Structure of Atomic Nuclei
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Neutron Stars
Chandra X-Ray Observatory X-Ray Astronomy Field Guide Neutron Stars Ordinary matter, or the stuff we and everything around us is made of, consists largely of empty space. Even a rock is mostly empty space. This is because matter is made of atoms. An atom is a cloud of electrons orbiting around a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons. The nucleus contains more than 99.9 percent of the mass of an atom, yet it has a diameter of only 1/100,000 that of the electron cloud. The electrons themselves take up little space, but the pattern of their orbit defines the size of the atom, which is therefore 99.9999999999999% Chandra Image of Vela Pulsar open space! (NASA/PSU/G.Pavlov et al. What we perceive as painfully solid when we bump against a rock is really a hurly-burly of electrons moving through empty space so fast that we can't see—or feel—the emptiness. What would matter look like if it weren't empty, if we could crush the electron cloud down to the size of the nucleus? Suppose we could generate a force strong enough to crush all the emptiness out of a rock roughly the size of a football stadium. The rock would be squeezed down to the size of a grain of sand and would still weigh 4 million tons! Such extreme forces occur in nature when the central part of a massive star collapses to form a neutron star. The atoms are crushed completely, and the electrons are jammed inside the protons to form a star composed almost entirely of neutrons. -
B2.IV Nuclear and Particle Physics
B2.IV Nuclear and Particle Physics A.J. Barr February 13, 2014 ii Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 Nuclear 3 2.1 Structure of matter and energy scales . 3 2.2 Binding Energy . 4 2.2.1 Semi-empirical mass formula . 4 2.3 Decays and reactions . 8 2.3.1 Alpha Decays . 10 2.3.2 Beta decays . 13 2.4 Nuclear Scattering . 18 2.4.1 Cross sections . 18 2.4.2 Resonances and the Breit-Wigner formula . 19 2.4.3 Nuclear scattering and form factors . 22 2.5 Key points . 24 Appendices 25 2.A Natural units . 25 2.B Tools . 26 2.B.1 Decays and the Fermi Golden Rule . 26 2.B.2 Density of states . 26 2.B.3 Fermi G.R. example . 27 2.B.4 Lifetimes and decays . 27 2.B.5 The flux factor . 28 2.B.6 Luminosity . 28 2.C Shell Model § ............................. 29 2.D Gamma decays § ............................ 29 3 Hadrons 33 3.1 Introduction . 33 3.1.1 Pions . 33 3.1.2 Baryon number conservation . 34 3.1.3 Delta baryons . 35 3.2 Linear Accelerators . 36 iii CONTENTS CONTENTS 3.3 Symmetries . 36 3.3.1 Baryons . 37 3.3.2 Mesons . 37 3.3.3 Quark flow diagrams . 38 3.3.4 Strangeness . 39 3.3.5 Pseudoscalar octet . 40 3.3.6 Baryon octet . 40 3.4 Colour . 41 3.5 Heavier quarks . 43 3.6 Charmonium . 45 3.7 Hadron decays . 47 Appendices 48 3.A Isospin § ................................ 49 3.B Discovery of the Omega § ...................... -
TEK 8.5C: Periodic Table
Name: Teacher: Pd. Date: TEK 8.5C: Periodic Table TEK 8.5C: Interpret the arrangement of the Periodic Table, including groups and periods, to explain how properties are used to classify elements. Elements and the Periodic Table An element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical or chemical means. An element is already in its simplest form. The smallest piece of an element that still has the properties of that element is called an atom. An element is a pure substance, containing only one kind of atom. The Periodic Table of Elements is a list of all the elements that have been discovered and named, with each element listed in its own element square. Elements are represented on the Periodic Table by a one or two letter symbol, and its name, atomic number and atomic mass. The Periodic Table & Atomic Structure The elements are listed on the Periodic Table in atomic number order, starting at the upper left corner and then moving from the left to right and top to bottom, just as the words of a paragraph are read. The element’s atomic number is based on the number of protons in each atom of that element. In electrically neutral atoms, the atomic number also represents the number of electrons in each atom of that element. For example, the atomic number for neon (Ne) is 10, which means that each atom of neon has 10 protons and 10 electrons. Magnesium (Mg) has an atomic number of 12, which means it has 12 protons and 12 electrons. -
Centripetal Force Is Balanced by the Circular Motion of the Elctron Causing the Centrifugal Force
