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The Routledge History Of Medieval 1050–1500 R. N. Swanson

The Papacy

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 Brett Edward Whalen Published online on: 16 Apr 2015

How to cite :- Brett Edward Whalen. 16 Apr 2015, The Papacy from: The Routledge History Of Medieval Christianity, 1050–1500 Routledge Accessed on: 25 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315716800.ch1

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 automatically invitesatop-down approach,fittingcomponentsintoanoverarchingstructure associated withideasofpapal monarchy,butaninvestigationofstructuresalmost cations, compliance,people– precludedthecentralisedbureaucraticmonolithsometimes organisation andunderstanding. Themostbasicofpracticalconsiderations–communi - also astrikinglyandsurprisingly disorganisedreligion,verymuchacontinualexperiment in Medieval Christianitywasindeedanorganisedreligion,with allthatentailed,butitwas perceptions. Themonstrosityhasbecomelessmonstrous, but itsghostisnotyetexorcised. bias. Anglophone scholarship)oftenhaveaninheritedanti- (andspecificallyanti-papal) (heightened bymythsofinquisition),andhistoriographical traditionsthat(atleastin medieval precursor,byanoveremphasisonexpectations ofbureaucraticefficiency distorted throughalensaffectedbyequatingpost- RomanCatholicismwithits eminent legalhistorianF.W.Maitland), and themuch-repeateddictumthat‘Themedievalchurch wasastate’(derivedfromthe cratic entityunderpapaldirection.Inthiscontext,theuseof termssuchas‘papalmonarchy’, and coherentnetworks(forthe‘regulars’);bothpatternsbeingunitedintoasinglebureau - functioning Churchorganisedinahierarchyofterritorialunits(forthe‘secular’Church) The structurestreatedhereareessentiallypractical–theconcretecomponentsofa not workwithoutthepeople)providesaneasystartingpoint,itisalsoasomewhatriskyone. ideology. ideas underpinningsomeofthosecomponents,whichmightattimesbeconsideredan volume. Here,theyareaddressedintermsofterritorialunits,personnel,andthevalidating and enhancedbyintegratingrecentevolutions,butneithersupersedednorreplaced. is alongestablishedtradition:itremainsvalidandvaluablestrandofscholarship,augmented manifestations andimpact.Suchhistoryis,however,‘old-fashioned’onlyinthesensethatit history thatconcentratesontheinstitutionalChurchratherthanreligion’smoresocial underpinned muchofwhatmightbeconsidered‘old-fashioned’ecclesiasticalhistory–the an approachlegitimatedbyalongtraditionofhistoricalscholarship,whichhasindeed and mechanismsthatallowedittofunctiongaveakindofunitycoherence.Itis medieval WesternEuropeistoapproachitthroughitsstructures,theorganisationalsystems By farthemoststraightforwardwaytobeginathematicoverviewofChristianity That lastelementhassignificantlydeclinedinrecentdecades, butstillshapessome While thefocusonstructuresandpersonnelofChurch(forcould The structuresprovideanecessarybackgroundandcontextformuchofthesubsequent STRUCTURES Part 1 1 help tobuildpreconceptionsoftenshapedand Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 concerns: buildingfromthe bottom up,theycreatedstructurestomeettheirownneeds, irresistible. supposedly holysites–butthe laitywerealwaysaforcetothereckonedwith,andonoccasion contests abouttheholinessof aputativesaintandthevalidityofmiraclessaidtooccur at activity andinitiativewasnotalwaysapprovedorencouraged –therewerenumerous site. ItwasmainlythelaitywhofundedChurch,certainly atitslowestlevel.Suchlay in religiouspractice.Itwasthelaitywhowereusuallyfirst torecogniseasaint,orholy the doctrineofpurgatory,andwhichsubsequentlymadeit one ofthemostsignificantfactors religion. Itwaslayanxietyabouttheafterlifethatfinallyforced thetheologianstolegitimate both doctrineandpractice.Inaveryrealsense,medieval Catholicismwasademand-led of medievalCatholicpractice,andwhoseconcernsfortheir ownsalvationhelpedtoshape with thesecularrulers.Theywerealsooneswhosecompliance wasbasictotheshape compliance withthereligiousandsocialnormsestablished bytheclergyincollaboration seeking ;andtheoneswhowerebeingdirected, goaded,bullied,enticedinto They werethemajorityofthosemeanttobe‘thebelievers’; themajorityofthosesupposedly fundamental, essential,tothestructures:wholeChurchwasbuiltonthem,andforthem. Catholic populationfromdirectattentionmayseemperverse.Laypeoplewere,afterall, a chapterspecificallyon‘thelaity’.Toomittheoverwhelmingmajorityofmedieval relations withthelaity,asguidesandgovernors. recognise theirfrequentsymbiosisandfunctionaloverlap,especiallysignificantin were ofteninoppositionandcompetitionacrosstheperiod,butitisalsoimportantto and regulars(‘underarule’)–requiresthateachbeconsideredseparately.Thetwogroups medieval centuriesbetweenthetwomaingroupsofclergy–seculars(‘withinworld’) practical functionsofthefaith.Adivisionemphasised,reinforcedandblurredacrosslate key personnelweretheclergy,menwhosupervisedmanyofcorespiritualand might notbeascompliantdesired.Fororganisationalandadministrativepurposes,the , andthegreatbodyofChristianswhoseliveswereshapedbystructuresbutwho organism–individualpopesandbishops,theirfellowadministratorsemployed ’, ‘theparish’,andsoon,buteachofthesetermsis,inreality,shorthandforacomplex how theChurch’spracticalauthoritywasperceivedandexperienced. forces andloyaltiesthatplayedagainsteachother,intheprocessshapedrealityof or thelocalcathedral,localitydioceseparish–alsointroducedabalanceof unity resulted,butthetensionsbetweencentreandlocality–whetherwasRome that requiredcollaborationandcollusionifitwastowork.Incombination,somekindof create theChurchinlocalitiesandprovideadministrativelinkstocentre,asystem authorities (mostimportantly,bishopsandpriests,bishopricsparishes)wereneededto limited: thepapalmonarchycouldnotbeanabsolutemonarchy.Subsidiaryunitsand both onideasandpractice.Nevertheless,itsclaimstoauthoritywereoftencontested that institutionattheheartofhistory,mainlybecauseitwassuchaformativeinfluence respond toandaccommodatepressuresdemandsfromlowerdownthesystem. forcing themtoinviteandencourageparticipation,acceptdecentralisationlocalism, also incorporateabottom-upperspective,therelativeimpotenceofoverarchingstructures dependent –nomatterhowinsecurelyonitsearthlyhead.Investigationoftherealitymust The Churchandreligionthat thelaityconstructedforthemselvesreflectedtheirown Here, though,thereisanobviousabsenceintheshapeofthissection:glaringlack The structuresdidnotrunonautomatic.Theycanbeobjectifiedas‘thepapacy’, That