Volume 13, Number 2: Fall/Winter 2015-16 Asia Pacific Perspectives

Volume 13, Number 2 • Fall/Winter 2015-16

Center for Asia Pacific Studies Dr. Melissa Dale Dr. Leslie A.Woodhouse u a a a Editorial Board: Ezra Vogel f u Ha a Thomas Gold f Margaret Kuo a f a Rachel Rinaldo a f f a John Nelson f f a a

CONTENTS

Editor’s Introduction r e ia a e

Articles

Small Things of Great Importance: Toy Advertising in Chiang, 1910s-1930s

r a entina oretti

The Grapes of Happiness: Selling Sun-Maid Raisins to the Chinese in the 1920s-’30s

Ceci e Ar an

Haafu Identities in Japanese Advertising

r aori ori ant

Think Piece

Why Aren’t Chinese Buying Chinese Brands? The Notion of Chinese in the Discourse of Chinese Consumerism

ina an

Archival Survey

On the of the Chinese Advertising Archive

r i n Chen ©2016 University of San Francisco Center for Asia Pacific Studies o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / succeeded inturningaluxuryproductintovery popularbrand. Armand reveals howthecompanyadaptedtoChinesemarketand employed inthemakingofactualadvertisements inthe1920s-1930s, market. Throughacasestudyofitsraisinmarketingstrategiesandpractices company, introduceditselfandultimatelysucceededintheChinese symbols ofChina’sprogressandenlightenment. market theirproducts,childrenandplaythingsbecamemarketedas and itsfuturegenerations. As Chineseandforeigncompaniessought to of thelargerdiscourseonmodernityandChina’seffortstoremakeitself reveals howduringthe1910s-1930s,childrenandtheirtoys becamepart tisements butthe“power ofimages.” every case,thesepapersreveal theimportanceofnotjusttextinadver- cultural andracialidentity,,stereotypes,globalization.In contribute morebroadlytoacademicdiscussionsonissuesofmodernity, marketing ofproductsinEast Asia bothhistoricallyandinthepresent and newperspectives onhowculturehasinfluencedtheadvertising and the West fromthe19thcenturytopresent.Thesearticlesofferinsight for understandingculturalencountersandinteractionbetween Asia and special issuefocusesonadvertising andmarketinginEast Asia asalens publication oftheFall/Winter 2015-16issueofAsiaPacific Perspectives. This Introduction Editor’s as theystrive toobtaintheirshareofthemarket. luxury brands,andthe incorporationof“Chineseelements”bybothsides Chinese nationalismandconsumers’ growingdesireforWestern the luxuryandfashionmarket,Tan notesthetensionbetween ideasof MBA program.Exploringthebuyingpractices ofChineseconsumersin Tan, asecond-year studentinUSF’sjointMA Asia Pacific Studies/ of haafuinJapantoday. types thatstandinstarkcontrasttothereal life experiencesanddiversity advertisements andreveals howidealizedimagesofhaafupromotestereo- racial) studiesinJapanbyfocusingattentiononthepresenceofhaafu tisements featuringhaafu.Want’s articleaimstofillavoidinhaafu(multi- Cecile Armand Examining “littlethingsofgreatimportance,”Valentina Boretti The USFCenterfor Asia Pacific Studiesispleasedtoannouncethe Our graduatestudentpaperforthisissuehighlights theworkof In the next article, ’s articlereveals howSun-Maid,an American global Kaori Want examines contemporary Japanese adver- Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 tr ote itor Tina o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / metadata. Chen callsforthesystematiccollectionofadimageswithfullyannotated order forscholarstobeablefullyutilizeadsasasourcetheirresearch, seeking toenhancetheirresearchthroughtheuseofadvertisements. In digital resourcesonadvertising inChinawillbe of thearchive inthestudyofadvertising inChina.Chen’sexaminationof for theircontributionsinbringingthisissuetoourreaders. achieved. ThanksalsotoTomHenkeand the Web ServicesTeam atUSF transition totheteamandthathighstandardssetforthejournalare Woodhouse, forherhardworkandeffortsinensuringaseamless We endthisissuewithaninformative survey byJingChenonthestate ~ Dr.MelissaS.Dale,Editor Many thankstoournewassistantmanagingeditor,Leslie A. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 of greatusetoscholars tr ote itor o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Toy Advertising inChina,1910s-1930s Small ThingsofGreatImportance: Chinese toyadvertisement in1931. 1910s andthe1930sin . After abriefoverview ofthechildandtoy adults, thisstudyexplores thepromotionofplaythingsbetween the Improvement, inaword,underpinned themarketingoftoys. of tangibleprogress–markerslifestyle andattitudesimultaneously. makers andrevealers ofimmaterial (cognizant)modernity,asmuch since toysacquirednewlabels.These“biographies” or replicasofmodernobjects(trains,planes), andchieflyimmaterial re-manipulation was partlymaterial,throughnewrenditionsofolditems tainment preparatorytoachievement. tasks thatawaited them,andeagerforinstructive, state-of-the-artenter- relevance ofchildhoodandinvest init;childrenshouldbeaware of the inform consumption.Cognizantlymodernadultsshouldappreciatethe nales were education,patriotismandcompetence,whichshouldequally likewise legitimatedtoyproductionorsale,whosepurportedmainratio- revealed andconfirmedawareness, whichlegitimatedit.Consciousness this case.Neitherconnoisseurshipnorconsumerism,theirconsumption elevating themselves andthenationconcurrently–throughchildren,in se, butjudiciouslypursuedtheimproved andimproving,withaviewto were thosewhodidnotinanelyyearn forthefashionableornovel per assumed premiseofpromotionalmessages.Cognizantlymodernpersonae that, itiscontended,was boththesuggestedoutcomeof purchaseandthe cognizant modernity. brand playthingsastestimonialsandcatalystsofwhatistermedhere industry, andsomeforeignproducers,“poached” to publicizeawidearrayofproducts. At thesametime,nascenttoy acquired amarketingvalue: advertising thusemployed themasicons ers ofthenation. As apossiblyunintendedresult,bothchildrenandtoys childrearing discourseastoolstoshapechildren,theprospective rescu- playthings hadacquiredavery significantrolewithintheChinese Toys maybesmallthings,buttheirrelevance isgreat,argueda Drawing onadvertisements placed inperiodicalsforchildrenand Remade playthingswere amongthetoolsforremakingChina.Their This termisintroducedheretocover aflexiblynormative construct f a f f u a f a a f oretti entina a a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 1 Indeed,from theturnofcentury, 2 thenewdiscourseto 3 construedtheminto o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / discourse: toyswere instrumentstomoldchildren,thebudsofnation. because Chineseentrepreneursappropriatedandcommodifiedanew were very similarhadbeendonned entirelydifferentsignifications, “foreign littleboys”appearedforsale; have becomeapromisingmarketniche:“toygunsforyoungsters”and as thefinalconsumersof“toys.”Fromlate1870s,youngseemto advertised before,butthiswas thefirsttimechildren were mentioned than gadgets–namely,asmoreutilitarianludic. animals, kitchensets,andballsallcametobepresentedasols,rather gifts. Flashcardsandblocksfirst,then vehicles, militarytoys,puppets, pedagogic, moral,andnation-buildingfacets,whichmadethemsuitable ers begantopublicizetheirowntoysbyunderscoringalleged solstice.” all very “suitableaspresentsforchildren”thecoming“Western winter News thesaleofvarious mobiletoys,including steamboatsandpuppets, advertising Small thingsofgreatimportance:Toys andchildrenindiscourse trate thepervasiveness andcompositionofthemarketingapproach. contents oftoyadvertising asexemplifiedbyseveral cases,soastoillus- ing levers –sincethis,too,signalstheirsymbolicroletothenmapthe discourse, itlooksathowchildrenandplaythingswere used asmarket- as theinfluentialLiangQichao, order tosave Chinafromhumiliationandannihilation.Reformers,such debacles accentuatedtheconvictionthatchange was urgentlyrequiredin turmoil, increasingforeignpressureontheQing empire,andmilitary nineteenth-century apprehensionover thestateandfateofChina,when sary tofirststrengthenthechildren,” first strengthenthepeople;inorderto thepeople,itisneces- in themid1920sthat“inordertostrengthennation,itisnecessary 1. “New”childrenandtheirtoys through childrenalreadyhadahistoryofabout threedecades. gadgets advertised aspresentsforthewintersolstice, ular capacity,baringenuity. these shortlistingsattempttoconstruethemasendowed withanypartic- of “children’splaythings.” from thefettersoftraditional upbringingandeducation–(mis)construed children were symbols; likethem,theyhadtobeliberated.Once freed particular –asakeycornerstone ofnationalrejuvenation. Likewomen, In 1873,theforeignfirmL.Moore&Co.advertised intheShanghai Its emergenceisinfacttobesituatedagainst thebackdropoflate By thetimeintellectualsandMomilkadvertisements alikeproclaimed Yet, intheearly1900s,when foreigndollswere stillamongtheexotic 4 Mechanical “toys,”namelyleisureobjectsforadults,hadbeen 6 None ofthesetoyswere Chinese;neitherdid 11 a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S identifiedtheyoung–andchildrenin Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 9 thenarrative ofre-makingChina 5 advertisements begantospeak 7 8 Chineseproduc- Playthings that 10 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / plenty withadults.This“publicmeaning” decline. improved, “fit”newcitizenswhowould rescue thenationfromitsalleged quate subjects–andonceproperlycultivated, childrenwouldbecomethe fication” ofchildren. Unqualified amusement wasnotthepurposeofa argue thatrealistictoys leftnoroomtoimaginationandimplied“adulti- made inChina,andtrue tolife–artistFengZikaibeingamongthefew tific, enjoyable, safe,attractive, well-manufacturedbutnot over-ingenious, as unaware ofchildhood’scharacteristics learning, instructing andimproving.Nolongergadgets seldomassociatedwith for professionalstodefine, was repositionedasacrucialinstrumentfor zance. Properplaywithsuitabletoys,whose correctnesswas primarily relevance ofplayandtoys,sofarallegedlyoverlooked duetoincogni- needs were tobethenorm:“backward” familieshadtocomprehendthe new citizens.Rationalaffection,closenessandappreciationofchildren’s that parenthood,too,was tobereformed:oldcustomswouldnotbeget tively appropriatedforeignchildrearingdiscourse,expertsaffirmed sized. of theenvironment, judiciously. Consistentwiththelong-standing beliefintheshapingpower even themostimportant thinginchildren’slife. 1930s –committedtothecollective. ous, knowledgeable, science-oriented,militant,and–increasinglyinthe but encompassingbothgenders,asrobust,patriotic,ingeniouslylabori- dated bythelate1920sconstrued“newchildren,”oftencodedmasculine the impositionofadultconcernsonyoungsters,mainmodelconsoli- Although theidealchildnotionfeaturednuances,andmanydidcriticize of their present and prospective duty to reconstruct and protect the . sters themselves onhowtoproperlycultivate, orbe,goodcitizens,aware intellectuals andpedagoguesinstructedparents,educators,young- the establishmentofRepublic.Throughmedia,events andschooling, sive, sincepreoccupationsover thefateofChinadidnotdiminishwith hood andchildrearing,whichbythe1910shadalreadybecomeperva- spawned fromtheearly1900sdevelopment ofadiscoursechild- instruction. Yet, thesenseofurgencywas remarkable. it diddrawuponthetime-honoredprominenceofeducationandearly tion; norwas thisvisionentirelynew,despiteclaimstothecontrary,since the linkagebetween childrenandrenewal unknowntotheChinesetradi- children andchildhoodwas bynomeansuniquetoChina, The concernwithchildrenhad,therefore,littletodothem,and Fortified byreferencestoeducation,science,psychology,andselec- Since toyswere essential,theyhadtobeused,chosen andproduced The spotlightplacedonchildrenasnationalratherthanfamilyassets 18 Propertoys,intheopinionofmost,oughtto beeducational,scien- 16 playthingswere proclaimedmoreinfluentialthanbooks,or 17 thepower ofthematerialwas repeatedlyempha- a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 15 12 13 andboundtogenerateinade- andpoliticallychargedroleof 14 neitherwas o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / ones. Forindeed–ashaslongbeenpointedout utilize themostmarketablediscursive claimsandsidestepinconvenient prospective nation-rescuingendeavors was indeed capitalizeduponin of notmaterializing.The preoccupationover children’s presentand bright future:yet suchpossibility,by itsvery nature, entailedtherisk a much-advocatedactivity. possess onlyasastimulustocreatetheirown–home-makingysbeing as dullandpriceyitemsthatyoungstersdidnotreallylike,should superficial. Even morefatal was thestrandthatdevalued industrialtoys condemned thepurchaseoftoomanyplaythings,lestchildrenbecome of thenationratherthanbusinessinterestsindustry:hencethey consumption shouldberegulated,andprimarilyserve themoralinterests discourse oftoyswere even morecriticalforproducers.Fortheorists, preneurs failedtorisetheoccasion. producer, ofsuperiorimmateriality.Yet, according toexperts,mostentre- children: state-of-the-artmaterialitywas construedasthemarker,and would producethemuch-neededintelligentnationaltoolsforinstructing and monetarythreat.Mechanizationrationalizationoftoy-making the consumptionofforeigntoyswhichwere, aswe shallsee,aspiritual pleas fortheimprovement oftoy-making, fundamentalalsoforreducing children bynation-strengtheningagendasattractedcommercialinterests. good plaything, as marketedconceptsandmarketinglevers. playthings occupiedaprominentplace–though notasmuchwomen– 1930s Chineseperiodicalstargetinganadult readership,childrenand terms ofaspirationoridentification.Inthe pseudo-reality stagedin1920s- persuade, itshowssituationsthatarethoughtintriguing,ordesirablein 2. Childrenandtoysasmarketinglevers albeit without“educational”tags. (animals, boats,balls)hadinfactbeencurrentChinaforcenturies, they shouldbereplacedby“modern”playthings–manyofwhich educational, superstitious,andconservative. Unbefittingfornewchildren, or masks,were deploredaspointless,crudelymade,hazardous, non- old andnewwere, apparently,notuptothetask. character, ortrainthebody.With somenotableexceptions,Chinesetoys to thebenefitsoftoothpaste. advertisements, tosubstantiateclaimsrangingfromthesolidityofbanks attention. Hencenative andforeigncompaniesincludedthemintheir also iconsofmodernity,well-groomed childrenwere likelytoattract Whilst thiscriticismwas notencouraging,othercomponentsofthe Advertising doesnotmirror reality.Nonetheless,beingconceived to Many “traditional”toyslikeglasstrumpets,clayandsugarfigurines, As time-honoredsymbolsofpropitiousness andrenewal, andnow 19 thatshouldinsteadstimulatetheintellect,nurture 21 24 Toyadvertising, however, devisedways to Theyoungpersonifiedtheprospectofa a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 20 Condemnationwas accompaniedby 23

