRI ASK-FORCE Are GM crops killing honey bees ?

http://pubresreg.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=63 Walter Haefeker, the German beekeeping official, speculates that "besides a number of other factors," the fact that genetically modified, insect-resistant plants are now used in 40 percent of cornfields in the United States could be playing a role. The figure is much lower in Germany -- only 0.06 percent -- and most of that occurs in the eastern states of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and Brandenburg. Haefeker recently sent a researcher at the CCD Working Group some data from a bee study that he has long felt shows a possible connection between genetic engineering and diseases in bees.

http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,473166,00.html Die Insekten-Biodiversität nimmt ab, aber dieses Phänomen wird von den Gentech-Opponenten missbraucht und übertrieben.

Broad Review on Bee Diversity:

Ammann Klaus (20170926) Review: Colony collapse disorder (CCD), Nosema and Varroa mite Infections (and other suspects - except GM crops). 368 references. ASK-FORCE AF-1, September 26, 2017 Ammann Klaus Neuchâtel, Switzerland 146 pp http://www.ask-force.org/web/AF-1-Colony-Collapse/Ammann-AF-1-Bee-Colony-Collapse-rev-20170926.pdf

Broad report on Biodiversity related to Biotechnology

Ammann Klaus (20170619) Review: Biodiversity and Biotechnology ASK-FORCE AF-11, 115 pp Ammann K. Neuchatel 115 pp http://www.ask-force.org/web/AF-11-Biodiversity/Ammann-AF-11-Biodiversity-Agriculture-20170619.pdf Researchers have found an imported virus that may be associated with the sudden disappearance of honey bees in the United States, known as colony collapse disorder (CCD). This baffling syndrome, which earlier this year made headlines around the world, may have afflicted as many as 23% of beekeepers in the United States and caused losses of up to 90% of hives in some apiaries. The identification of a suspect is an important step, says Nicholas Calderone of Cornell University. “Before, we didn’t even have circumstantial evidence.”

Wilson, J. S., Forister, M. L. and Carril, O. M. (2017) Interest exceeds understanding in public support of bee conservation Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 15 8 460-466 pp ISBN/1540-9309 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fee.1531 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Bees/Wilson-Interest-exceeds-understanding-in-public-support-of-bee-conservation-2017.pdf

“Recent analyses suggesting that certain populations of bees may be declining have led to a variety of conservation efforts, many of which rely on public support and participation. However, little is known about the public’s knowledge of bee diversity. We carried out a survey to measure public understanding of bee diversity and found that although 99% of respondents believed that bees are critical or important, only 14% were able to guess within 1000 the actual number of bee species in the US. Furthermore, when reviewing a selection of photographs depicting various insects, many respondents were unable to discern bees from non-bees. Our findings show that even as scientific research on bees has rapidly expanded, the public remains largely uninformed on the subject, especially with regard to the wealth of bee diversity in the US. In light of the fact that conservation efforts require substantial public support, any programs aimed at stopping or mitigating bee population declines will need to include outreach and education measures.” Figure 2

Isbell, F., Gonzalez, A., Loreau, M., Cowles, J., Díaz, S., Hector, A., Mace, G. M., Wardle, D. A., O'Connor, M. I., Duffy, J. E., Turnbull, L. A., Thompson, P. L. and Larigauderie, A. (2017) Linking the influence and dependence of people on biodiversity across scales Nature 546 65 pp http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature22899 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Biotech-Biodiv/Isbell-Linking-influence-dependence-people-on- biodiversity-across-scales-2017.pdf Empfohlen: Hotspot Newsletter der Schweizerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften https://naturalsciences.ch/organisations/biodiversity/9519 8-hotspot-36-17-auf-den-spuren-des-artensterbens

Mehr Information nächste Dias

Siehe auch die Artenschwund-Bilanz des Bundesamtes Für Umweltschutz BAFU im letzten Biodiversitäts- Monitoring 2014

Koordinationsstelle BDM (2014) Biodiversitätsmonitoring Schweiz. BDM. Beschreibung der Methoden und Indikatoren BAFU, UVEK, Bern 104 pp http://www.bafu.admin.ch/uw-uw-1410-d AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/biodiversity/Biodiversitaets-Monitoring-Schweiz-BDM- 2014.pdf Wenn eine Veränderung der Biodiversität irreversibel ist, dann das Aussterben einer Art.