theunifiedWesternChurchofthesecenturieswasbuiltaroundpapacyplaces Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 world thatthereligionsoughttoshapeanddirect. as theoneschieflyengagedinpracticesofreligion;mainactorssocial social ideasandexpectationsbuiltupbytheologians,canonlawyers,otherintellectuals; to organiseandoversee;astheaddresseesrespondentscomplexofdoctrinal in thevolume:aspeoplewhomadministrativeandjurisdictionalstructuresweremeant meaningless. single chapter-lengthsummaryimpractical–andifactuallylimitedtoachapter,almost especially contestedterm),thesheercomplexityandvarietyofthislayinvolvementmakesa However, whilemuchiswrittenabout‘layreligion’,of‘popularreligion’(thelatteran in waysthatsuggestincreasinglayreligiousautonomyandinfluencewithintheChurch. within theclericalisedChurch,suchlayinvolvementbecomesincreasinglyvisibleovertime, local contextsandopportunities.Itselfevolving,respondingtocontemporaryevolutions but wasinitsturnshapedbyintegrationintobroaderecclesiasticalandsocialunits.Itreflected variable. Itrestedonlocalunits–mainlyparishandguild,sometimescitylordship faith, andwiththeclergyotherauthoritieswhoadministeredit,wasbothlocal organisations. TheChristianitytheyconstructed,initsrelationshipswiththeideasof their ownChurchinparallelwiththeauthorisedversion,throughinvestmentand fitting intoageneralpatternoftenwithoutfullysubscribingtoit.Insomerespects,theycreated Thescaleandvariationintheactivityalsomakeitimpossibletoprovideanythinglikeadequate 2 F.W.Maitland,RomanCanonLawintheChurchofEngland:SixEssays,London:Methuen&Co., 1 Crouch, Piety andCharityinLateMedievalFlorence,Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress,1994;D.J.F. 1400–1580, NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1992,2ndedn,2005, Part 1;J.Henderson, 1265–c.1400, Leiden:Brill,2006;E.Duffy,TheStrippingoftheAltars:TraditionalReligioninEngland, Pennsylvania StateUniversityPress,2005;R.Cossar, A. Thompson,CitiesofGod:TheReligiontheItalianCommunes,1125–1325,Philadelphia,PA: Religious BeliefandDevotionalPractices,NotreDame,IN:UniversityofDamePress,1993; in English,seeessaysPart1ofA.Vauchez(ed.D.E.Bornstein), a minusculeandsomewhatrandomselectionofindicativemorespecialistworkfromscholarship period, S.Hamilton,ChurchandPeopleintheMedievalWest,900–1200,Harlow:Pearson,2013.As and DevotioninEurope,c.1215–c.1515 summary bibliographyhere.Asinthepresentvolume,laitypermeateR.N.Swanson,Religion 1898, p.100. University ofPennsylvaniaPress,2008. 2001; eadem,TheGoodWomenoftheParish:GenderandReligionafterBlackDeath Community LifeinaLateMedievalEnglishDiocese,Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress, English ,c.1400–1560,Aldershot:ScolarPress,1996;K.L.French, The PeopleoftheParish: York MedievalPress,2000;B.Kümin,TheShapingofaCommunity:RiseandReformationthe Piety FraternityandPower:ReligiousGildsinLateMedievalYorkshire,1389–1547 , Woodbridge: 2 The laityarenotinthissectionexplicitly,becauseimplicitlytheyeverywhere , Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1995.Fortheearlier Notes The TransformationoftheLaityinBergamo, The LaityintheMiddleAges: , Philadelphia,PA: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 pageThis intentionallyleftblank Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 jurisdiction, includingthepope’s positionasthe‘ordinaryjudge’forecclesiasticaldisputes of ,andsetcrusadingarmies inmotion.Canonlawyerspushedatthelimitsofpapal men, therichandpoor,mighty andhumble.Theyoversawthetargetingsuppression considerable extent,theydetermined normsofreligiousbeliefandpracticeforwomen and to asserttheirrightsofdirect lordshipoverthePapalStatesonItalianpeninsula.To a vied withemperors,sometimessuccessfully,forsupremacy over theChristianworldandalso of WesternEuropean;aboveallduringtheso-calledcentral orhighMiddleAges. bureaucratic mechanismsoftheRomanpapacy. tradition. AndChristendomcouldnotbeimaginedwithout theunifyingidealsand , acommunityofChristiankingdomsand peoples withasharedreligious an argumentmademanytimesover,beforeEurope, therewasLatinorWestern and anyoneelseseekingthepremodernrootsofmodernEuropean civilization.Tosimplify among scholarsoftheMiddleAges,nottomentionphilosophers, socialscientists,politicians, thirteenth century.YettheideaofChristendomcontinued andstillcontinuestoresonate for peacefollowingthetraumaofFirstWorldWar thanpapalgovernanceinthe his ownmomentintimethanthedaysofInnocentIII,aboutearlytwentieth-centuryhopes Krey observed, order inthepast:thatofmedievalChristendom.ByeraPopeInnocentIII(1198–1216), of itssovereigntybyidentifyingwhathesawasamoreorlesssimilarexampleinternational Krey respondedtorecentconjectureanddebateovertheLeagueofNationsextent Writing severalyearsaftertheconclusionofWorldWarI,AmericanmedievalistA.C. There aregoodreasonsforsuchevaluationsofpapalleadership overthemedievalsocieties Krey’s visionofwhathistorianscallthe‘papalmonarchy’probablytellsusmoreabout it isstillwithoutequal. thoroughly concentratedandsoeffective.Asanexperimentinpracticalidealism, life ordeath.Neverinhistoryhavethemoralforcesofsovastasocietybeen health wereinitshands.Andontopofallthis,itwieldedtheawfulpowereternal agencies ofpublicity,andcontrolledthecourts.Thesocialcarescharitypublic anditexecutedjudgmentsagainstboth.Itcontrollededucation,the had themeansofexecutingitsjudgments.Itappliedlawsequallytopeasantand raise armiesequallydirectly.Itcouldbringoffenderstothecourtsofjustice,andit everything thatastatehas–andmore.Itcouldraisefundsbydirecttaxation the Churchwithpapacyatitsheadhadbecomeaninternationalstate.It 1 THE PAPACY Brett EdwardWhalen 1 5 2 3 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 sixteenth centuries. only oneforceamongmanyshapingWesternChristianityduringthetwelfththrough needs. Astheotheressaysinthisvolumemakeamplyclear,popesofRomerepresented looked tothepapacyforspiritualguidance,privileges,andprotectionswhenitsuitedtheir worked notbecausepopesunilaterallycontrolledothers,butChristianEuropeans complementing andsometimescontestingpapalauthority.Themonarchylargely the mid-eleventhcentury–functionedasanimportantlegislativebodyofsorts, Lateran Councils.Inaddition,theCollegeofCardinals–responsibleforelectingpopesafter with others,asseenduringtheFirst(1123),Second(1139),Third(1179),andFourth(1215) complementing thepope’s‘fullnessofpower’.Thepapacyfrequentlyactedindeliberation all, possesseda‘partoftheresponsibility’(parssollicitudinis)forgoverningChurch, his