22 –thespotlightplacedon o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / equally lookedyounger withatouchofpowder. who washed dolls’clothesendorsedsoap,whilemothersandolddolls hygienic domesticity,withaslighttouchof gender essentialization:girls the promotedproductshadnorelationwithchildren. inserting playthingseven whentherewas nodepictionofplay,andwhen children, modernadvertising appropriatedanddeveloped themotif, well asontheiconographyofplayandtoysattributes propitious only domesticproducts. the NationalGoodsCampaignsthaturgedChinesenationalstoconsume ently marketablefordomesticandimportedcommoditiesalike,despite advertisements, playingthecardofphysico-spiritual strength,appar- sive power ofcopy. used illustrationstoconvey a“totalimpression”andenhancethepersua- create anattractive settingforit,inbasiccompoundadvertisements that the commoditypublicized,playthingsbecameitstestimonialsandhelped like whippingtops,rattlesorold-style puppets.Farfromcannibalizing as didoccasionallypistolsandsomeobjectsclassified“traditional,” Aspirational itemslikeluxurytoycarsandrockinghorsesalsoappeared, the childrearingdiscourse:balls,pull-alongtoys,dolls,animals,blocks. fertility, wealth andsuccess. were portrayed with,were auspicious symbolsofharmony,happiness, on themetaphorstheystoodfor.Youngsters, andoftenalsothetoysthey eth-century representations,theirfocuswas notonchildrenbutrather had longbeenpartofpre-modernvisualimagery.Notunliketwenti- ments. Depictionsofchildrenatplayinpaintings,prints,wares ortextiles were alsopartofthepromotionalparaphernaliadeployed inadvertise- theorists’ parlance. as the“futuremasters”ofChina–theywere called,appropriating and deterringweakness, wouldpermitthemtoaccomplishtheirduties task, shouldbegiven the rightclothesthat,allowingmovement andplay nourished withoatstoensurethattheirbrainsandbodywere uptothe medicines orfoodstuffs, nourishedandhealedchildrenappearedinthe healthy andfityoungsters wouldusetoys.Timeandagain,inadverts for ized theideathatatoyless childwas not completeor,conversely, that holding cutedolls. by thepresenceofplaything-equippedchildren, thatincludedboys by literally“toying”withthefeelofserenity, healthoraffluenceconveyed rubber shoes,medicinesforwomenandcigarettes couldallbepromoted were nowrelevant icons. nity, novelty, healthandsuccess–peddling anideallifestyle inwhichtoys this advertising aimedatlettingviewers tastea dream ofcomfort,moder- Toys thataccompaniedchildrenwere mostlythoserecommendedby In thecompanyofchildren,oroccasionallyontheirown,playthings Goods asdiverse asheatingoutfits,grapejuice,children’sgarments, 30 26 29 Dollsalsohelpedrelaysignificationsof“civilized” Ratherthanpurelyprovidingproductinformation, 25 Thus,forinstance,the“futuresocietyleaders,” 27 Buildingonchildren’sroleasemblems, a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 31 Advertising popular- 28 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / concept. Thenotionof“gift”(enwu ality thusbecamequasi-immaterial,asshownbytheusagesofthe“gift” be deployed byevocation,namelywithoutnecessarilyappearing.Materi- the child,andbothwere usedtoelicitinterest,somuchthattheycould children;” toys, Japan –attheturnofcenturytoindicateFroebeliankindergarten told, was indeedtheonlypossibleexplanation forlackofinterestinplay. company ofattractive, oftenupmarketplaythings.Illhealth,parents were magazines forwomen, educators andparents;generalinterestperiodicals; toffee, “thegiftformodernchildren;” ities thathadlittletodowithitsfactualmeaning.Theseincludedapricot family leisurethatwas, incidentally,muchadvocatedinadvicemanuals. ing, modernitems,conducive toa“civilized,”genteelnewlifestyle and Apparently theconceptof“gift”functionedtoconvey thenotionofuplift- ligence anddevelop thought. that youngsters“wish[ed]forbeneficialgames”couldincreaseintel- for KodakBrowniecameras,dulylabeledasa“children’sgift,”claimed other boys. to sonsasaninspiring,meaningfulgame,possiblybesharedwith economic lossescausedbyimports. goal toresideineducatingchildrenandhelpingChinadecreasethe or coreproduct.Implicitlyexplicitly,theyoftenclaimedtheirprimary lasting well intothe1940s–thatmanufactured“new”playthingsasaside a numberofindustrialcompaniesappeared–someshort-lived, others Play –butnotchildish:Themessagesoftoyadvertising of playthingsperse. “beneficial” playwith“appropriate”toyslayattheheartofthepromotion construed bythechildrearingdiscourse. And thenotionofcognizant inating thediscourseof toys.Consistently,printadvertising positioned trade journals.Mostof thesepublications,incidentally,were alsodissem- more frequentlyinmedia thatcateredtoanadultreadership:newspapers; magazines. Advertisements were placedinchildren’speriodicals, and advertising targetedbetter-offcustomers,thosewhocouldbuyandread the lessaffluent werereachedbymeansofdisplays and events, while , engagedactively inpromotion,deployingdifferentstrategies: “modern” playthings. besides updatingtheirtraditionalcreations, produced cheapimitationsof with poshforeigngoods,butalsoagainstartisan toy-makerswho, The playthinghencebecameacommercial Children’s leisure,too,was supposedtobeuplifting. An advertisement Commercial forcesquicklycapitalizedondiscourse.Fromthe1910s, These (rarely)big–andmedium-scalecompanies, active mostlyin 33 was pressedintoservicetoadvertise Chineseandforeigncommod- 35 39 andeven thephonograph,a“gift”for newhousehold. Thiswas preciselythe predominantvisionofnormative play 38 Kodakcamerascouldbegiven byfathers a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16

恩物 40 Thelargestofthemhadtocompete 34 talcumpowder,a“summergiftfor ), whichhadbecomecurrent–via attribute,oraddendum,of and 36

37 32

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / in Children’sEducationalPictorial: tions includeafewatypical 1910sCommercialPresscopy-lessadverts “imagined community.” those whowished,throughconsumption,toparticipateinanenlightened thus seekingtoconvincetheaffluentrejectthingsforeign,andattract testimonials ofamade-in-Chinacognizantmaterial/immaterialmodernity, playthings asinstructive, scientificallyconceived andaffordableobjects, advertisers drewinspirationfromoverseas models. perhaps asprovidersofcosmopolitanstanding, orpossiblybecause people whomtheyvalidated inturn. they acquiredmeaningchieflythroughassociation:withwords,and appear atall.Despitethepurportedmaieuticpower ofwell-made objects, playthings shownunaccompaniedorindetail,andattimestheydidnot of persuasionthroughdescriptionsbenefitsorlifestyle. Rarely were with acopythatprovidedmodicumofproductinformation,andlot featuring an image of one or several toys with children, habitually coupled tive andaffordable. appeal andreasonablepricedidcount:thenewplaythingwas tobeattrac- safe (probablyasareactiontocriticismagainstdomesticgoods). Aesthetic to besolid,ingeniously(andindustrially)manufactured,vivacious, and growth ofchildren.Concernwithqualitywas strong:toyswere claimed “facilitate,” “nurture,”“arouse”theintellectual,moralandphysical key terms,pairedwithverbs like“develop,” “enlighten,”“cultivate,” ate,” “beneficial,”“instructive,” “new,”“patriotic,”and“scientific” were language thatrepackagedpedagogicalandpoliticalspeech.“Appropri- were madeexplicitbyappealingmainlytothemindofreaders,usinga and competentparenthood,intelligence,style. Theseassociations and modernity,nationalismperformanceofcitizenship,affectionate and advertisers deployed significations celluloid. probably becausethesesignifiedup-to-dateness, especiallyifmadeof as thetargetmarketformostplaythingsincluding dolls(seefigures1-2), romping. Exceptfortoykitchensandairguns, bothgenderswere depicted with itpassionately:pleasedenjoymentfeatured morethananimated toy –forviewers toappreciatebothcommodities–butseldomengaging the protagonistswere “modern”Chineseboysandgirls,oftenholdinga exploited withoutexertingmuchapparentinfluenceonit. developed discourseoftoysandchildrearing, whichadvertisements Rarely didimagesalone attempttoconvey atotal impression.Excep- The branding 1. A non-child-centeredapproach Illustrations occasionallyportrayed slightlyforeign-lookingchildren, Advertisements were largelyofthesimpleorbasiccompoundgenre, 45