STANDARD SC1 b. Construct an argument to support the claim that the proton (and not the neutron or electron) defines the element’s identity. c. Construct an explanation based on scientific evidence of the production of elements heavier than hydrogen by nuclear fusion. d. Construct an explanation that relates the relative abundance of isotopes of a particular element to the atomic mass of the element. First, we quickly review pre-requisite concepts One of the most curious observations with atoms is the fact that there are charged particles inside the atom and there is also constant spinning and Warm-up 1: List the name, charge, mass, and location of the three subatomic circling. How does atom remain stable under these conditions? Remember particles Opposite charges attract each other; Like charges repel each other. Your Particle Location Charge Mass in a.m.u. Task: Read the following information and consult with your teacher as STABILITY OF ATOMS needed, answer Warm-Up tasks 2 and 3 on Page 2. (3) Death spiral does not occur at all! This is because the centripetal force is balanced by the circular motion of the elctron causing the centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is the outward force from the center to the circumference of the circle. Electrons not only spin on their own axis, they are also in a constant circular motion around the nucleus. Despite this terrific movement, electrons are very stable. The stability of electrons mainly comes from the electrostatic forces of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons. The electrostatic forces are also known as Coulombic Forces of Attraction. -
Of the Periodic Table
of the Periodic Table teacher notes Give your students a visual introduction to the families of the periodic table! This product includes eight mini- posters, one for each of the element families on the main group of the periodic table: Alkali Metals, Alkaline Earth Metals, Boron/Aluminum Group (Icosagens), Carbon Group (Crystallogens), Nitrogen Group (Pnictogens), Oxygen Group (Chalcogens), Halogens, and Noble Gases. The mini-posters give overview information about the family as well as a visual of where on the periodic table the family is located and a diagram of an atom of that family highlighting the number of valence electrons. Also included is the student packet, which is broken into the eight families and asks for specific information that students will find on the mini-posters. The students are also directed to color each family with a specific color on the blank graphic organizer at the end of their packet and they go to the fantastic interactive table at www.periodictable.com to learn even more about the elements in each family. Furthermore, there is a section for students to conduct their own research on the element of hydrogen, which does not belong to a family. When I use this activity, I print two of each mini-poster in color (pages 8 through 15 of this file), laminate them, and lay them on a big table. I have students work in partners to read about each family, one at a time, and complete that section of the student packet (pages 16 through 21 of this file). When they finish, they bring the mini-poster back to the table for another group to use. -
Introduction to Chemistry
Introduction to Chemistry Author: Tracy Poulsen Digital Proofer Supported by CK-12 Foundation CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission to reduce the cost of textbook Introduction to Chem... materials for the K-12 market both in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-content, web-based Authored by Tracy Poulsen collaborative model termed the “FlexBook,” CK-12 intends to pioneer the generation and 8.5" x 11.0" (21.59 x 27.94 cm) distribution of high-quality educational content that will serve both as core text as well as provide Black & White on White paper an adaptive environment for learning. 250 pages ISBN-13: 9781478298601 Copyright © 2010, CK-12 Foundation, www.ck12.org ISBN-10: 147829860X Except as otherwise noted, all CK-12 Content (including CK-12 Curriculum Material) is made Please carefully review your Digital Proof download for formatting, available to Users in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution/Non-Commercial/Share grammar, and design issues that may need to be corrected. Alike 3.0 Unported (CC-by-NC-SA) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc- sa/3.0/), as amended and updated by Creative Commons from time to time (the “CC License”), We recommend that you review your book three times, with each time focusing on a different aspect. which is incorporated herein by this reference. Specific details can be found at http://about.ck12.org/terms. Check the format, including headers, footers, page 1 numbers, spacing, table of contents, and index. 2 Review any images or graphics and captions if applicable. -
Particle Production at Small-X in Deep Inelastic Scattering Dajing Wu Iowa State University
Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Graduate Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 2014 Particle production at small-x in deep inelastic scattering Dajing Wu Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd Part of the Physics Commons Recommended Citation Wu, Dajing, "Particle production at small-x in deep inelastic scattering" (2014). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 13846. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/13846 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Particle production at small-x in deep inelastic scattering by Dajing Wu A dissertation submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major: Nuclear Physics Program of Study Committee: Kirill Tuchin, Major Professor James Vary Marzia Rosati Kerry Whisnant Alexander Roitershtein Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 2014 Copyright © Dajing Wu, 2014. All rights reserved. ii DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this thesis to my father, Xianggui Wu, and my mother, Wenfang Tang. Without their encouragement and support, I could not have completed such work. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES . vi ABSTRACT . x ACKNOWLEGEMENT . xi PART I Theoretical foundations for small-x physics1 CHAPTER 1. QCD as a theory for strong interactions . 2 1.1 QCD Lagrangian . .2 1.2 Perturbative QCD . .2 1.3 Light-cone perturbation theory . -
Elements Make up the Periodic Table
Page 1 of 7 KEY CONCEPT Elements make up the periodic table. BEFORE, you learned NOW, you will learn • Atoms have a structure • How the periodic table is • Every element is made from organized a different type of atom • How properties of elements are shown by the periodic table VOCABULARY EXPLORE Similarities and Differences of Objects atomic mass p. 17 How can different objects be organized? periodic table p. 18 group p. 22 PROCEDURE MATERIALS period p. 22 buttons 1 With several classmates, organize the buttons into three or more groups. 2 Compare your team’s organization of the buttons with another team’s organization. WHAT DO YOU THINK? • What characteristics did you use to organize the buttons? • In what other ways could you have organized the buttons? Elements can be organized by similarities. One way of organizing elements is by the masses of their atoms. Finding the masses of atoms was a difficult task for the chemists of the past. They could not place an atom on a pan balance. All they could do was find the mass of a very large number of atoms of a certain element and then infer the mass of a single one of them. Remember that not all the atoms of an element have the same atomic mass number. Elements have isotopes. When chemists attempt to measure the mass of an atom, therefore, they are actually finding the average mass of all its isotopes. The atomic mass of the atoms of an element is the average mass of all the element’s isotopes. -
Physics 301 1-Nov-2004 17-1 Reading Finish K&K Chapter 7 And
Physics 301 1-Nov-2004 17-1 Reading Finish K&K chapter 7 and start on chapter 8. Also, I’m passing out several Physics Today articles. The first is by Graham P. Collins, August, 1995, vol. 48, no. 8, p. 17, “Gaseous Bose-Einstein Condensate Finally Observed.” This describes the research leading up the first observation of a BE condensate that’s not a superfluid or superconductor. The second is by Barbara Goss Levi, March, 1997, vol. 50, no. 3, p. 17, “Bose Condensates are Coherent Inside and Outside an Atom Trap,” describing the first “atom laser” which was based on a BE condensate. The third is also by Levi, October, 1998, vol. 51, no. 10, p. 17, “At Long Last, a Bose-Einstein Condensate is Formed in Hydrogen,” describing even more progress on BE condensates. In addition, there is a recent Science report on an atomic Fermi Gas, DeMarco, B., and Jin, D. S., September 10, 1999, vol. 285, p. 1703, “Onset of Fermi Degeneracy in a Trapped Atomic Gas.” Bose condensates and Fermi degeneracy are current hot topics in Condensed Matter Research. Searching the preprint server or “Googling” with appropriate keywords is bound to turn up many more articles. More on Fermi Gases So far, we’ve considered the zero temperature Fermi gas and done an approximate treatment of the low temperature heat capacity of Fermi gases. The zero temperature Fermi gas was straightforward. We simply said that all states, starting from the lowest energy state, are filled until we run out of particles. The energy at which this happens is called the Fermi energy and is the same as the chemical potential at 0 temperature, ǫF = µ(τ = 0). -
Superfast Quarks, Short Range Correlations and QCD at High Density John Arrington Argonne National Laboratory