officedidnotrepresentthesolesourceofauthorityinChurch.Otherbishops,after Church, whentheApostlesand otherfaithfullivedinsimplicityandpoverty.Itdidnottake secular rulersasGod’sagents. Rememberingthepast,ChristiansalsorecalledPrimitive of kingsandemperorsoffered theirowninterpretationsofhistory,prioritizingthepower of their supremacyoverhistorywithout nearconstantcompetitionandcriticism.Thesupporters leadership therebyoccupiednotjustalocationinspace,but alsoaplaceintime. would bepreachedamongallpeoplesbeforetheendof time. Christendomunderpapal when theydispatchedmissionaries,soughttofulfillChrist’s predictionthattheGospel When theycalledforcrusades,didsoto‘restore’Christian landsseizedbyinfidels,and the ultimaterightstodeterminefateofempire,even theextentofdeposingemperors. .Duetohistoricalcircumstancesanddevelopments, popesalsopossessed that positiondowntohissuccessors,thebishopsofRome, forminganunbrokenchainof had delegatedleadershipoftheChurchtoPeter(Matthew 16:18–19),andPeterhadpassed orthodoxy resteduponthissimple,compelling,andpervasive viewofapastevent–Christ of Christ’(vicariusChristi). imagined thebishopofRometobedirectheirSaint Peterandhisstatusasthe‘Vicar even ’sapocalypticdestiny.Intheirownhistoricalmemory,WesternChristians evident inrepresentationsofthepope’spastoralcalling,hisoffice’slegalprerogatives,and articulation ofpapalsovereigntyinvolvedaparticularinterpretationChristianhistory,one not justoverChristendom,butalsomeaninginhistoryitself.Thatistosay,the Western Christianity,highlightingthefactthatRomanpopespossessedauniqueclaim monarchy’ issomewhatmisleading. With regardtothepope’sdirectoversightofecclesiasticalhierarchy,term‘papal the Church’slawstoemperors,,andothersecularrulersprovedespeciallydifficult. spiritual lifeofWesternEurope,eveniftheyhadwantedtodoso.Aswewillsee,applying necessarily possessthegovernmentalmeansto‘control’legal,political,social,and and directinstitutionalpowerwieldedbythemedievalpopesofRome,whodidnot See. petitioning forbenefices,andfavor-seekersaskingspecialconsiderationfromtheApostolic popes happenedtobeatanygiventime),bringinglitigantsseekingpapalintervention,clerics of gravityforecclesiasticalbusiness.Onceagain,allroadsledtoRome(orwhereverthe clerical privilegesandacourtoffinalappeals,theRomancuriaformedanirresistiblecenter and his‘fullnessofpower’(plenitudopotestatis)overtheChurchitsoffices.Asasource Of course,asineveryotherarena oftheWesternChristiantradition,popesdidnotenjoy With thatcaveatinmind,thisessayexaminesthesignificanceofmedievalpapacy Much likeKrey,however,historianssometimesinflatethelevelofideologicalinfluence 5 6 The ’spreeminenceinmattersofdoctrineandsacramental BRETT EDWARDWHALEN 4 Although thebishopofRomeheldauniqueposition, 6 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 Leo I(440–461)andNicholas I(858–867)hadembodiedastrongformofpapalprimacy, over acenturybeforehand.Certainly, duringtheearliermedievalcenturies,popessuch as and ecclesiastical,wouldhave beenshockedtoseetheconditionofRomanpapacy just dynamic culturalchangeand expansionarygrowthinChristiangovernment,bothsecular appointed watchmanoverall?’ should younotbeplacedonhighwherecansee everything, youwhohavebeen the papalthrone,‘fromit,youoverseeeverythingthough officeofyourepiscopacy.Why of theircommissiontosafeguardGod’sChurch.‘Itisawatchtower’, Bernardwroteabout delegated thatearthlyresponsibilitytoemperorsandprinces, revealingtheuniversallatitude and temporalauthority.Althoughpopesdidnotwieldthe materialsworddirectly,they pope possessedboththe‘spiritual’and‘material’(Luke 22:38),symbolizingpriestly throughout thewholeworld’.TurningtoGospelofLuke, Bernardalsoinsistedthatthe entrusted thegreatestshipofall,madefromallothers, universal Churchwhichisspread ‘signifies “manypeoples”.Thus,althougheachoftheothers hashisownship,toyouis tossed seabesidetheLord(Matthew14:29).The‘manywaters’, BernardexplainedtoEugene, revealed himselfastheVicarofChristwhenhewalkedonmanywatersstorm- responsibility forsouls’,hedeclared,‘butyouarecalledtothefullnessofpower’.Peterhad Petrine commissionmeantforEugene’soffice:‘Othersarecalledtosharepartofthe Eugene III(1143–1153),thecharismaticCistercianmonkforcefullyelaboratedwhat of Christendom,permanentlyreconfiguringthepapacy’spositioninEuropeanreligiouslife. of theMiddleAges,suchcontestsoverhistoricalmeaningcontributedtooverwhelming a sitefortheelaborationofpapalauthorityoverWesternChurch.Indeed,byend Critics aswellsupportersofthepapacyrecognizedterrainhistoryandmemory abandoning theworldlypompandpossessionstheyhadaccruedduringagessinceChrist. of theearlyChurch,shepherdingLord’speoplethroughtribulationsapocalypse, Christians envisionedatimewhenthepopesofRomemightreturntoapostolicfervor diverged fromthatideal,regardlessofthereasonswhy.Lookingintofuture,some a wildleapofimaginationforcontemporariestoassertthatthepresent-daypapacyhad In theGospelofMatthew,JesusChristspeakstohisdisciplePeterandsays: – toSaintPeterandhissuccessors,thepopesofRome. ‘Petrine’ commission,whentheLordleftkeystoheaven–power‘loosenandbind’ dating backtothesecondandthirdcenturies,thatthismomentmarkedoriginof remain opentoavarietyofinterpretations,butonlyoneconcernsushere:theinsistence, (John 21:17).LikeanysuchpassagesfromScripture,themeaningoftheseparticularwords but intheGospelofJohnheagainaddressesPeteralone,instructinghimto‘Feedmysheep’ Bernard, wholivedduringthe so-called‘renaissanceofthetwelfthcentury’,anera In BernardofClairvaux’sworkOnConsideration,dedicatedtohisformerstudent,Pope At anotherpoint,heindicatessomethingsimilartoalloftheApostles(Matthew18:18), heaven, andwhatsoeveryoulooseuponearth,itwillbeloosedalsoinheaven. not prevailagainstit.Whatsoeveryoubinduponearth,itwillbeboundalsoin You arePeter,anduponthisrockIwillbuildmychurch,thegatesofhellshall 9 THE PAPACY * 7 8 (Matthew 16:18–19) 7 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 bilities; andthe‘chancery’,producing andpreservingdocuments.Thepapalarchivesbegan handlingfinances;the ‘chapel’,overseeingthepapacy’sliturgicalresponsi the ‘chamber’, - the pope’shousehold,Roman curiabegantodevelopthreedistinctareasofoperation: governance experiencedrapid andprofoundchanges.Emergingfromtheorganization of ‘’ attachedtotheirspiritualpositions. ecclesiastical appointmentsandreceivedoathsofallegiance fromchurchmenforthe kings, emperors,andothersecularpowersstillretained considerableinfluenceover