41 ofplaythingsdrewonseveral facetsoftherecently a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S onepublicizesflashcards byrelaying Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 43 thatencompassededucation 44 Typically,however, 42 Producers o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / not sleepwithoutthem. and baby-dollsasharbingersofdailyblissfortoddlerswhowouldcryor cubes; delight oftwobrothersinbuildingthingsouttheirblocksandpicture exceptions, manyofwhichappearedinperiodicalsforadults,includethe innocence exploited.Seldomdowe findreferencestosheerfun.Some little roomintoyadverts; neither were thetropesofchildhoodmagicor mention ofthecompany’s the commodities,scenealsoincludesasketchoffactory,andeven a may bedebatable. promotes affectionate andeducatedmotherhood;theotherone(seefigure3) concerned withrescuing China. Although youngsterswere occasionally but inpracticeassuming childrentobeeagerforedutainmentorhighly shown aparentwhosupposedly heldthepower ofdecisionand purchase, adults, orreadlikeinstruction manuals:possiblybecausetheywere tobe in children’smagazinesfrequentlyreproduced claimsandcopyusedfor according toageandtarget.Thustherelatively fewtoyadvertisements concerns andambitions.Forthemostpart,content was notdiversified discourse adultifiedyoungsters.Likewise, promotion focusedonadult to beconsideredwhenchoosingplaythings. Yet most of thatvery same est forspecifictoysand,accordingtodiscourse, theirpeculiaritieswere essays publishedinperiodicalsdomentionchildren’s requestsorinter- Press adverts which,withsomerelevant exceptions, This was particularly–thoughnotexclusively –trueforCommercial Many advertisements, especially up to the late 1920s, read like miniature treatises ever-smiling celluloiddollthatneedednofood. slogans, dialogues,andpseudo-children’ssongs,suchastheoneaboutan conveying un-childishmessages,theiradvertisements diduseparables, grave approach.Thoughappearinginpublicationsforadults,andoften slighter pretensetoilluminatemindsmorefrequentlyadoptedaless not immunefromthecopy-as-treatiseinclination,entrepreneurswith figure 4).Captionedwith Children’s World,featureschildrensurroundedbyamultitudeoftoys(see of stylish andtranquilfamily orplaylife.Onesuchadvert, placedin China Celluloidadverts were almostcopy-less,too,showingstills with children entertaining itsconstruedtargetofadultandchildcognoscenti. and controllerofmuchmedia,thePresswas perhapslittleinterestedin As possiblytheearliestChineseadvertiser ofindustrialplaythings, seriously didacticcopy,oreven merepricelistsprecededonlybyaclaim. Children’s curiosity,imaginationorinterests,extolledintheory,had Toy advertising was topleasechieflythegrown-ups. Lettersor Text was paramount–understandably,given theintendedaudience. 51 thejoysofball-playing(seefigure5); “toddlers’ toys”showinganelegantyet quitestaticplayscene, asifawed bytheclassytoyvehicles. Some1930sGreat 46 53 taxfacilitations,whoseappealtoyoungviewers references totheattractive novelty andsolidityof a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 52 theroleofcelluloidtoys 50

48 tendedtocontain 49 Albeit 47

. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / themselves. would orshouldconvey messagestotheirchildren,socialmilieu,or majority ofadvertisements spoketoparentswhobymeansof(play)things came fullcircle. veneer. occasionally aSantaClaus,perhapstogarnish themessagewithanexotic namely “presentsforchildren”that“must” be madeavailable –showing by theCommercialPressasespeciallyopportune momentstogive toys, children andpleasetheirparents. select “civilizeditems,”including“educationaltoys”whichwoulddelight back home.Ratherthancrudeandperishablefoodgifts,theyshould up withsophisticatedmodernitybychoosingtherightpresentstobring mendations forthriftthatwere partandparcel ofthediscoursetoys. as atooltosocializechildrenlifeofconsumption,inthefacerecom- formational (andconfirmatory)tool.Implicitly,moreover, itdidfunction various localities.Toyswere toreveal, orconstrue,parents’affectionate – “very suitable” presents. with children,as“themostwelcome” gift,or–inalesssuperlative mode the 1930s,onnotionsofaffectionandcognizant sophistication. many magazinesdrivingtheirtoycarorclutchingaderniercridoll. tive rescuersofthenation,ordebonairchildrenlikethoseportrayed in progressive competence–andshapeyoungsters intoachievers: prospec- Do youwant toys?”or:“You arewelcome tochoose,children!”), addressed directly,andchildishly,inbothclaimcopy(“Boys!Girls! plaything was marketed asanaspirationalsymbolandcatalyst:of a keystepontheladdertoward amodern(made-in-China)lifestyle. The to provide“new”playthings,whichwere presentednotasaluxurybut several companiespracticedlongdistance saleorhadbranchshops throughout China,asshownbylettersandphotossentreaders, were notonlyShanghaiurbanites,forperiodicalswere received andread and “modernized”whocouldconsumeideasbymeansofgoods.They promotional choicesofproducers–butalways itwas positionedasa needs.” and adornedbycelluloid toysmanufacturedto“suitmodernchildren’s or acculturation,socialadvancement, orpatriotism,dependingon really cannotlack.” purchase, holidays, whichitselfbuiltonthetime-honoredtraditionoffestive toy Already in1920,visitorsto“civilizedShanghai”were advisedtokeep (National) toys,itwas repeatedlyclaimed,were boundtobeasuccess In ordertobelongthe“civilized”community,familieswere urged The maintargetaudienceofadvertising were therelatively affluent 2. Competentparenthoodandstylishmodernity 59 62 Otherentrepreneurssoonfollowed suit,expanding,especiallyin A girlwhowanted tobe“stylish” would (should?)patronize 58 ChineseandWestern festivitieswere fromthe1910sadvertised 57 Expandingontheearliertendencytocommercialize 61 “New-style households”wouldbeaccessorized 60 Tricycleswere “a giftthatmodernchildren a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 56 The “social”value ofplaythingsthus 54 the style,

the 55 in trans- yet o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / doll fortheirchild. and ifallparentsloved children,thenasaparentone“must”acquire without ateacher. compared tofaminevictims,andchildrenwithoutgoodtoysstudents into aprimaryneed,legitimatenecessity.Toy-lesschildrenwere thus trial toystrandthatoftenpervaded it,producersmade Exploiting thenewdiscourseofplaythingswhileignoringtheanti-indus- thingsmaterial,construedassymbolsofthenon-material. giving (proper) carefully they were asked,tobetheninformedthat theirrolerequiredchoosing any play-thing,fortoyswere notrinkets.“Whatchilddoesnotliketoys?” their purchases,aswe shallseebelow,butalsotheycouldnotsimplypick ought thereforetobeguided:notonlyhadtheydisplaypatriotismin in thetoyscene. other forcelluloiddollsandanimalsthatostensiblyembodied“progress” exert noattractiononchildren,whowouldthecontraryviewitheach latter, indeed,belongedto“backward times,”andthey were claimedto celluloid products,discardingwoodenandclaytoys(seefigure1).The too, shouldbecomeaware ofcorrectleisure. children’s “natural”desire toplay,aidedbyinstructive toys;youngsters, legitimating one.Parents were promptedtostimulatelearningthrough “educational” was theultimatepublicitycatchword–possiblymost and thelong-standingrespectthateducation enjoyed inChineseculture, necessary, andthattheballwas thebest sporttool. the know:textbooksandperiodicalshadalertedthemthatexercisewas adult publicationshinted,orobliquelythreatened,thatchildrenwere in reformed incompliancewiththenewtoyculture. Advertisements in ness ofthefactthatchildrenhadrightsandpersonality–butitmustbe wholesome way, causinggoodbehavior. whose very presencewouldimmediatelyliven upyoungsters,butina children’s character. intellect whileplaying. New Year andsummergiftsshouldenableonetocultivate characterand children) were urgedtoensurethattheirpresentsbeinstructive: proper playthings. defined as“children’suniqueclosefriendsandmostidealteachers,” love children.” even amongtherelatively prosperous. that “backward” playthingsstillenjoyed agoodmeasureof popularity, Given thediscursive connectionscreatedbetween toysandeducation, 3. Learntoplay, playtolearn Toy-giving was construedastheway toshowstyle, care,andaware- Toys were promotedalsoasmarkersofsentiments,for“thosewho 71 –andtheyshouldkeepinmindthatplaythings influenced 64 Inpassing,thisdismissive advertising involuntarilysuggests 65 63 Advertisements declaredthatifallchildrenlikeddolls, Allegedly, 99childrenoutof100loved celluloid 67 66 Appropriating pedagogues’parlance,playthingswere (Discerning)love was thustobedemonstratedby 72 Most ofall,ever sincetheearly1910s,parents(and 73

a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 69 70 (Infantilized)parents their playthings 68 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / citizens toenhancetheircivicawareness, learningwhileplaying. yet instructive “toysandgames,”instead,ostensiblyallowed prospective advertised asentirelydifferentfrompromotion games.Theseentertaining may have hintedattraditionalgames,sincePressgameswere eventually vacations orengagingin“harmful”pastimessuchas“gambling”–which cial playitems”thatprevented childrenfromspendingidlesummer for citizens”)begantobepromotedadultsandyoungstersas“benefi- early 1910s,CommercialPresspicturecardsandboardgames(“games for children’sinclinations,andabletoattracttheirinterest. write andcount,advertised inadultandchildren’s magazinesassuitable home orschooleducation:mostnotablyflashcardsforlearningtoread, Press, anditreferredto“educationalplayitems”thatwere infactaidsto up theirmood,preventing “allbadhabits.” vivacious, solid playthings thatcouldexpandtheirknowledge andliven or parentsperusingtheir magazines,shouldlookforward toowning lect, strengthentheirbody,andincrease intelligence.Youngsters, children’s inclinations,andpossesstheability toenlightentheirintel- tive andscientificcontent,theseextraordinarytoys were claimedtosuit playthings” heading(seefigures6-8). Allegedlyendowed withinstruc- advertised bythePresstoadultsandchildrenunder“educational trains, cars,aswell assoldiers,tanksandarmoredvehicles, wouldbe ing blocksandflashcards,picturecubes,puppets, animals,musicaltoys, that onewouldhardlyclassifyassuch.Throughout thedecades,build- marketing claimsoonledtoapplyingthe“educational” labeltoitems with toyspeddledastoolsforlearning.Theusageofeducationa employing thewordyouzhi( toy tramsandcars(elsewherecalled“schoolprizes”)as“toddlers’toys,” unusual advert showninfigure3,thatdoeshowever branditspull-along to educationor“beneficial”gift-giving,onesignificantexceptionbeingthe children. tion. tion oftheaccompanyingclaim/copyorillustrationtosignalthedistinc- students,” and“familyplaythings”or“children’stoys,”withamerevaria- be promotedbytheCommercialPressas“schoolprizes”or“toysfor cards, puzzles,charts,boardgames,blocks,vehicles andsoldiers–could takings. which increased“newknowledge” andpreparedoneforgreatunder- recreation withthe“reformed”toysandgamescreatedbyPress, ful.” Rather,“newcitizens”shouldengageonlyin“beneficial”newyear with theirleisure:indulgingin“pernicious”amusementswas “shame- a 1920advertorial urgedreadersoftheYouth’s Magazine This kindofpromotionwas initiatedinthelate1900sbyCommercial Commercial Pressbuilding blocksmayhave nurturedindustrial Play was thuspositionedandlegitimizedasedifyingedutainment, 77 SeldomdidthePressadvertise playthingswithoutconnectingthem 76 Uptothelate1910s,very sameproducts–includingflash- 78 幼稚 a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S ), thenusuallyassociatedwithpreschool Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 79 to bejudicious 74 Fromthe 75 Indeed,