Superfast Quarks, Short Range Correlations and QCD at High Density John Arrington Argonne National Laboratory A(e,e’) at PDFs at x>1 High Energy Superfast quarks PN12, The Physics of Nuclei with 12 GeV Electrons Workshop, Nov. 1, 2004 Superfast Quarks, Short Range Correlations and QCD at High Density John Arrington Argonne National Laboratory Nuclear structure SRCs Nuclear PDFs A(e,e’) at PDFs at x>1 EMC effect High Energy Superfast quarks QCD Phase Transition Cold, dense nuclear matter PN12, The Physics of Nuclei with 12 GeV Electrons Workshop, Nov. 1, 2004 Short Range Correlations (SRCs) Mean field contributions: k < kF Well understood High momentum tails: k > kF Calculable for few-body nuclei, nuclear matter. Dominated by two-nucleon short range correlations. Calculation of proton momentum distribution in 4He Wiringa, PRC 43 k > 250 MeV/c 1585 (1991) 15% of nucleons 60% of the K.E. k < 250 MeV/c 85% of nucleons 40% of the K.E. Isolate short range interaction (and SRCs) by probing at high Pm (x>1) V(r) N-N potential Poorly understood part of nuclear structure Significant fraction of nucleons have k > kF 0 Uncertainty in short-range interaction leads to uncertainty at large momenta (>400-600 MeV/c), even for the Deuteron r [fm] ~1 fm A(e,e’): Short range correlations 56Fe(e,e/ )X We want to be able to isolate and probe -1 10 /A 2 Fe two-nucleon and multi-nucleon SRCs F -2 F2 /A 10 x=1 x = 1 -3 10 -4 Dotted =mean field approx. -
Make an Atom Vocabulary Grade Levels
MAKE AN ATOM Fundamental to physical science is a basic understanding of the atom. Atoms are comprised of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are at the center of the atom while electrons live in lobe-shaped clouds outside the nucleus. The number of electrons usually matches the number of protons, yielding a net neutral charge for the atom. Sometimes an atom has less neutrons or more neutrons than protons. This is called an isotope. If an atom has different numbers of electrons than protons, then it is an ion. If an atom has different numbers of protons, it is a different element all together. Scientists at Idaho National Laboratory study, create, and use radioactive isotopes like Uranium 234. The 234 means this isotope has an atomic mass of 234 Atomic Mass Units (AMU). GRADE LEVELS: 3-8 VOCABULARY Atom – The basic unit of a chemical element. Proton – A stable subatomic particle occurring in all atomic nuclei, with a positive electric charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron, but of opposite sign. Neutron – A subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary hydrogen. Electron – A stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all atoms and acting as the primary carrier of electricity in solids. Orbital – Each of the actual or potential patterns of electron density that may be formed on an atom or molecule by one or more electrons. Ion – An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons. -
Phenomenological Review on Quark–Gluon Plasma: Concepts Vs
Review Phenomenological Review on Quark–Gluon Plasma: Concepts vs. Observations Roman Pasechnik 1,* and Michal Šumbera 2 1 Department of Astronomy and Theoretical Physics, Lund University, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden 2 Nuclear Physics Institute ASCR 250 68 Rez/Prague,ˇ Czech Republic; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: In this review, we present an up-to-date phenomenological summary of research developments in the physics of the Quark–Gluon Plasma (QGP). A short historical perspective and theoretical motivation for this rapidly developing field of contemporary particle physics is provided. In addition, we introduce and discuss the role of the quantum chromodynamics (QCD) ground state, non-perturbative and lattice QCD results on the QGP properties, as well as the transport models used to make a connection between theory and experiment. The experimental part presents the selected results on bulk observables, hard and penetrating probes obtained in the ultra-relativistic heavy-ion experiments carried out at the Brookhaven National Laboratory Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (BNL RHIC) and CERN Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) and Large Hadron Collider (LHC) accelerators. We also give a brief overview of new developments related to the ongoing searches of the QCD critical point and to the collectivity in small (p + p and p + A) systems. Keywords: extreme states of matter; heavy ion collisions; QCD critical point; quark–gluon plasma; saturation phenomena; QCD vacuum PACS: 25.75.-q, 12.38.Mh, 25.75.Nq, 21.65.Qr 1. Introduction Quark–gluon plasma (QGP) is a new state of nuclear matter existing at extremely high temperatures and densities when composite states called hadrons (protons, neutrons, pions, etc.) lose their identity and dissolve into a soup of their constituents—quarks and gluons.