ofWorms(1122),whichlimitedtherightsinvestiture totheclergy,although liberties. Eventually,theempireandpapacydeclaredan effectivetruce,theso-called points ofaccommodationwithotherkingsandprincesover thecontrolofclericalofficesand continued thestruggleoverinvestiturewithEmperorHenry (1099–1125),whilefinding movement knownastheFirstCrusade.Hissuccessors,including PaschalII(1099–1118), Christians totakeupthecrossandmarchJerusalem,freeing itfromIslamicrule,anarmed Pope UrbanII(1088–1099)demonstratedthepowerful appeal ofhisoffice,callingfor Rome byHenry,butthereformistgoalshesupporteddid notdiewithhim.Yearslater, (1056–1106) duringtheso-calledInvestitureConflict.Gregorydiedinexile,drivenfrom ‘invest’ bishopswiththesymbolsoftheirsacredoffice,openlyclashingHenryIV Famously, PopeGregoryVII(1073–1085)contestedthetraditionalrightofemperorsto between thepapacyandSaliandynasty,claimanttoRomanimperialpower. rulers ofConstantinopleduringthePhotianSchism. Christological debatesattheCouncilofChalcedon(451),orwhenNicholasconfronted acting asSaintPeter’ssuccessorsinfar-reachingways,suchwhenLeointervenedthe bulwark ofthereformistimpulsesreshapingChristiancommunitiesaroundEurope. them tothecardinalbishopsandlaterpriests–firmlyestablishedpapalofficeas Rome’s elitefamilies,theysecuredcontrolofpapalelections–restrictingparticipationin papacy toachieveclericalreformthroughouttheWesternChurch.Againstoppositionfrom Romans, thosewenowcallreformersbegantoleveragetheprestigeandinfluenceof Leo IX(1049–1054)andhiscircleofsupporters,however,mostlyoutsidersratherthannative These callsforchangebeganonalocallevel,ofteninmonasticsettings.StartingwithPope sources ofpollutionandcorruption,standinginthewaytrulyobservingapostoliclife. common place habitsofclericallife–suchaspriestswhomarriedorcarriedweapons were concerned.Amongothergoals,reformerssoughtto‘purify’theclergy,targeting world; aboveallwhereclerical–notlayrightsoverecclesiasticalofficesandproperties signaled anoverallcommitmenttoreorderingtherelationshipbetweenChurchand referring tothe‘Romanreformmovement’or‘reformpapacy’.Inthiscontext, governance oftheWesternChurch.Scholarstypicallydescribethisepochasonereform, the beginningofprofoundalterationsthatwouldultimatelytransformitsrolein of a‘watchman’overlookingall. immediate environs,andsometimesbarelymadeitspresencefeltthere–hardlytheposition lordship overItaly.Exaltedintheory,thepapacy’sinfluenceremainedrestrictedtoRome’s and factions,orasclosealliesoftheGermankingswhoclaimedRomanimperialpower the bishopsofRomeheldtheirofficelargelyatsufferancecity’saristocraticfamilies stopped claiminguniversalpreeminence,duringthelatetenthandearlyeleventhcenturies, Bernard’s time,popesremainedlocalfiguresforallintentsandpurposes.Althoughtheynever During thissameera,similarto otherrulingbodiesaroundEurope,themachineryofpapal Although notinevitable,thedynamicsofreformmovementgeneratedopenconflict What hadchanged?Startinginthemiddleofeleventhcentury,papacyexperienced BRETT EDWARDWHALEN 8 12 10 Yet onlyafewgenerationsbefore 11 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 of theRomanChurch.Beyond thebook’sdirectcontributionstopapalauthority,legal to overstatetheDecretum’simpactonlegal,intellectual, andadministrativeparameters the popeasjudgeoverclerical hierarchy.Forsoundreasons,historiansfinditdifficult declaring thesuperiorityofsacerdotal authorityoverthesecularandultimaterights of In itspages,onecanlocate the pronouncementsofpopessuchasLeoIorNicholas I, legal decisions)thatreinforcedRome’scentralityasthe‘mother andheadofallchurches’. a repositoryofpatristicsources,conciliardecisions,andpapal (i.e.authoritative the ‘’ofcanonlaw,andgavepapalmonarchy one itsmostenduringresources, striking. of thisactuallyhappened,whichmakesthepervasiverecollection ofthoseeventsallthemore Western Romanworldbeforemovinghiscapitaltothenewly foundedConstantinople.None chief seeoftheancientworld,andsurrenderingpower ofempiretothepopein Sylvester andhissuccessors,endowingthemwithimperial regalia, recognizingRomeasthe him ofhisleprosy.Outgratitude,Constantinebestowed richesandpropertyuponPope Constantine I(306–337),thefirstRomanemperortoembrace Christianity,therebycuring of politicalpropaganda.ItclaimedthatPopeSylvester(314–335)personallybaptized that featurenotjustinlegaltexts,butalsochronicles,papalletters,andpolemicalworks but supposedlyrecordingeventsfromthefourth.Thisdocumentdescribedaseriesof represented themostfamousamongthem,writtensometimeinlatereighthcentury, after thesituationstheypurportedtodescribe.Withoutadoubt,‘DonationofConstantine’ in factforgeries,althoughnotrecognizedassuchthetime,oftendatingfromcenturies ecclesiastical hierarchyanditsrelationshiptotheworld.Someofthoselegalauthoritieswere reform hadidentifiedlawasacriticalsourceofsupportfortheirdrivetorestructurethe to liberateJerusalem. ,itsconquestbythe‘Saracens’,andrightfulresponsibilityofWesternChristians Clermont whenhelaunchedtheFirstCrusade,popespokeaboutbiblicalpastof inaugurating theCaroliniandynasty.Or,insermonsattributedtoPopeUrbanIIat (741–752) removedthelastMerovingiankingfromofficeandsanctionedPippin’scoronation, recalled thepreviousjudgmentsofpopesagainstsecularrulers,suchaswhenPopeZachary place ofthoseApostles’sacredremains.DuringtheInvestitureControversy,GregoryVII emphasis onthesignificanceofRomeassitePeterandPaul’smartyrdom,burial of situationsandsourcesfromtheearliestdayspapalreform,includingarenewed substantiate theirclaimsinthepresent.Onecanwitnessthishistoricalimaginationavariety of thewaysthatadvocatesforpapalleadershipoverChristendominvokedpastto between . and ,collectingmoneyowedtotheApostolicSee,adjudicatingdisputes presiding overlocalreformcouncils,preachingforcrusades,enforcingexcommunications and churchmen.Suchlegatesoftendidthe‘heavylifting’ofpapalpolicyonground, across WesternChristendom,empoweredtonegotiateonRome’sbehalfwithsecularrulers as contemporariessometimescalledthem.Withgrowingfrequency,popesdispatchedlegates legal disputesandaddressedothermattersofclericalbusiness,forminga‘newRomansenate’, and protectionsgrantedbyRome.Sittingtogetherin‘consistory’,popescardinalsheard including theso-calledcensus,paymentsmadebyreligiouscommunitiesforspecialexemptions to maintainmorethoroughrecordsofpapalletters,decretals,andsourcesrevenue, In themid-twelfthcentury,Gratian’screationofDecretum Memory alsoshapedthecontoursofcanonlaw.Frombeginning,supporters All oftheseeventsanddevelopmentsarewellknown.Notalwaysappreciatedsome 14 13 THE PAPACY 9 (c. 1140)revolutionized Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 but ofConstantine’. Cistercian monkscoldedPopeEugene,‘Inthisfinery,you arethesuccessornotofPeter, inspired bydescriptionsoftheimperialregaliain‘ ofConstantine’.Asthe Bernard alsocomplainedaboutincreasinglyelaboratepapal dressandceremonies,partly III, ‘sinceitisbecauseofsinthatyouhavereceivedthe keysoftheheavenlykingdom.’ in worldlythings:‘Clearlyyourpowerisoversinandnotproperty’, heremindedPopeEugene the pope’suniversalauthoritywithsharpcriticismof Roman Church’sentanglements among thepapacy’ssympatheticsupporters.BernardofClairvaux leavenedhispraisefor believers, andpacifytheworldbeforecomingofAntichrist. Emperor’, animperialrulerwhowoulddefeattheenemies oftheChurch,convertnon- own historicalrightsandprojectedtheirfuturedestinies,includingthatofthe‘LastWorld rule. Emperors,armedwiththeirownlegaltradition(thatofRomancivillaw),claimed other Europeanpowers,includingthenorthernItaliancitiesthatactivelyresistedFrederick’s emperor toasserttheirposition,dealingwithaseriesofanti-popesandforgingalliances Popes HadrianIV(1154–1159)andAlexanderIII(1159–1181)openlystruggledagainstthe , turnedthepapacy’spastoralclaimsagainstit,declaringthatEugene offices, properties,andrevenues.Oneofthecommune’soutspokenleaders,Arnold establish acivilgovernmentinRome,denyingthepope’stemporalrightsovercity’s challenge totheirpositionintheformofRomancommune;anuprisingthattried suffered asimilarfatein1053).Hissuccessors,includingEugeneIII,confrontedanother experienced ahumiliatingmilitarydefeatandcaptivitybeforehisowndemise(LeoIXhad 1138. Afewyearslater,marchingagainsttheNormansinsouthernItaly,Innocent supported Anacletus,keepingInnocentmoreorlessoutofthecityuntilhisrivaldiedin II. AlthoughmanyofEurope’ssecularrulersbackedInnocent,thelocalRomanaristocracy the papalofficeafterhiscontestedelection,abandoningRometoanti-popeAnacletus ideas intoaction.PopeInnocentII(1130–1143),forexample,facedaprotractedschismin its head,thepopeofRome. That mysticalandjuridicalbodyoftheChurchwouldendureuntilendtime,under Incarnation ofChrist,astheJewishcarnal‘letter’yieldedtohigherChristian‘spirit’. priesthood andthesacraments,ChurchhadsupersededSynagoguewith the eraofnaturallaw,towrittenJewishlawGospel.Alongwith human communitymovedthroughtimeinstagesmarkedbychangesGod’slaw,from tome reinforcedabasictheologyofhistory–onedatingbacktothepatristicerathat first, atthehandsofpagans; second,heretics;andthird,corruptclergy.Presently,during of Clairvaux),Gerhohpresented thehistoryofChurchasaseriestrialsforfaithful: Christ’s appearancebeforethe Apostlesonthestorm-tossedsea(asceneinvokedbyBernard lost theearlierspiritofreform. InonetractOntheFourWatchesofNight expressed hisowndisappointment withtheconditionofpapacy,which,hebelieved, had The dramaticgrowthofpapalgovernmentinthetwelfthcentury arousedcomplaintseven During thestrongimperialreignofHohenstaufenmonarchFrederickI(1152–1190), These claimsdidnotpassuncontested,northepapacyeasilytranslatesuchcompelling his fleshandemptyothermen’scofferstofillown. churches andoppressoroftheinnocent,whodidnothinginworldsavegratify man ofbloodwhomaintainedhisauthoritybyfireandsword,atormentor was notwhatheprofessedtobe–anapostolicmanandshepherdofsoulsbuta 17 Bernard’s contemporary,theGermancanonGerhohofReichersberg, 15 BRETT EDWARDWHALEN 10 16 (c. 1169),describing Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 Decretum should immediatelyadd,however,thatcanonlawyers– whethercommentinguponthe which includedmanyofInnocentIII’sstronglywordedstatements ofpapalprimacy.One Pope GregoryIX(1227–1241)authorizedanotherlegalcollection, the support, continuedtoprovideanarenafortheformulation ofpapalsovereignty.In1234, among thesecularclergybythosesamemendicants). law,amongotherareasof of themendicantorders)andcreatingnewcleavagesinit (suchastheresentmentcaused contributing tothevitalityofWesternChurch(e.g. by supportingtherapidspread successors triedtorealizethismaximalistvisionofpapal primacyincountlessways, pull down,towasteanddestroy,buildplant’. Heandhisthirteenth-century instructions, ‘Ihavesetyouthisdayoverthenations,and thekingdoms,torootupand the faithfulintheirtimeofneed,promisingthemafuturerestandpeace. to Peterandrescueshim,showingthattheLordwouldnotabandonpopeofRome Roman Churchtoconfrontitswoes.Andyet,Gerhohcontinued,Christholdsouthishand beside Christ,butbeginstosinkbeneaththewaves,revealingfailuresofpresent-day their avarice,signalingtheimminenceofAntichrist.InGospel,Peterwalksonwater the fourthwatch,Churchconfrontedthosewhosoughttorobitofitslibertythrough pastoral leadershipoftheRomanpapacyforsalvationall. mobilized againstheresy,directedtowardtherecoveryofJerusalem,operatingunder template foranideal,properlyorderedChristiansociety,enlivenedwithapostolicspirit, and crusader-heldterritoriesintheEasternMediterranean.Thecouncil’scanonsoffereda of otherclerics,alongwithrepresentativessecularpowersfromaroundWesternEurope the FourthLateranCouncil,assemblingover400bishops,900abbotsandpriors,scores 1215, demonstratinghisunrivaledleadershipoverWesternChristendom,Innocentconvened the sunandmoon,powerofpopeshonebrighterthanthatearthlyrulers.In – hissacerdotalofficeremainedaspiritualandpastoralone.Nevertheless,likethelightof who foreshadowedJesusChrist.Tobeclear,Innocentdidnotintendtoruleasanemperor ultimate statusasbothpriestandking,likethebiblicalfigureofMelchisidek(Genesis14:18), dispute betweenrivalGermanclaimantsfortheimperialcrown,hecelebratedpope’s within theboundariesofWesternChurchagainstso-called‘Cathar’heretics.Duringa Innocent declaredcrusades–alotofthemonChristendom’svariousfrontiers,andalso the cardinals,adjudicatingcasesdirectly.Althoughhedidnotalwayscontroltheiroutcomes, pope’s ‘fullnessofpower’.Aspope,heearnedareputationforsittinginconsistorydailywith emphasized hisoffice’suniversalresponsibilitytogovernthe‘wholeworld’,basedon expression. Inanumberofsermonscommemoratinghiselectionaspope,Innocent status astheVicarofChristassumedanunprecedentedrichnesstheologicalandhistorical trajectory ofthepapalmonarchyremainedascendant.InhandsInnocentIII,pope’s Regardless ofsuchcriticismsandsetbacks,headingintothethirteenthcenturyoverall continued tostresstheindependent natureofsecularpower,deriveddirectlyfromGod and historical claimtoempirebased onConstantine’sdonationtoSylvester.Others,bycontrast, the