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / made ithardlyaffordable–ever sincethe1910s the Press’earlypublicitymessages,andabove allthediscourseoftoys, school, butwouldratherbounceherballandreadabook. informed adultsthatthe“idealchild”indulgedinnostrenuousexerciseafter claimed bytherubberballproducerYonghe IndustrialCompany,whoalso ball-playing couldtrainthebodyandpleasespirit–as to bemorebeneficialthanothers:whiledolls were merely ornamental, Parents were informedthattankshapedcandy couldraisechildrentobe to “instillculture”andcombineeducationwith playandnourishment. advertised fromthelate1920sasaccessoriestochildren’seducation,able in shapesthatincludedcar,carriage,pistol, and tank.These“gifts”were Guanshengyuan FoodCompany,theyconsisted ofcandyandbiscuits educational, perhapsinabidformodernrespectability. Producedbythe “broaden children’sexperience,” wished toeducatetheiroffspring. tiveness ofitsvehicles, dollsandanimals,arealmustforparentswho praise the“educationalvalue,” “scientificinterest,”cleverness andattrac- to arousechildren’sknowledge,” thePatriotic ToyCompanyproceededto Proclaiming playthingstobeinternationallyrecognizedas“efficienttools but also,again,“efficienttoolstoenhancechildren’sknowledge.” Sincere departmentstorewere certainly“pleasingtotheeye andspirit” schools andnew-style familiesmustprovidethem.” good characterandenhancetheirthinkingabilities,therefore“modern movable figurines, dolls andanimals, were claimedtocultivate children’s Zhongxing Celluloid“newandoriginaltoys,”namelyquitemature monicons, dollsandgrapefairieswere “educationalgifts.” learned thatimagesoffirstpresidenttheRepublicSun Yatsen, panhar- Education asdeployed intoyadverts couldindeed have awidegamutof any knowledge, skill orattitudethatcanbeusefulfornationand society. tional toy,theydodovetail withavisionofeducation asconducive to knowledge, militant citizens;oneatingit,onewould“notforget nationalcrisis”(seefigure9). grounds thattoysshouldbeforplayingand notforeating (unspecified) educationalprinciples,aschildren were told, bright colorsandclever designs,were devisedfullyinaccordancewith instructive tinfoilwarships, cars,locomotives, trumpetsanddinnersets. claimed theZhenyiEducationalChildren’sToyFactory,itsingeniousand to benurturedbymeansofeducation,forwhichtoyswere key:hence, buzzword intheiradvertising campaigns. the 1920s–forotherproducerstoavoidmomentous“educational” While someoftheseitems maynotfitthestandardnotionofeduca- Even time-honorededibleplaythings–despisedbytheoristsonthe Great ChinaCelluloidbaby-dolls,animalsandpuppets,withtheir Just likebuildingsthatrequiredsolidfoundations,futuretalentsought 80 while itstrains,tramsandmotorcarscouldostensibly a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S 81 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 84 buttheywere notalone.Because Toytrainsandcarssoldbytheupscale 82 andincreasinglyfrom 88 Sometoyswere said 89

90 86 87 unsurprisingly –became whileparents Likewise, 85 83 91

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / and definingitinsteada“beneficialtoy,” “robust citizens.” United States)thecapacitytotrainsightandarmstrength,thusnurturing of fathers.Besidessafetyandverisimilitude, itsvirtuesincluded(asinthe age-differentiation andstillshowingboys,occasionallyinthecompany related tonational“survival.” put forward sincetheearly1900sbyintellectualsasanurgentmatter, nation-strengthening. Fosteringrobustnessandamartialspirithadbeen of the“educational”tag;andsellingpower ofchild/toy-propelled also underscoretheblurredcontoursof“toy”concept;thebreadth in Chinatopeddleplaythingsadultsandadultifiedchildren.They capable ofcultivating amartialspirit, were thusmarketed toyoungstersandadultsas“gamesforcitizens” nation-strengthening andeducationalcapacities. exploit mobilizationinordertosell,appealingmilitaryys’alleged chose metalcarsandequally “educational”cannontopromoteitself Japan in1937.Theinspiringly namedChinaEducationalToyFactory Japanese invasion ofManchuria in1931andtheoutbreakofwar against prominence ofmilitantnationalism–andlooming conflict,withthe other producers,throughoutthe1920s. ing” Daisy was presentedasconducive tolearning“themanlyartof shoot- in periodicalsforchildrenandadults.Whileonthe American marketthe Showing aboyholdingtherifle,advert appearedwithidenticalcopy claims withtherationalethatChinesechildren,too,coulduseDaisy. a 1920advertisement forthe American Daisy Air Rifle,motivating such components, includingpatrioticmobilization. by meansofpatrioticconsumption. through thepatrioticactivismthattheywouldinstill;andcommercially, the military; “the habitofmilitantcitizenship”andgave childrensomeknowledge of not beconsideredaplaything,butratheranessentialitemforeducation, hood.” “a martialspiritisindispensable,anditmustbecultivated fromchild- ambivalent untilthelate1920s, among the“schoolprizes.” children’s toy.” With theirlocalization,theseadverts highlightthestrategiesused Commercial Pressmilitary-themedpicturecards andboardgames This brandingintensifiedinthe1930s,conjunction withgrowing “China isabouttobecomeastrongnation!Chinahashope!”announced Toys were marketedalsoasweapons todefendChina:spiritually, 4. Protectthenation 92 andtodeveloping robustself-reliance,theChinesewere toldthat 93 A fewyears latertheDaisywas againpromoted,stillwithout 102 theywere and indeedlabeled“educational,”bythePress 97

94 Copywavered between statingthattheDaisycould 101 Militarytoys,thePressclaimed,nurtured 98 99 Although opinionsonmilitarytoyswere a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S producerswere fromthe 1910squickto Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 100 whilewoodenairgunswere 96 oreven “themostvaluable 95

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / items, “emergency educationaltoys.” in 1933, however). goods, albeitatacheaper price(someparentsfoundthemexpensive, manufactured sowell thattheycould perfectly keeppacewithimported goods,” repeatedlyclaimeditsplaythingsto befullynationalproducts, specifically suitableforChinesechildren, cultivate children’spatriotismbymeansoftoyssometimes marketedas were thusdevisedtoconvinceconsumersrejectforeigntoys –orto advertising claims,deployingquality,affordability,nationalismandfear, foreign itemsshouldnotbeacquired. toys explainedtheconsumptionofimports,generalopinionwas that edge. Thoughsomeconcededthatthesupposedlylowvalue ofChinese foreign playthingsbegetforeignness,relayingalienattributesandknowl- duty. Thecoreissuedidnotconcernquality,butratherthepossibilitythat the nation,obliterating–fromstarttheirabilitytoaccomplish the influenceofwrongtoyscouldbefataltospirittherescuers the capacitytonurturechildreninways thatwouldnever beforgotten, existence didnotsuittheconstructoffailure.Playthings being attributed albeit limited,were tendentiallyoverlooked, perhapsbecausetheir striving moreover toexportthem.Incidentally,China’sowntoyexports, between toysandpower: strongcountrieswouldproducesuperiortoys, the countryinallrespects.Fromearly1910s,aconnectionwas made the nationalchildanddisrupteconomy,thusweakening among intellectualsandpedagoguesthattheforeigntoycouldcorrupt ing foreignplaythingswas notdeemedpatriotic.Thefearwas widespread market even foreignproducts. Yet, inChinaasothercountries,consum- chiefly tounderminedChinese-nessandeconomic lossescaused related to“nationalsalvation.” Ifuntilthelate1920sconcernpertained tising consistentlyattemptedtoinstillinconsumers asenseofurgency, ence fromtheirimportedcounterparts.Beginninginthelate1910s,adver- had beentheultimateenemysinceinvasion ofManchuriain1931. foreign toys,mostnotablyby“enemy”ones – namelyJapanese,asJapan even thephysical wellbeing ofchildrenwas claimedtobethreatenedby imported toysingeneral,anoticeablechange tookplaceinthe1930s,when children’s national(minzu tank, whichostensiblycould“inspirechildren’sscientificthought;arouse in 1939itsmechanicaltoysbyportrayingaboywithanelephantand with play,” tional ToolsManufacture,purveyors oftoysthat“combinededucation The CommercialPress,thatoftenurgedcustomers to“usenational Unsurprisingly, localproducersseizedtheopportunity. An arrayof was acatchword,somuchthatitwas appropriatedto 110 103 butthiswas construedas atemporarynecessity, oranexpedient whiletheChungHwa BookCompanyandChinaEduca- 109 104 Untiltheearly1920s, the companywas alsoselling foreign marketedin1937woodenmodelairplanes tochildrenas 民族) 105 consciousness.” a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S TheChinaCan,onitspart,advertised Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 107 108 yet showingnoevidentdiffer- 106 by o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 1930s; ing appeal.CheapJapaneseitemswere widelypurchasedwell intothe be beratedfortheirsuperficialattitude,butforeigntoyshadendur- until atleastthemid1930s. campaigns tobeandbuypatriotic,importsseeminglycontinuedsoar foreign or,worse,“enemygoods”were boundtoregrettheirnegligence. should purchaseasafe“national”ball,sinceconscience-lessconsumersof tuberculosis, thunderedtheYonghe: ifparentsloved theiroffspring,they was onlyathirdofforeignplaythings.’ inform theirparentsthatthepriceofitsclever yet robustmechanicaltoys means tocultivate competentcharacters/bodies. playthings. habit touseChinesegoods,startingfrom(itsowncheapandingenious) nent method”torescuethenationconsistedincultivating children’s infancy. Inparticular,theGreatChinaexplainedthattruly“perma- alerted parentsthatprovidingnative toyswouldfosterpatriotismfrom otism, boththeZhongxingCelluloidandGreatChinaCelluloid not cherishthelifeoftheiroffspring. poison,” producedforeignchildren,andparentswhopurchasedthemdid otic compatriots”shouldbuynationalplaythings:alientoys,or“foreign concept wouldbeimpressedinchildren’smindsduringplay.“Patri- its inexpensive toys’very brandnurturedpatriotism,whosenameand children’s toys,”namely American airship-shaped balloons. Colgate Palmolive publicizedalimited-timepremium:“rareandbeautiful acquired roleoftoolscaused themtoattainmorelabels.Ingenuity Conclusion it matteredlittletosomewhetheraplaything wasdomesticorforeign. mational tools, and one’s improvement was also the nation’s, then perhaps economic andculturalinvasion. Ontheotherhand,iftoyswere transfor- image discursively disseminatedwas oneofChinapassively enduring exoticism, quality,fashion,andstatus. away Laidlawwhoboughtenoughchildren’sgoods. Western toys”awaited Chinese customersoftheTianjinbranchWhite- tional lever. In1930,forinstance,acomplimentarygiftof“exquisite were ostensiblyitsraisonsd’être. and supportforeducation,throughclever yet affordableplaythings, – thathadbeenthusfarimported:recovery ofChina’seconomicrights how ithadenteredthebusinesstoprovidenecessarycommodities–toys None oftheselevers appeartohave proved very persuasive. Despite Recasting baby-dollsorpingpongballsaspotentproducersofpatri- When toyswere stillgadgets,theywere advertised assuch;their Consumers, insum,choseactively and pragmatically,althoughthe 118 andupmarketEuropeanplaythingshadtheallureofnovelty, 114 Pragmatically, the China Can suggested thatchildrenshould Pragmatically,theChinaCansuggested 117 Parents, especiallymothers,couldwell a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S 112 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ThePatriotic ToyCo.claimedthat 113 119 115 Infact,theycouldbeapromo- “Enemy”ballscouldprovoke 111 TheZhenyiexplained 120 Likewise,in1931 121