Denn mit jedem Aussterben endet ein einzigartiger Zweig des in Milliarden Jahren entstandenen Baums des Lebens. Ebenso beunruhigend sind die oft unterschätzten Warnsignale, die dieses Aussterben begleiten: die schleichende Erosion der Pflanzenvielfalt in unserem Land, welche nicht nur die seltensten Arten betrifft, der Rückgang der Insektenbestände, die Verarmung von Wiesen auf lokaler Ebene.

Besorgnis erregend ist aber auch das Aussterben von Spezialisten - Taxonominnen und Systematikern – die in der Lage sind, diese Änderungen zu dokumentieren. Das Magazin HOTSPOT 36/2017 spürt den aktuellen Trends nach, geht aber noch weiter: Es spricht auch Möglichkeiten an, um der Negativspirale entgegenzuwirken, zum Beispiel mit konkreten Massnahmen der Artenförderung, der verstärkten Wahrnehmung individueller und kollektiver Verantwortung oder dem evidenzbasierten Naturschutz. Die Abbildungen dieser HOTSPOT-Ausgabe stellen acht Arten von Pflanzen, Tieren und Pilzen vor, die in den letzten Jahrzehnten aus der Schweiz verschwunden sind.

https://naturalsciences.ch/organisations/biodiversity/95198-hotspot-36-17-auf-den-spuren-des-artensterbens Viele Mittelland- Flächen mit einer Niedrigen Artenzahl Pro 100 Quadratkm Von ca. 400 Arten von Blütenpflanzen

Die reichsten Flächen im Wallis, Voralpen und Jura Um die 1000-1600 Blütenflanzen-Arten

Welten Max and Sutter Ruben (1982, 2013) Verbreitungsatlas der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen der Schweiz. Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1982 Edition 2013 Birkhäuser; Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1982, reprint 2013 ISBN-13: 978-3034875554 AND ISBN-10: 303487555X/ISBN-13: 978-3034875554 AND ISBN-10: 303487555X https://www.amazon.com/Verbreitungsatlas- Bl%C3%BCtenpflanzen-Distribution- Pteridophytes- Phanerogames/dp/303487555X/ref=sr_1_fkmr0_ 1?ie=UTF8&qid=1510653967&sr=8-1- fkmr0&keywords=Welten+Sutter+Verbreitungsatl as Bibl. KA Es bleiben viele Forschungs-Themen offen. Altensteinia (früher Aa) Orchidaceae, Im Torfmoos, Venezolanische Anden Ca. 4000m, Bestäuber unbekannt Eventuell neue Art

Gute Vorschläge für zukünftige Forschung

Mayer, C. A., Lynn; Armbruster, W. Scott; Dafni, Amots; Eardley, Connal; Huang, Shuang-Quan; Kevan, Peter G.; Ollerton, Jeff; Packer, Laurence; Ssymank, Axel; Stout, Jane C.; Potts, Simon G. (2011) Pollination ecology in the 21st Century: Key questions for future research Journal of Pollination Ecology 3 8-23 pp http://www.ask- force.org/web/Pollination/Mayer- Altensteinia (Aa), within Sphagnum in Andes of Venezuela, tiny 4mm-flowers on, ca. Pollination-Ecology-21fst-Century- 4000m altitude, pollinator unknown, Photo K. Ammann, Venezuela, Pico Bolivar Future-2011.pdf Antelope Orchid Dendrobium minax Orchidaceae Botanic Garden in Bern pollinator ? Sooo weit geht’s nicht in der Bestäubungs-Ökologie…

http://pinterest.com/pin/54817320434794909/ Peucedanum ostruthium, Meisterwurz, Blitz in Dämmerung Schönheit und harmonikale Struktur vereint Photo K.Ammann Grimselgebiet