historicaloriginsofpriesthood beforekingship,andsomeemphasizedthepope’s past transferralofimperialdignity fromunworthytoworthybearers,somespeculatedabout authority. Duringtheirdiscussions anddebates,somelawyersinvokedtheRomanChurch’s Evoking theagencyofhisoffice,InnocentfrequentlyquotedJeremiah1:10,God’s or theDecretals – didnotalwaysagreeuponthepreciseextentandlimitsof the pope’s THE PAPACY * 11 19 Five BooksofDecretals, 18 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 but alsoallinfidels,sinceChristholdspoweroverall’. do rightlybelievethatthepopeisVicarofChrist,whoholdspowernotjustoverChristians and –inextraordinarycircumstancestemporalaffairs.Ashedeclaredatonepoint,‘we the of thepopeoccupiedanunrivaledpositionauthorityoverWesternChristians. not contingentuponpapalintervention.Regardless,inthecanonistictradition,figure be visitedbysuchagrandprophecyofsalvation’. defender oftheChurch’,whogreetedthisnewswithgreat joy,‘perceivingtheChurchto heavenly insight,Arnolddeclared,herushedtoseethe‘most sereneemperor,theprincipal to thepoorfromecclesiasticalgoodsgiventhembyLord.Afterreceivingthis era ofjusticeandpeace,whentheDominicans,actingasjustpastors,wouldfreelyadminister to renewandrestorehisChurchasthesixthageofhistorydrewaclose,promisingnew Looking intothefuture,inspiredbydivinerevelation,ArnoldalsorealizedthatGodintended problems amongChristians,layingtheblameupon‘InnocentIVandallofhismembers’. to careforthepoor.Heexpressedabsolutelynodoubtaboutsourceofcurrent him, ArnoldsawcorruptionanddecadenceintheChurch,afailureofitspastoralmission named Arnoldaround1248,pickeduppreciselyonthistheme.Lookingattheworld popes. AshorttracttitledOntheCorrectionofChurch,writteninGermanybyaDominican and povertyoftheearlyChurchasabenchmarktomeasuremeritscontemporary preeminence andpoweroversin,theyrefutedsuchclaims,pointingbacktothesimplicity worthy towieldthelatter. new Melchisidek,possessingboththe‘spiritualandmaterialswords’,decidingwhomwas supporters againstressedthepope’suniqueroleinhistoryasChrist’svicar,acting to interveneinEuropeanpoliticsatthehighestlevel.Justifyingthisact,Innocentandhis a newkingandemperor,controversialmovedemonstratingthepope’smeaningfulability deposed Frederickandstrippedhimofallhistitles,callingfortheGermanprincestoelect andcalledforageneralcounciltomeetatLyonsin1245.Duringitsdeliberations,he source oftroubleforGregoryIX.ThissituationcametoaheadafterInnocentfledfrom of strongimperialpowerundertheHohenstaufenrulerFrederickII(1220–1250),alreadya to thenewsuperpowerofage,MongolEmpire.Healsoconfrontedre-emergence corresponding withMuslimrulersaboutthetruthofGospel,andsendingChristianenvoys Innocent acteduponthisclaimdirectlyanddramatically,callingforfurthercrusades, , whoactedasagentsfor papal policies.Allowingforexaggeration,MatthewParispaints crusade-vows intocashpayments. HereservedparticularscornforDominicanandFranciscan clergy, demandingsubsidies for crusadesthatneveractuallyhappened,andcommuting local churchesandmonasteries, includingthepapalcollationofbeneficesuponunworthy of MatthewParis.identified arangeofpracticesthathedenouncedasabusive of bluntness whencomplainingaboutthepapacy’sfinancialactivities, asseeninthechronicle continue toinfluenceRome’sfutureopponentsandcritics. up inprison,hisworkscondemnedbyapapalcommission, hissubversiveideaswould the ‘barefoot’friarswouldformspiritualvanguardof faithful.AlthoughGerardwound Roman Churchwouldsoonceasetomatterentirely.Inthe comingageoftheHolySpirit, JoachimofFiore,declaredthatthepresent-daysacraments andofficesofthe‘carnal’ Gerard ofBorgoSanDonnino,inspiredbytheapocalyptic writingsofthetwelfth-century Trained asacanonlawyer,InnocentIV(1243–1254)composedhisowncommentaryon Not surprisingly,whileFrederickandhispartisansdidnotdenythepope’sspiritual Leaving asideapocalypticism,thirteenth-centuryclergyand monksshowedincreasing Decretals, amplifyingthelegalparametersofpope’sfullnesspoweroverspiritual BRETT EDWARDWHALEN 12 22 A fewyearslater,aFranciscannamed 21 Over thecourseofhispapacy, 20 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 Church, notitsdestruction. and comingofAntichrist,althoughhetooexpressedhishopeforthefuturerenewal neglectful ofhisflock.Thesecurrenttroubles,heobserved,mightportendtheenddays unskilled intheartsofnavigationorappointingashepherdwhowasweak,ignorant,and care ofsoulstothoseunqualified,muchlikehandingoverthetillerashipsomeone withpastoralcaretothoseunworthyorinexperienced,thecuriahandedover origin ofthatsituationisthiscuria’.Throughitsprovisions,dispensations,andcollation What wastheoriginofsuchbadpastors?AsRobertbluntlyputit:‘Thecause,font,and system hadstartedtobreakdownduethefailureofgoodpastorsandspreadbadones. diocese, thepope’sextendingoverallchurches.Inpresentday,however,thatpastoral by God.Theonlydifferencelayintheextentoftheirpower,bishop’sconfinedtohis same pastoralpoweroverthesoulscommittedtohiscareaspope,grantedhimdirectly nourishing them.Healsostressed,however,thatabishopenjoyedinhisowndiocesethe as a‘spiritualsun’,sheddingitslightoverallthingsonearth,illuminating,warming,and of Lincoln,Grossetesteinnowaydeniedthepope’sfullnesspower,describingpapacy before thepapalcuriaatLyons,addressingpopeandcardinalsinconsistory.Asbishop their ownbackyard.Meanwhile, aftergenerationsoffocusingonempireastheirkeyrivals devastating conflict.Theexalted VicarsofChristcouldnotsettlethisturbulentsituation in successive popesbackedtheAngevin cause,pouringsumsofmoneyintoaprotracted and the Siciliansrevoltedagainst in1282,invitingPeterofAragontoruletheisland, papal ally,Charlesrepresented apowerfulnewcompetitorontheItalianpeninsula.When , brotheroftheFrenchkingLouisIX,topacify region.Althoughheruledasa borders ofthePapalStates.In1263,PopeUrbanIV(1261–1264) convincedCharlesof after FrederickIIleftadestabilizingpowervacuumintheKingdom ofSicilyonthesouthern Innocent IV.Ontheonehand,somewhatironically,collapse ofstrongimperialpower Western Europehadbeguntoalterconsiderablysince the eraofInnocentIIIoreven royal oversightoverclericalaffairsinhiskingdom. Boniface laydeadandPhilipIVwaswellonhiswaytoenjoying anunprecedentedlevelof year, aftersufferingcaptureandabuseatAnagnifromFrench soldiersandtheirItalianallies, cause. a vividpictureofthepapacy’sgrowingadministrativereachandresentmentitcould to salvationforeveryhumancreaturebesubjectthe Romanpontiff’. define andpronounce’,heinsisted,leavingnoroomfordoubt, ‘thatitisaltogethernecessary See intermsthatInnocentIIIandIVwouldhaveappreciated.