116

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / (as deployment ofa“framereference,” provided themwithsuchgenialtools. of theirparents,relatives oreducators,whoseinformedawareness had tively. Therebytheycorroboratedtheirowncognizantmodernityandthat playthings conveyed tothem,improved themselves andChinaprospec- tanks –tograsptheeducationalandscientificprinciplesthatpatriotic that bouncedorspedalong,nourishedenough–perhapswithcandy children. Comfortablyclothedyoungsters,freetomove besidetoys real marketinglever. was relevant, butwhattoyspurportedtorepresentanddeliver was the – thatpromisedandsimultaneouslyconfirmedimprovement. Tangibility tags: affection,patriotism,intelligentstyle, broadlyunderstoodeducation material modernity,was accompaniedandbolsteredbyotherimmaterial a mobile,enhancedChina,asopposedtomotionlessone.Ingenuity,or playthings –nomatteriftheirshapes were actuallyage-old–embodied mechanical itemsinparticular,butalsocolorful,attractive andbouncing remained, albeitdolledupasstate-of-the-artmanufacture:celluloidand than indiscriminateacquisition; funwas legitimatedbyinstructive ness; love becamecompetentaffection,entailing carefulselectionrather sophisticated pursuitof style andbeneficial modernity,againstbackward- exploited. Advertisements recastcuriosityandstatus-seeking aseducated, please. Noneofthesefactorsfitthecognizant fabrication,butsomewere playthings outofimpulse,curiosity,status, fun, love, anddesireto the novel, fashionableandingeniousperse. education orChina’sfate,butequallytheymay have beeninterestedin than reason.Namely,adultsandchildrenwere probablyconcernedwith un- many “educational,”“patriotic,”“ingenious”toyswas thereforenot pensable toolsfornation-building,learningandparenting.Purchasing superfluous luxuries,toys were marketed–asinGermany toys preciselythroughtheconstructofcognizantmodernity.Instead acting thelessconvenient strandsofparsimonyandscornforindustrial (that toysbenecessary,educational,modernandnational),whilecounter- “frame ofreference.” Advertising exploited itsmostmarketabletenets indeed theywere inherentinthenewtoydiscourse,itselfpartof Education, patriotism,science,were allvery intelligiblenotions–and modified discoursesofcitizenshiphadturneditintoadesirableasset. not have beenamajorsellingpointinthe1870s,whereasby1910s acceptance reinforcedthemessage.Honingamartialspirit,forone,may building talentsthatcouldbesharedandemployed forstrengtheningChina.

was producingthem),sinceplaythingswere efficaciousinstrumentsfor Toy promotiondeveloped outofnegotiatedappropriationand The same, Toy consumption,however, mayhave beenmoreleisureandpleasure thrifty self-centeredness,butratherajudicious andlegitimateventure mutatis mutandis,was truetoasignificantextentfor a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 122 whosesharedunderstandingor Ortheymayhave purchased 124 – asindis- 123

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / rights seldomincluding,itseems,therighttobepointlesslypuerile. “domesticated.” within discourse,playreflectedadultconcernsandchildren’sleisurewas nate subjects,lecturedinafairlydidacticfashion.Inmostadvertising as ostensibly thecognizantprotagonists–cameacrossasrathersubordi- not indulgein“harmful”orcasualrecreation:theyplayed toimprove. outcomes. Thecognizantlymoderndidnotspend:theyinvested. Theydid While playthingswere conveyed asagents,childrenandadults– 125 Childishnesswas quiteremote–theoft-citedchildren’s a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figures Figure 1.

Da Zhonghuasailuluoadvertisement, Jilianhuikan a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 no.14(1930): 25. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 2 . Zhongxingsailuluoadvertisement, Jilianhuikan a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 no.94(1934):44. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 3 . Shangwuyinshuguanadvertisement, Ertongjiaoyuhuano.80(1917):n.p. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 4 . DaZhonghuasailuluoadvertisement, Ertongshijie 30,no.7(1933):n.p. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 5 . Yonghe shiye gongsiadvertisement, Shenbao a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 18.05.1933: 14. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 6 . Shangwuyinshuguanadvertisement, Funüzazhi4,no.11(1918):n.p. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 7 . Shangwuyinshuguanadvertisement, Shaonianzazhi a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 12, no.9(1922):n.p. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 8 . Shangwuyinshuguanadvertisement, Ertongshijie30,no.9(1933):n.p. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 9 . Guanshengyuangongsiadvertisement, Xiandaifumu a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 1,no.1(1933):n.p. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 26. Quaker Oatsadvertisement inFunüzazhi 25. See Pan 1998;Cochran1999b;Gerth2003; 7. Funder &Companyadvertisements inShenbao 6. Wilson &Companyadvertisement inShenbao11.01.1880:6. 5. Xin’an taiadvertisements inShenbao07.03.1878:7,15.03.1878:6.Yang xiaonan( 4. Shenbao 20.11.1873:5. 3. See Kopytoff1986,67-68;Baudrillard1970,77. 2. See Cochran2006,62-63. 1. Aiguo wanju zhiguanchangadvertisement inJilianhuikan Notes 24. Sihang chuxu hui advertisement in 23. On thehistoryofadvertising inChina,seeCochran1999;Yang 2006;Pan 2008,chap. 22. On intersectionsbetween discourseandcommercialinterests, seeLee1999,55,67-76; 21. On thediscourseoftoys,seeGu1907;Jia1912;LiShenXuFuyuan1913; 20. As shownbypaintingsandartifacts:seeGuoligugongbowuyuan1991;Wicks 2002; 19. Elsewhere, too,misgivingsexistedonmerelyamusingtoys:seeMiller1987,153; 18. Concern withthematerialenvironment’sinfluenceonchildren was notuniqueto 17. Consider theconceptoffetaleducation:seeDespeux2003,90-93. 16. For earlyassociationsoftoyswithlearning,seeHsiung2005,228;Leung1994,393 15. On thediscourseofchildhood,seeJing1905;Zhao1911;Zong1916;Xie1917, 14. See Cunningham2005,chaps.6,7;Kelly2007;Jones2010. 13. Wartella 1990,174. 12. On childhoodinpremodernChina,seeLee1984;Dardess1991;Kinney1995;Kinney 11. Liang 1897,1900. 10. See Saari1990;Farquhar1999;Bai2001and2008;Borevskaya 2001;Rabut2003;Culp 9. Song 1925,51;Momilkadvertisement inLiangyouno.10(1926):n.p.;discussedLee 8. See Baudrillard1970,113. 7, no. 25 (1932): 404. tisements inShenghuozhoukan 6,no.30(1931):649,Shenghuozhoukan7,25(1932):404. 洋小男) were apparentlytheprecursorstobabydolls( in 121-154. Onchildrenonproductlabels,seeCahan2006, 100-108. contemporary accountsofRepublicaneraadvertising, seeCrow1937;Billings-Yun, 5. Onnewspaperadvertising attheturnof thetwentieth century,seeMittler 2013.For and Jones2002:717-723,whoalsodiscussestoyadvertising. Zanasi 2015. Sun 1936.SeealsoFernsebner2003.Ondebatesaboutconsumptionandfrugality,see Yu Jifan1933;LiDe1934;L Chen Yongsheng 1931;ChenJiyun1933;Qing 1933;Wang Guoyuan1933;Yang Su1933; Wang Muqing1927;Feng1929;Wang1927; Huaiqi1929;XuYasheng1927; Sun 1929; Chen Heqin1924and1925;Zhang1924;Hua1926;Pinjuan Guo Yiquan 1920;Ye 1920;Jiaoyubu1922;XiaoXie“Ertongwanju” 1923; Bao 1915;Wei 1917;Yu 1917;LiWenquan 1918;LiJinzaoJia1919;Ding1920; Wang 2004. Cross 1997,9,33-34,andchap.5;Chudacoff2007,chaps.2-3. China: seeForty1986,71-72. and n.64,412. 1935; Zhang1935. Lin 1930;Mai1930,375-377;Shen1932;Qiu1933;Lu1934;QinSunGe 179-199; Lu1919;ChenHeqin1921;Xian1922;Chiang1924;Song1925;Feng1927; 2004; Bai2005;Hsiung2005. 2007; Jones2011. 1999, 71. Funü zazhi 11, no. 1 (1925): n.p. 11,no.1(1925):n.p. 1934;Qian1935;Yang Chenru 1935;SuZhong Funü zazhi 9, no. 12 (1923): n.p.; Colgate advertisement a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 10,no.10(1924):n.p.;Sanyou shiye sheadver- Zanasi 2006;Tsai 2010. 15.12.1907:7,and11.12.1908:7. yang nannan洋囡囡). no.34(1931):23. 1927; Feng 1927; Feng o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 49. Established inShanghai in1897,theShangwuYinshuguan beganwithschool 48. See figure3andnote51. 47. On textprominenceinadvertising, seeWuandLien2013;Tsai 2010,27. 46. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inErtongjiaoyuhuano.17(1914):n.p.; 45. Aiguo advertisement inJilianhuikan 44. Shangwu yinshuguan advertisement in Funü zazhi 9, no. 12 (1923): n.p.; Da Zhonghua 43. See Baudrillard1970,88. 42. On themoredialogicalrelationshipbetween advertising andchildrearingdiscourse 41. See Davidson1992,10,26,28. 40. On “moral”constructionofbusinessin America, seeCook2004,54-63. 39. Kodak advertisements inDongfangzazhi 38. Kodak advertisement inFunüzazhi 37. See Xu1926;Lu1935;MaandZhang1936;Shanghaichubanshe1939. 36. Victrola advertisement inFunüzazhi16,no.10(1930):52. 35. Jiating gongye sheadvertisement inJilianhuikanno.14(1930):13. 31. Wuzhou dayaofang advertisement inJilianhuikan 30. Arcola advertisement inDongfangzazhi 29. On simple,compoundandcomplexadvertisements, seeDyer 1982,89,91. 28. For asimilarprocesswiththerepresentationofwomen,seeDalLago2000. 27. See Guoligugongbowuyuan1991;Wang Lianhai2004;Wang Shucun1988,figs.32and 34. Guanshengyuan shipingongsiadvertisement inXiandaifumu 33. See Seki1903;Jing1905:39-41. 32. Quaker Oatsadvertisement inDongfangzazhi chaps. 4and5. instruments, sportequipment, andtoys:seeDrège1978,Lee1999,47-64;Reed2004, primers, extendingitsoutput toencompassbooks,periodicals,stationery,musical no. 7(1933):n.p. zhoukan 5,no.28(1930):465,Shenghuo34577, Ertong shijie30, jiaoyu huano.80(1917):n.p.;DaZhonghuasailuluoadvertisements in Shenghuo advertisement inJilianhuikan Western appearancein adverts, seeHo2005,72-74. advertisements inJilianhuikan advertisements inJilianhuikan in theUnitedStatesupto1940s,seeJacobson1997:590;Cross2004:185. accessed 10.09.2015. point was fun:seeVintage Ad Browser, “more thanatoy,”orasproviderof“wholesomefun,”fromthe1910stheselling called anappropriatepresent,thoughnota“gift;”while1900sadspeddleditas 10 (1927):n.p. A sampleof American advertisements showsthattheBrowniewas 78 (1933):19;Wuzhouadvertisement inJilianhuikan 52; Wang Shucun1991,1:fig.271,and2:668; Wei1987,1-6;Barrott Wicks2002. and itsChinamarketingstrategies,seeBaum2013. (1931): 48;Dongfangzazhi n.p.; Funüzazhi13,no.5(1927):Dongfang Funü zazhi advertisement inDongfangzazhi advertisement inXiandaifumu advertisement inJilianhuikan Pang 2007,116-117;seealsothepostersreproducedinBai2003,166andLaing2004,plate36. advertisements forQiulinandFengtianTaiyang cigarettesreproducedin Yi 1995,69,and 2, no.1(1934):25;Yisheng xiangpizhiwugongchangadvertisement in Dongfang zazhi 8, no. 2 (1922):n.p.; Funü zazhi 10,no. 2 (1924):n.p.; Xiandai fumu 22,no.9(1925):n.p.;Zhongguoneiyigongsiadvertisement inXiandaifumu 32,no.19(1935):n.p.OntheDr.Williams’ MedicineCompany no.64(1933):27. 1,no.2(1933):n.p.; Allenburys MilkPowder no.94(1934):44. no.13(1930):39,Jilianhuikan no.12(1930):47,Jilianhuikan 34,no.15(1937):n.p.;Dr.Williams’ advertisements in a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S 12,no.11(1926):n.p. no.21(1930):22;Zhongxingsailuluochang Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 21,no.19(1924):n.p.;Welch’s advertisement in http://www.vintageadbrowser.com,last 23,no.20(1926):n.p.;Dongfangzazhi 23, no. 7 (1926): n.p.; Lactogen 23,no.7(1926):n.p.;Lactogen no. 111 (1935): 44. For cigarettes, see no.111(1935):44.Forcigarettes,see no.54(1932):11;Yonghe shiye gongsi no. 61 25,no.24(1928):n.p.;Liangyou61 2,no.1(1934):41. Funü zazhi no.18(1930):11.On no.15(1930):15; Aiguo Jilian huikan 11, no. 11 (1925): 11, no. 11 (1925): no. no. 24,no. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 59. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inFunüzazhi4,no.2(1918):n.p.; 58. See Yi 2005,17-24;Hang1987,238. 57. On thesocialandculturalroleofgoodsconsumption,see Appadurai 1986,31; 56. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisement inDongfangzazhi 55. See “Tongnianquwei” 1927;“Bangjiazhiji”1935. 54. Kangyuan zhiguanchangadvertisement inGuohuoshiye 1935,n.p.;Zhonghuashuju 53. Da Zhonghuaadvertisements inJilianhuikan 52. Yonghe advertisements inShenbao18.05.1933:14,Jilianhuikan 51. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inErtongshijie17,no.5(1926):n.p.;andFunü 50. Da Zhonghuaadvertisement inJilianhuikan 76. Shangwu yinshuguan advertorial “Shuoxinnianyouxi”inShaonianzazhi 77. Shangwu yinshuguan advertisements inFunüzazhi3,no.5(1917):n.p.; Jiaoyu zazhi 75. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inJiaoyuzazhi 74. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inDongfangzazhi 73. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inJiaoyuzazhi 72. Daisy ManufacturingCo.advertisement inFunüzazhi 71. Da Zhonghuaadvertisement inJilianhuikan 70. Yonghe advertisement inJilianhuikan 69. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisement in Funüzazhi9,no.12(1923):n.p.; Aiguo 68. Da Zhonghuaadvertisement inQuanguotushuguan2003,7:854. 67. Aiguo advertisement inJilianhuikan 66. Da Zhonghuaadvertisement inJilianhuikan 65. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisement in Funüzazhi5,no.10(1919):n.p. 64. Da Zhonghuaadvertisement inJilianhuikan 63. Da Zhonghuaadvertisements inJilianhuikan 62. Zhongxing advertisement inShanghai jizhi1935,70;DaZhonghuaadvertisement 61. Yangqi gongsiadvertisement inGuangzhoushi1932,n.p. 60. Aiguo advertisement inJilianhuikan Money 2007,356. advertisement inXiaopengyouhuabao (1930): 27. sort ofchildren’srhyme. zazhi in Jilianhuikan (1920): n.p. (1920): n.p.ongamesasdifferent fromtraditionalones. hua no.48(1914):n.p.;Xueshengzazhi1,6and Dongfang zazhi hua no.17(1914):n.p. (1909): n.p.;Xueshengzazhi1,no.1(1914):andtheunusualadin Ertong jiaoyu with updatedillustrationinErtongjiaoyuhuano.52(1915):n.p.; Jiaoyu zazhi zazhi huikan no.7(1930):13. advertisement inJilianhuikan (1930): 13,Jilianhuikan reproduced inQuanguotushuguan2003,7:854. 6, no.6(1934):40. no. 11(1918):n.p.;Jiaoyuzazhi Dongfang zazhi n.p.; Dongfangzazhi 4, no.11(1918):n.p.;Shaonianzazhi in Jilianhuikan no. 1(1922):n.p.;Funüzazhi14,9(1928):Dongfang 12,no.10(1926):n.p.Theseadsarequiteunusualinclaimandcopy,whichisa 1,no.5(1914):n.p.;Dongfangzazhi no.12(1930):25; Aiguo advertisement inJilianhuikanno.26(1931):42. no.9(1930):26;Shangwuyinshuguanadvertisements inFunüzazhi 24,no.22(1927):n.p.;Ertongshijie27,21(1931):jiaoyu 17,no.2(1920):n.p.;Funüzazhi7,12(1921):8, no.14(1930):25. no.24(1930):9;DaZhonghuaadvertisement inJilian 13,no.12(1921):n.p.;Funüzazhi11,9(1925): a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S 8,no.12(1918):n.p.;Jiaoyuzazhi no.64(1933):11. no.18(1930):11;DaZhonghuaadvertisement Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 no.66(1937):backcover. no.78(1933):52. 12,no.7(1915):n.p. no.16(1930):40;Yonghe advertisement no.7(1930):13. no.12(1930):47. no.15(1930):15. no.9(1930):26,Jilianhuikan no.11(1930):8,Jilianhuikan Onpromotiongames,seeLo 2004. 3,no.5(1911):n.p.;Ertongjiaoyu 4,no.10(1912):n.p.;Xuesheng 10,no.11(1924):n.p. 17,no.16(1920):n.p. 5,no.6(1908):n.p.;reprinted no.80(1933):14. 29,no.8(1932):n.p. 12,no.1(1920): 17,no.1 no.10 no.13 10,no.2 1,no.1 4,