‘Wedeclare,state, infringements ofclericalliberties,BonifaceconfidentlyassertedtheprimacyApostolic ruler PhilipIVovertheking’staxationofecclesiasticalpropertiesandotherperceived of thistransition.Inhis1302bullUnamsanctam,embroiledinastrugglewiththeFrench waning orcrisis.HistorianscommonlypointtoPopeBonifaceVIII(1294–1303)asasign papacy’s ‘decline’likewiseplaysaroleincharacterizingthelateMiddleAgesasperiodof with thewidernarrativeofEurope’sexpansionarytwelfthandthirteenthcenturies, subsequent ‘failure’ofthat‘internationalorder’.Whiletherisepapalmonarchyfits clearly intendedhisdiscussionofChristendomasacautionarytale,recognizingthe However muchheexaggeratedthepapalachievementofthirteenthcentury,A.C.Krey Again, whathadchanged?Bytheearlyfourteenthcentury, thepoliticaldynamicsof 23 In 1250,oneofhiscompatriots,RobertGrosseteste,tooksuchcomplaintsdirectly 24 THE PAPACY * 13 25 Yet withina Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 privileges overEurope’s‘national churches’inEngland,,andotherplaces.Signing challenge posedbyconciliarism, popeswitnessedthesteadyerosionoftheirrights and different fromthepapacyof highMiddleAges.AlthoughRomemanagedtodefuse the remarkable extent,butthereconfigured papalmonarchyofthefifteenthcenturylookedvery and hissuccessorssoughttorehabilitate thepapacy’sdamagedpositionandsucceeded to a or marginalizingnottwo,butthree,rivalpopesandelecting MartinV(1417–1431). Constance successfullyendedtheGreatSchism(andburned JanHusatthestake),removing See’s top-downleadership,currentlystandinginsuchastate ofdisrepair.TheCouncil monarchy, highlightingthecorporatenatureofclericalgovernance ratherthantheApostolic overriding hispower.Theconciliartraditionchallengedthe dominantmodeofthepapal to makedecisionsaboutthefaith,ideallyworkinginconcert withthepopebutultimately schism dividingChristendom.Theydidsobystressingthe authorityofecumenicalcouncils bishops, ,universitymasters,andlayrepresentatives triedtonegotiateanendthe .AtthecouncilsofPisa(1409)andConstance(1414–1417), assembliesofcardinals, of authorityintheChurch,seenworksdissenting voices suchasJohnWycliffeand damage tothepapacy’sreputationandintensifiedlong-standing questionsaboutthenature popes thatclaimedtheobedienceofChristendom. in Rome;ClementestablishedhimselfAvignon,creatingtheGreatSchism,twolinesof successor, UrbanVI(1378–1389),andelectedanotherpope,ClementVII.remained died shortlyafterward.Amajorityofthecardinalsregrettedtheirdecisiontoelecthis temporal matters. directly challengedthepapacy’s‘fullnessofpower’,denyingRomanChurchanyrolein form ofhumangovernance.Some,suchasMarsiliusPaduainhisDefenderthePeace, – drawinginpartuponAristotlerecognizedthesovereigntyof‘State’asnatural developed intandemwithashiftChristianpoliticalculture,asmoreandintellectuals great challengetodirectpapalauthorityoverregionalandlocalchurches.Thispoliticalreality for Christianleadership,popesconfrontedthefactthatterritorialmonarchiesposedafar papacy’s prestigeneverthelesssufferedlikeneverbeforefromsuchbarbs. exaggerated theirdecadenceandignoredlegitimateattemptstocurbabuses,the crats. AlthoughmosthistorianswouldnowagreethatsuchpicturesoftheAvignonpopes kind of‘BabylonianCaptivity’,aplaceliars,corruptlawyers,andunscrupulousbureau- likes ofliterarygiantssuchasPetrarchandDante,whodeclaredtheAvignonpapacyanew and favors.Yetthisfiscaladministrativeefficiencygeneratedintensecriticismsbythe attract churchmenfromeverycornerofEuropeseekingjudgments,settlements,privileges, revenues fromvacantornewlyawardedbenefices.Likewise,thepapalcuriacontinuedto sources offinancialsupport,suchasthecollectionannates,aportionfirst-year’s immediate resourcesofthePapalStates,popesdrewincreasinglyuponEuropean-wide , themachineryofpapalbusinesshummedlikeneverbefore.Removedfrom with thebuildingofavastcomplexcompleteallorganspapalgovernance.At decision toremaininAvignon,however,beganapermanentpapalresidencythecity, (Innocent IV,forexample,stayedroughlyhalfofhis11-yearpapacyatLyons).Clement’s and eventuallysettledinAvignon.PreviouspopesspentconsiderabletimeoutsideofRome a nativeofAquitaineandarchbishopBordeaux,neverwenttoRomeafterhiselection the papalassertionofhistoricalpriorityoverkingshiplessandconvincing. over spiritualandearthlymattersseemedoutoftouchwithpoliticaltheoriesrealities, Things grewworseafterGregoryXI(1370–1378)finallyreturnedtoRomein1377and Coming ontheheelsofBoniface’shumiliationatAnagni,PopeClementV(1305–1313), 26 Rome haditsdefenders,butincreasinglythepope’sclaimtojurisdiction BRETT EDWARDWHALEN 14 28 The GreatSchismdidevenmore 27 29 Martin Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 around thecornerforWesternChristiantradition. should notbeentirelysurprisedatthoseattendees’apparent inabilitytoseetrulywhatlay contested butalwaysrespondingtothechangingcircumstances ofthepresent,perhapswe spread oftheGospelaroundworld.Givenlongmemory ofpapalprimacy,always predicting horribletrialsforthefaithful,butalsoimminent recoveryofJerusalemandthe Lateran Council(1512–1517)continuedtoprojectthepapacy’s destinyintothefuture, level hisdevastatingcriticismsagainsttheRomanChurch, theclergygatheredatFifth new spiritualage,perhapsmovingthepapacytoJerusalem. WhileMartinLutherbeganto ‘angelic’ pope;afuturepontiffwhowouldrejectworldlythings andleadthefaithfulintoa time, eventhosewhorailedagainstthepapacycontinuedtoimaginefuturecomingofan between goodandevilwithFlorencenotRomeasthecenterofaction.Atsame Savonarola offeredhisowndenunciationsofthepapacy,framedaspartongoingbattle validation.) Towardtheendoffifteenthcentury,Florentineprophetandrabble-rouser and peasantrebellionslaterinJohn’slife,thefriar’spredictionsreceivedconsiderable of secularandclericallords.(GiventheoutbreakBlackDeath,HundredYearsWar, Avignon inthefourteenthcentury,imaginingfuturewars,plagues,andviolentoverthrow represented onesuchvoice;aFranciscanwhospentmostofhislifeaspapalprisonerat they confrontedthelackofpastoralleadershipoverWesternChurch.JohnRupescissa during previousgenerations,someChristianssoughtapocalypticinspirationorconsolationas expressions ofpietyanddevotion. salvation, experimentingwithinnovativeformsofspiritualcommitment,andcreatingnew Christians grewmore–notlessinvolvedwiththeprocessesofsecuringtheirownreligious dazzling culturalachievement. such astheBorgiapontiffAlexanderVI(1492–1503),presidedoveraRenaissancecourtof Acting asveritablemonarchsofthePapalStates,popessometimequestionablecharacter, other ruler,exchangingtheirrightsofjurisdictioninreturnforvariouspoliticalconcessions. withEuropeanpowers,popesbargainedkingsandprincesmuchlikeany the world. reinvention oftheRomanChurch,recapturinggloriesancientRome,master indulged inmaterialdistractionsfromspiritualconcerns,representedyetanotherhistorical of theso-calledRenaissancepapacy,typicallyseenasasignhowfifteenth-centurypopes papal indulgencesfortheremissionoftheirsins. 1350, 1390,1423,1450,1475and1500,bringingthousandsofthefaithfultoRomeseeking of theMiddleAges,asseenduringhighlypopular‘jubilee’pilgrimagesheldin1300, should notunderestimatetheRomanChurch’senduringappealheadingtowardclosure the realitiesofChristendom’sfragmentationanddeclinepapaluniversalism,we actively discouragedthemasundesirabledeviationsfromorthodoxy.Yetwithoutdiscounting Reformation inthesixteenthcentury,papacydidnotkeeppacewiththesechanges,or A.C.Krey,‘Theinternational stateoftheMiddleAges:somereasonsforitsfailure’,American 1 Nevertheless, formany,SaintPeter’ssuccessorshadlosttheirhistoricalway.Astheydid During thiseraofsuccessivecrisesandretrenchmentfortheRomanpapacy,European Religion, 20,2004–2005,305–50. withspecialemphasisonthemedievalpapacy’, JournalofLawand community ofChristendom– R. J.AraujoandA.Lucal,‘A forerunnerforinternationalorganizations:theholyseeand Historical Review,28,1922,1–12(quotation,p.7). Seealsotherecentrestatementofthisthemeby 33 30 31 THE PAPACY Undeniably, giventheoutcomeofProtestant Notes 15 32 Even thewealthandculturalachievements 34 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 21 FortheDecretals,seeFriedberg, Corpus iuriscanonici,2.SeealsotheessaysinW.Hartmann and 20 SeeJ.Sayers,InnocentIII:LeaderofEurope,1998–1216,London:Longman,1994;C.Moore,Pope 19 8Dequartavigilianoctis,in 18 BernardofClairvaux,FiveBooksonConsideration,pp.31,117. 17 M.Chibnall(ed.),The 16 FortheDecretum, 15 Englishtranslationsofthe‘Donation’arewidelyavailable.For acriticaleditionoftheLatintext, 14 3Onthesedevelopments,seeI.S.Robinson, 13 2InadditiontoCushing,ReformandPapacy, 12 SeeK.Cushing,ReformandthePapacyinEleventhCentury:SpiritualitySocialChange , Manchester: 11 0Onthetitleof‘pope’,seeJ.Moorhead,‘ 10 BernardofClairvaux,FiveBooksOnConsideration:AdvicetoaPope 9 SeeG.Demacopoulos,TheInventionofPeter:ApostolicDiscourseandPapalAuthorityinLateAntiquity 8 MybookDominionofGod:ChristendomandApocalypseintheMiddleAges 7 M.Maccarrone,VicariusChristi:storiadeltitolopapale,Rome:FacultasTheologicaPontificiiAthenaei 6 S.Kuttner,‘Cardinalis:thehistoryofacanonicalconcept’, 5 Onthissubject,seeJ.A.Watt,‘Thetheoryofpapalmonarchyinthethirteenthcentury’,Traditio, 4 ForarecentsurveyofpapalhistoryduringtheMiddleAges,seeB.Whalen, 3 SeeD.Hay,:TheEmergenceofanIdea,Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,1957,p.x, 2 some methodologicalconsiderations’, MediaevalStudies,27,1965,227–45. fol. 430ra.SeealsoB.Tierney,‘The continuityofpapalpoliticaltheoryinthethirteenthcentury: Commentaria Innocentiiquartipont.maximi superlibrosquinquedecretalium to theDecretalsofPopeGregoryIX,Washington,DC:CatholicUniversity ofAmericaPress,2008. K. Pennington(eds),TheHistoryofMedievalCanonLawin theClassicalPeriod,1140–1234:FromGratian of ChristorLordtheWorld?,Washington,DC:CatholicUniversityAmericaPress,1994. Innocent III(1160/61–1216):ToRootUpandPlant,Leiden:Brill,2003;J.Powell, Innocent III:Vicar pp. 104–7. Visions oftheEnd:ApocalypticTraditionsinMiddleAges XI. etXII.conscripti,3vols,Hannover:Hahn,1891–1897,3:508–9;partialtranslation inB.McGinn, 1; partialtranslationin 1986, p.65. of CaliforniaPress,1972. Church PoliticsintheMid-TwelfthCentury:TheEcclesiologyofGratian’sDecretum Catholic UniversityofAmericaPress,1993.SeealsoS.Chodorow, ChristianPoliticalTheoryand 1968. see H.Fuhrmann(ed.),DasConstitutumConstantini(KonstantinischeSchenkung)Text Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,1990. 2nd edn,Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1992. U.-R. 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New York:Sheed&Ward,1967;and,fromacriticalperspective,M.A.Perkins, influential singlefactor’inEurope’sdevelopment.SeealsoC.Dawson, who writesthat‘thevirtualidentificationofEuropewithanearlierChristendom’formedthe‘most see E.Friedberg(ed.),Corpusiuriscanonici,2vols,Leipzig:Tauchnitz,1879–1881, Historia PontificalisofJohnSalisbury,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, Gratian: TheTreatiseonLaws Monumenta GermaniaeHistorica:Libellideliteimpoeratorumetpontificumsaeculis BRETT EDWARDWHALEN Papa see G.Tellenbach,Church,StateandChristianSocietyat 16 as BishopofRome’,JournalEcclesiasticalHistory, The Papacy1073–1198:ContinuityandInnovation , NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1998, , trans.A.Thompson,Washington,DC: Traditio, 3,1945,129–214. , trans.J.D.AndersenandE.T. , :MartinLechler,1570, , Cambridge,MA:Harvard The FormationofChristendom, , Berkeley,CA:University The MedievalPapacy, , Hannover:Hahn, Christendom and , , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 11:52 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315716800, chapter1, 10.4324/9781315716800.ch1 1SeeD.L.d’Avray,‘Papalauthorityandreligioussentiment inthelateMiddleAges’,D.Wood 31 4SeeWhalen,DominionofGod,pp.228–32;MedievalPapacy , pp.192–4;andtheessaysin 34 C.L.Stinger,TheRenaissanceinRome,Bloomington,IN:UniversityofIndianaPress,1985. 33 G.Dickson,‘ThecrowdatthefeetofPopeBonifaceVIII:,crusade,andfirstRoman 32 Onthe‘restored’papacyoffifteenthcentury,seeP.Partner, 30 Foranexaminationoftheconciliartradition,seeB.Tierney, FoundationsoftheConciliarTheory:The 29 8SeeW.Ulmann,TheOriginsoftheGreatSchism:AStudyinFourteenth-CenturyEcclesiasticalHistory 28 SeeY.Renouard,TheAvignonPapacy1305–1403,trans.D.Bethell,Hamden:ArchonBooks,1970; 27 A.Gewirth,TheDefenderofthePeace,2vols,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1951–1956,2: 26 EnglishtranslationinB.Tierney(ed.),TheCrisisofChurchandState1050–1350,EnglewoodCliffs, 25 ForthetextofGrosseteste’s‘Memorandum’,seeS.Gieben,‘RobertGrossetesteatpapalcuria, 24 H.R.Luard(ed.),MatthæiParisiensis,monachisanctiAlbani,Chronicamajora,7vols,London:Longman 23 E.Winkelmann(ed.),FratrisArnoldiord.praed.decorrectioneecclesiaeepistolaetanonymiInnocentioIV. 22 perceptions ofthepapacyinlaterMiddleAges’,StudiesChurchHistory,32,1996,pp.145–70. 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