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 79. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inJiaoyuzazhi 78. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inErtongjiaoyuhuano.80(1917):n.p.;Jiaoyu 95. Daisy advertisements inFunüzazhi 91. Guanshengyuan advertisements inFunüzazhi14,no.12(1928):n.p.;17, 90. See Guo1920,12;Yang 1935:26. 89. Yonghe advertisements inJilianhuikan 88. Zhongxing advertisement inJilianhuikan no.92(1934):54.OntheZhongxingsailuluo 87. Da Zhonghuaadvertisement inJilianhuikan 86. Da Zhonghuaadvertisement inErtongshijie31,no.8(1933):n.p.OntheDa 85. Advertisement fortheToyDepartmentinXianshigongsi1925,n.p.OnSincere 84. Aiguo advertisements inGuohuoyuebao1,no.1(1924):n.p.;Jilianhuikan 83. Zhenyi advertisements inGuohuoyuebao1,no.1(1924):n.p.; 1,no. 82. Already in1915,theZhonghuashujuadvertised itsgamesandchartsas 81. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisement inFunüzazhi4,no.11(1918):n.p. 80. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisement inJiaoyuzazhi 94. Daisy advertisements inFunüzazhi 93. Daisy Manufacturingadvertisements in Shaonianzazhi 92. Cross 1997,111;seealso24,112,andthereproduction ofan American Daisyadvert. n.p.; Funüzazhi12,no.10(1926):13,5(1927):Dongfang zazhi n.p.; Dongfangzazhi 4, no.11(1918),Dongfangzazhi zazhi Funü zazhi 9, no.6(1917):n.p.;Xueshengzazhi4,7Funü see Hebeisheng1934,462-463;Shanghaijizhi1947,46-48. Established in1918,theYonghe shiye gongsimanufactured,interalia,rubbertoys: Shanghai jizhi1935,65-69;Guohuoshiye 1935, partE:34-35. chang, producerofcelluloidgoodsandtoys,establishedin1933-34Shanghai,see established inShanghai1928,seeBureau773;Guohuoshiye 1935b,196-198. Zhonghua sailuluozhizaochang,large-scaleproducerofcelluloidgoodsandtoys company, seeChan1996;Lien2009. established in1919,seeShanghaishidang’anguan 1933-1942;“ToyManufacturers”1926. 39. Onthe Aiguo wanju zhiguanchang,aShanghaimedium-scaletoymanufacture Shanghai shidang’anguan 1933-1942;Bureau1933,772. chang resumedoperationsintheearly1920sandmanufacturedtinfoiltoys:see 2 (1924):n.p.Firstestablishedin1916Shanghai,theZhenyijiaoyuertongwanju 2004, chap.5. (1915): n.p.OntheZhonghuashuju,establishedin1912,seeYuandLiu2002;Reed “educational” andabletostimulatetheintellect:seeZhonghuaxueshengjie (1932): n.p.;Ertongshijie30,no.9(1933):Dongfangzazhi zazhi 1997, 111-112. nerve thatwillreinforce[theboy]forthebattleof life inlater years”: quotedinCross “lessons ofmanliness,self reliance, keennessofeye, andsteadinessof handand (1924): n.p.Thispromotionwas quiteakin to American claimsthattherifleprovided zazhi (as atoy),focusingonitsfeaturesandrenownthe American market:seeDongfang Dongfang zazhi as a“trainingtoshoot”:quotedinLi2013:12. Shenbao declaringoppositionto“Japaneseimperialism”and suggesting pistolcandy no. 11(1931):n.p.;Xiandaifumu 12,no.9(1922):n.p.;Funüzazhi9,(1923):Ertongshijie16,2(1925): 10,no.6(1918):n.p. 26,no.20(1929):n.p.;Ertongshijie29,5(1932):Dongfangzazhi 16,no.9(1919):n.p. 5,no.10(1919):n.p. 17,no.18(1920):n.p.Theairgunhadbeenalreadyadvertised earlier 17,no.2(1920):n.p.;Jiaoyuzazhi 16,no.7(1919):n.p.;Shaonianzazhi 1,no.1(1933):n.p.Seealsotheir1931advert in 10,no.10(1924):n.p.;Ertongshijie 11,no.12(1924):n.p. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S 11,no.1(1925):n.p.;Ertongshijie12,10 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 no.55(1932):41,Jilianhuikan no.5(1930):17. 9,no.9(1917):n.p. 10,no.12(1918):n.p.;Funüzazhi 13,no.12(1921):n.p.;Shaonian 10,no.12(1920):n.p.; 32,no.21(1935):n.p. 4,no.2(1918):n.p.; 9,no.11(1919): no.69(1933):12. no. 13(1930): 1,no.12 29,no.7 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 114. Zhongxing advertisement inJilianhuikanno.100(1934):65;DaZhonghua 113. Aiguo advertisements inGuohuoyuebao1,no.1(1924):n.p.; Jilianhuikan 112. Zhenyi advertisements inZhonghuaguohuoweichihui 1923, n.p.;Guohuoyuebao1, 97. Daisy advertisements inFunüzazhi 111. “Not strong,thenperish”was theDarwinistsloganusedtopromotesport 110. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisement inFunüzazhi9,no.12(1923):n.p. 100. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inJiaoyuzazhi 99. See Bao1915;Jia1919;Jiaoyubu1922;Jing1923;ChenHeqin1924and1925;Boyou 98. For themostwell-known viewonthis,seeLiang1903,1:615-621.Onattitudestothe 96. Daisy advertisements inFunüzazhi 109. Cheng 1920:17;andShangwuyinshuguanadvertisements inDongfangzazhi 108. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inDongfangzazhi 107. See Li1912:15-16;1918:3;Yang 1925;Zhang1926:2;Tao 1928,108-110;Xu 106. Kangyuan advertisement inYong’an yuekanno.1(1939):n.p.Thewell-established 105. Zhonghua jiaoyuyongju/Zhonghuashujuadvertisement inXiaopengyouno.758 104. Zhonghua jiaoyuyongjuzhizaochang/Zhonghuashujuadvertisement inXiao 103. Zhongguo jiaoyuwanju changadvertisement inJilianhuikan 102. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisements inFunüzazhi4,no.11(1918):n.p.;Shaonian 101. Shangwu yinshuguanadvertisement inJiaoyuzazhi advertisements inQuanguotushuguan 2003,7:854,Shenghuozhoukan5,no.40(1930): n.p.; Funüzazhi11,no.9(1925):14,(1928): Dongfang zazhi (1930): 22,Jilianhuikan no. 1(1924):n.p.;Guohuoyuebao1,2n.p. advertisement forschoolequipmentinJiaoyuzazhi products thatitstillcouldnotmanufacturewouldbe orderedfromabroad:see see advertisement inFunüzazhi equipment importedfrom America forstrengtheningChinesestudents’ bodies: 1925. military, seeGreen2011,155-157. 26, no.20(1929):n.p.;Dongfangzazhi Dongfang zazhi 323-324. Margerum 1994,340;Formanek-Brunell1998,chap.6;McGovern 1998;Manson2001, 1999b, 2000,2006.Ontoyconsumptionandpatriotismin America andEurope,see 2003: 282-285;Jones2011,chap.4.Onnationalismandadvertising, seeCochran 1929: 16;He1933;HuangNai1936.OntoysandChinese-ness,seeFernsebner Guohuo shiye 1935b,75-76;Chen1957:1,615-617. manufacture ofmechanicalplaythingsinShanghai:seeShanghaijizhi1935,52-58; Kangyuan zhiguanchangenteredtoyproductionin1934,settingupalarge-scale (1937): n.p. 1936, sectionN,35. yongju zhizaochang,setupbytheZhonghuashuju:seeShanghaishitongzhiguan pengyou no.687(1935):n.p.Thesetoyswere manufacturedbytheZhonghuajiaoyu shi dang’anguan 1933-1942. the Zhongguojiaoyuwanju chang,re-establishedin1932Shanghai,seeShanghai zazhi did likewise:seeZhonghuajiaoyujie props forschooldrills:see and swordswere alsopromotedas“sportapparatuses”,sincetheycouldbeused jiaoyu huano.48(1914):n.p. zazhi 7 (1919):n.p.;Funüzazhi5,no.12Jiaoyu 12,no.9(1920):8;Funüzazhi 8, no.12(1918):n.p.;Dongfangzazhi 26,no.18(1929):n.p. no.34(1931):23,Jilianhuikan Dongfang zazhi 4,no.5(1918):n.p.ThePressclaimedthatonlythe 10,no.11(1924):n.p.;Ertongshijie15,1(1925):n.p. 10,no.12(1924):n.p.;Ertongshijie14,1(1925):n.p. 6,no.5(1920):14;Dongfangzazhi a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S 3,no.18(1914):n.p. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 29,no.8(1932):n.p. 16,no.7(1919):n.p. 16,no.8(1919):n.p.;theZhonghuashuju 11,no.9(1919):n.p. no.64(1933):11. 10,no.6(1918):n.p.Toyrifles 3,no.5(1911):n.p.;Ertong 25,no.20(1928):n.p.; 11,no.12(1919):n.p.;Jiaoyu no. 75(1933):57.On 18,no.3(1921): no.21 16,no.

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 125. On thedomesticationofrecreation,seeSutton-Smith1986,99,127,225. 124. See Hamlin2007,34-36,127,143-146. 123. On literary( 122. Dyer 1982,13. 121. Colgate Palmolive advertisement inFunüzazhi 120. Huiluo baihuogongsiadvertisement inBeiyang huabao 03.04.1930:2-3. 119. This moodiswell capturedinBeiyang 1929, 3;Hosie1929,161;Ding1933,185;Lao 118. See “Tuzhi ertong”1935;“Quniandewanju” 1937. 117. As lateas1936,childrenwere stillalertedtothesoaringoftoyimports:seeNai 116. Yonghe advertisements inJilianhuikan 115. Kangyuan advertisement inGuohuoshiye 1935,n.p. see Louie2002. 1934, 15;Qian1947,382. Customs 1939,II:610-611. 1912, 128-129;China.TheMaritimeCustoms1932,I:154-155;China. the 1900sto1931,beginningdroponlyaftermid1930s:seeBell,Woodhead net importsoftoysandgamesarereportedtohave increasedremarkablyfrom 1936. Although customsstatisticsareproblematic(seeHamilton1977:879),China’s 674, Shenghuozhoukan7,no.3(1932):60,Dongfangzazhi wen ) andmilitary(wuvalues withinChinesenotionsofmasculinity, a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 no.75(1933):6,Jilianhuikan 17,no.2(1931):6. 30,no.7(1933):n.p. no.79(1933):23. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / “Bangjia zhiji”邦家之基(given Englishtitle:Children,FoundationStonesofaNation). Bacon, C.A.1929.“Advertising inChina.” “Advertising Agencies inShanghai.”1927.TheChineseEconomicBulletin,vol.11,no.346, Primary sources References Cheng Yu成玉.1920.“Xiaohaizidebanlü”小孩子的伴侣 (Children’sMates).Funüzazhi Chen Zhen陈真,andal.(comps.).1957. Chen Yongsheng 陈庸声.1931.Wan yuchi顽与吃(Playing andEating).Shanghai:Xiao- Chen Pinjuan陈品娟女士.1927.“Ertongjiaoyu:muqindezeren”儿童教育:母亲的责任(The Chen Jiyun陈济芸.1933.Wanju yujiaoyu Chen Hua陈华(ed.).1926.Shijiyouzhiyuanxue Chen Heqin陈鹤琴.1939.“Ertongwanju yujiaoyu”儿童玩具与教育(Children’sToysand Chen Heqin陈鹤琴.1927.“Youzhiyuan zhishebei”幼稚园之设备(KindergartenEquip - Chen Heqin陈鹤琴.1925.“Wanju” 玩具(Toys).InChenHeqin.Wanju yujiaoyu Chen Heqin陈鹤琴.1924.“Ertongwanju zubaogao”儿童玩具组报告(ReportfromtheToy Chen Heqin陈鹤琴.1921.“Ertongxinlijijiaoyuertongzhifangfa” Bureau ofForeignTrade,MinistryIndustry(comp.).1933.ChinaIndustrialHandbooks: [Lü] Boyou[呂 Bell, H.T. Montague,H.G.WWoodhead.1912.TheChinaYear Book1912.London:Routledge. Beiyang huabaojizhe北洋画报记者.1929.“TianjinZhongOumaoyigongsizhi‘zhanlan’” Beiyang huabao Bao Qiong. Ding Xilun丁锡纶.1920.“Duiyuertongwanju de yijian”对于儿童玩具的意见(Opinions Shanghai:Liangyouwenxue congshu,1945. Ding Ling丁玲.1933.Muqin 母亲(Mother). Crow, Carl.1937.FourHundredMillionCustomers . London:HamishHamilton. China. The Maritime Customs. 1939. China. TheMaritimeCustoms.1932. Menglin].1924. AStudyinChinesePrinciplesofEducation.Shanghai: Chiang Monlin[Jiang 1935. Meishushenghuo pp. 191-192. shudian, vol.1. 资料 (SourceMaterialsontheHistoryofModernIndustry inChina).:Sanlian xing shudian. Education ofChildren:Mothers’Duty).Funüzazhi Shangwu yinshuguan. Science). Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. Yunnan shaonianertongchubanshe,pp.107-111. Education). InChenHeqin.Wanju yujiaoyu ment). Jiaoyuzazhi (Toys andEducation).:Yunnanshaonianertongchubanshe,1991,pp.34-43. Group). Xinjiaoyu pp. 135-146. 法 Kiangsu. Shanghai:BureauofForeignTrade,MinistryIndustry. Beiyang huabao 天津中欧贸易公司之‘ ship between ChildrenandToys).Zhonghuafunüjie ment oftheInspectorGeneral ofCustoms. Department oftheInspectorGeneralCustoms. Commercial Press. 妇女杂志, vol.6,no.2,pp.11-17. (ChildPsychologyandMethodstoEducateChildren). 宝琼女士. 1915.“Ertongyuwanju zhiguanxi” 北洋画报 (ThePei-yang PictorialNews).Tianjin:Beiyang huabaoshe. ] 伯攸 北洋画报, February2,p.3. . 1925.“Wan” 玩

, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 1-22. 教育杂志, vol.19,no.2,pp.1-22. , vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 1055-1059. 新教育, vol.9,no.5,pp.1055-1059. ’ (The ‘Exhibition’ of Tianjin’s Compagnie Sino-européenne). 展览’ (The‘Exhibition’ofTianjin’sCompagnieSino-européenne). 美术生活,no.19,n.p. (Play). Xiaopengyou The Trade of China, 1938. Shanghai: Statistical Depart- Foreign TradeofChina,1931.Shanghai:Statistical a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S (Toys and Education). Shanghai: 玩具与教育 (ToysandEducation).Shanghai: Zhongguo jindaigongye shiziliao中国近代工业史 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 Chinese EconomicJournal,

(Toys and Education). Kunming: 玩具与教育 (ToysandEducation).Kunming: (Practical Kindergarten 实际幼稚园学 (PracticalKindergarten

妇女杂志, vol.13,no.1,pp. 44-45. 中华妇女界, vol.1,no.9,pp.1-8. 小朋友, no.157,pp.33-34. 儿童与玩具之关系 (TheRelation- Xin jiaoyu 儿童心理及教育儿童之方 vol.5,no.3,pp.754-766.

, vol. 3, no. 2, 新教育, vol.3,no.2, 玩具与教育

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Dongfang zazhi Ge Chengxun Funü zazhi Feng Zikai丰子恺.1929.“Wanju dexuanze”玩具的选择(TheChoiceofToys).Xinnüxing Feng Zikai.丰子恺.1927.“Ertongdedarenhua”儿童的大人化(The Adultification of “Ertong wanju zhanlanhuishenchabaogaoshu”儿童玩具展览会审查报告书(Report Ertong shijie儿童世界(Children’sWorld).Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. Ertong jiaoyuhua儿童教育画(Children’sEducationalPictorial).Shanghai:Shangwu Ertong jiaoyu儿童教育(Children’sEducation).Shanghai:shuju. Guohuo shiye chubanshebianjibu国货事业出版社编辑部(ed.).1935b.Zhongguoguohuo Guohuo shiye chubanshebianjibu国货事业出版社编辑部(ed.).1935.Zhongguoguohuo Guangzhou shidi’er ciguohuozhanlanhuibianchagu广州市第二次国货展览会编查股 Gu Zhuo顾倬(comp.).1907.You’er baoyufa幼儿保育法 (EarlyChildcare).n.a.:Zhongguo Jiaoyu buputongjiaoyusi 教育部普通教育司(ed.).1922.Ertongwanju shenchabaogao儿 Jia Fengzhen贾丰臻.1919.“Jiaoyushangzhiwanju guan” 教育上之玩具观(Toysin Jia Fengzhen贾丰臻.1912.“Lunertongshehuizhijiaoyu” 论儿童社会之教育 (On Huang Jiafu黄家福.1933.“Congguohuoshengzhongshuodaoertongwanju” 从国货 Hosie, LadyDorothea.1929.PortraitofaChineseandCertainherContemporaries . Hebei shengguohuochenlieguan河北省国货陈列馆(ed.).1934. Guohuo niankan国货年刊 He Gongxing Hang Yu航羽(ed.).1987.Lidaizhuzhicixuan Guo Yiquan 郭义泉(comp.).1920.Wanju zhizuofa:shougongjiaocai Guoli gugongbowuyuanbianjiweiyuanhui 国立古宫博物院编辑委员会(ed.).1990. Guohuo yuebao国货月报(NationalGoodsMonthly).Shanghai:Zhongguoguohuoshe. 新女性, vol.4,no.6,pp.839-848. Children). Jiaoyuzazhi 441-464. on theChildren’sToysExhibitionSurvey). 1923.Xinjiaoyu yinshuguan. Manufacturers). Shanghai:Guohuoshiye chubanshe. gongchang shilue中国国货工厂史略(ABriefHistoryofChina’sNationalGoods chubanshe. nianjian 中国国货年鉴(ChinaNationalGoodsYearbook). Shanghai:Guohuoshiye Guangzhou: Guangzhoushidi’er ciguohuozhanlanhuibianchagu. 览会会务汇刊 (CollectedMaterialsonCanton’sSecondNationalGoodsExhibition). (ed.). 1932.Guangzhoushidi’er ciguohuozhanlanhuihuiwuhuikan广州市第二次国货展 tushu gongsi. no. 6,pp.55-56. 儿童的自由 (Children’sYear andChildren’sFreedom). on Children’sToys). jiaoyu si. 童玩具审查报告 (ReportontheSurvey ofChildren’sToys).Beijing:Jiaoyubuputong Education). Jiaoyuzazhi Children’s SocialEducation). May 18,p.13. 声中说到儿童玩具 (Children’sToysintheContextofNationalGoods). Shenbao London: HodderandStoughton,1930. (Almanac ofNationalGoods).Tianjin:Hebeishengguohuo chenlieguan. Shanghai). Shanghai:Zhonghuaguohuozhidaosuo. Through the Ages). Changsha:Hunanwenyi chubanshe. (How toMakeToys: A HandworkTextbook). Shanghai:Zhonghuashuju,1931. Yingxi tu婴戏图(Paintings ofChildrenatPlay). Taipei: Guoligugongbowuyuan. 妇女杂志(TheLadies’Journal).Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. 何躬行. 1932.Shanghaizhixiaogongye 上海之小工业(SmallIndustriesin 葛承训. 1935.“Congertongnianxiangdaodeziyou” 东方杂志(TheEasternMiscellany).Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. Funü zazhi 教育杂志,vol.19,nos.7and8,pp.1-3. 教育杂志,vol.11,nos.2,5,6,pp.11-16, 31-38,43-45. Jiaoyu zazhi 妇女杂志,vol.6,no.5,pp.14-18. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 教育杂志,vol.4,no.12,pp.227-232. 历代竹枝词选(Bamboo-branchPoems Jiaoyu zazhi 新教育,vol.7,no.5,pp. 玩具制作法:手工教材 教育杂志,vol.25, 从儿童年想到 申报, o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Meishu shenghuo Mai Huiting麦惠庭.1930. Zhongguo jiatinggaizaowenti 中国家庭改造问题(given English Ma Jingxuan,ZhangDashan马静轩,张达善(eds.).1936. Ertong yufumu Lü Tongbi呂同璧.1934.“Ertonghewanju: wanju shiertongdebixupin” 儿童和玩具: 玩 ______. 1934b.“Toys.”InLuXun.SelectedWorks.Beijing:ForeignLanguagesPress,1980, Lu Xun.1934.“An IllustratedPrimer.”InLuXun.SelectedWorks.Beijing:ForeignLanguages Lu Xun.1919.“WhatisRequiredofUsasFathersToday.” InLuXun. Lu Boyu陆伯羽.1935.Kuailejianghua Lu Boyu陆伯羽.1934.Zenyang jiaoyuertong Linglong Lin Zhongda林仲达. 1930. “Dui xinZhongguoqingnianfunütanertongjiaoyang wenti” Liangyou Liang Qichao梁启超.1903.“Lunshangwu”论尚武(OnMartialSpirit).InWuSong吴松and Liang Qichao梁启超.1900.“ShaonianZhongguoshuo”少年中国说(Young China).InWu Liang Qichao梁启超.1897.“Lunyouxue”论幼学(OnElementaryEducation).InWuSong, Li Wenquan 李文权.1918.“Zaishuowanju” 再说玩具(AgainonToys).Zhongguoshiye zazhi Li Wenquan 李文权.1912.“Shuowanju” 说玩具(OnToys).Zhongguoshiye zazhi Lao She老舍.1934.XiaoPodeshengri:changpiantonghua Jing Xun景逊.1923.“Ertongdeyouxijiwanju” 儿童的游戏及玩具(Children’sPlay and Jing Hua竞华.1905.“Ertongjiaoyuhua”儿童教育话(OntheEducationofChildren). Jilian huikan Jiaoyu zazhi Li Jinzao李金藻 Li De立得.1934.“Ertongdeyouxiyao baochijiaoyudeyiwei” 儿童的游戏要保持教育的 Lei Amei 雷阿梅.1937.“Youxi游戏中的学习 (LearningwhilePlaying). zhongdexuexi” title: ProblemofChineseFamily Reconstruction).Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. (Children andParents). Shanghai:Ertongshuju. fumu 现代父母,vol.2,no.pp.18-20. 具是儿童的必需品 (ChildrenandToys:ToysareaNecessityforChildren). vol. 4,pp.54-55. Press, 1980,vol.4,pp.46-48. Foreign LanguagesPress,1980,vol.2,pp.56-71. Shanghai: Changchengshuju. Childrearing). Funü 对新中国青年妇女谈儿童教养问题 (ToNewChineseYoung WomenontheQuestionof Annotated Edition).Kunming:Yunnanjiaoyuchubanshe,2001,vol.1,pp.615-621. al. (eds.).Yinbingshi wenji dianjiao Studio, Annotated Edition).Kunming:Yunnanjiaoyuchubanshe,2001, vol.2:697-700. Song andal.(eds.).Yinbingshi wenji dianjiao Edition). Kunming:Yunnanjiaoyuchubanshe,2001,vol.1,pp.47-57. Yinbingshi wenji dianjiao Lu Yunkun,Wang Wenguang, DuanBingchang 中国实业杂志, no.1,pp.2-4. 志 , vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 31-34. 育杂志, vol.10,no.7,pp. Toys). Funüzazhi Nüzi shijie Shanghai: ShanghaiJizhiguohuogongchanglianhehui. vol. 2,no.pp.21-22. 意味 Xiandai fumu Birthday: A Fable).Shanghai:Zuojiashuwu,1946. , no.5,pp.6-17. (Children’s Play Must Maintain an Educational Meaning). 玲珑 (LinloonMagazine).Shanghai:Linglongtuhuazazhishe. 良友 (TheYoung Companion).Shanghai:Liangyoutushuyinshuagongsi. 教育杂志(TheChineseEducationalReview).Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. 机联会刊(BulletinoftheNationalGoodsManufacturers’ Association). 女子世界,no.14,pp.33-41. . 1918.“Ertongwanju tan”儿童玩具谈(AboutChildren’sToys). 现代父母,vol.5,no.pp.15-18. 美术生活(ArtsandLife).Shanghai: Meishushenghuoshe. 妇女杂志,vol.9,no.4,pp.121-124. zazhi

饮冰室文集点校 (EssaysfromtheIce-drinker’s Studio, Annotated

妇女杂志, vol.16,no.12,pp.2-14.

饮冰室文集点校 (EssaysfromtheIce-drinker’s Studio,

快乐讲话 (OnHappiness).Shanghai:Shijieshuju. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 (How to Educate Children). 怎样教育儿童 (HowtoEducateChildren).

饮冰室文集点校 (EssaysfromtheIce-drinker’s (eds.). 吴松, 卢云昆王文光段炳昌(eds.). 小坡的生日:长篇童话(LittlePo’s Xiandai fumu . Beijing: Selected Works.Beijing: 儿童与父母 Jiaoyu zazhi

中国实业杂 Xiandai 现代父母,

教

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Su Wanfu 苏顽夫(ed.).1935.Youzhiyuan deshebei幼稚园的设备(KindergartenEquip- Song Jie宋介.1925.“Ertongjiujiwenti” 儿童救济问题(TheQuestionofChildRelief). “Shuru zhishizhiwanju” 输入知识之玩具(ToysthatConvey Knowledge). 1914.Zhili Shenghuo zhoukan生活周刊(TheLifeWeekly). Shanghai:Shenghuozhoukanshe. Shen Zhijian沈志坚.1932.“Zenyang zuoyigehaohaizi” 怎样做一个好孩子 (HowtoBea Shen Buzhou沈步洲.1912.“Lunyouyi”论游艺(OnRecreation). Jiaoyu zazhi Shenbao 申报(ShanghaiNews).Shanghai:guan. Shaonian zazhi Shao Mingjiu邵鸣九.1943.Woyuertong我与儿童(ChildrenandI).n.a.:Zhongguo Shanghai shitongzhiguannianjianweiyuanhui 上海市通志馆年鉴委员会(ed.).1936. Seki Shinzo关信三(comp.).1903.“Youzhi jiaoyuenwutushuo”幼稚教育恩物图说(Illus- Quanguo tushuguanwenxian suowei fuzhizhongxin全国图书馆文献缩微复制中心(ed.). “Qunian dewanju jinkouzongshuzhiwei qishijiuwan yiqianbabailiushiqiyuan” Shanghai: Qiu Zhusan裘祝三.1933.Ertonghemuqin儿童和母亲(ChildandMother). Qing Shan青山.1933.“Ertongwanju jianghua:wanju shiyizhongzhongyao dejiaoyu Qin Bo秦波.1934.“Ertongjieyingyongbiaoyu” Qian Zhongshu.1947.FortressBesieged Qian Gengshen钱畊莘.1935.“Ertongwanju dehua”儿童玩具的话(OnChildren’sToys). Nai Chang乃常.1936.“Wanju keyimaiguo”玩具可以卖国(ToysCanSelltheNation).In Shanghai shidang’anguan 上海市档案馆.1933-1942.CollectionQ275,part1,file2046. Shanghai jizhiguohuogongchanglianhehui Shanghai jizhiguohuogongchanglianhehuibianjibu Shanghai chubanshe上海出版社(ed.).1939.Jiatingleyuan家庭乐园(HomeLeisure). ment). Shanghai:Shangwu yinshuguan. Dongfang zazhi shiye zazhi Good Child).Ertongshijie儿童世界,vol.29,no.6,pp.4-6. vol. 4,no.12,pp.215-227. ertong jiaoyuxiehui. 1936). Shanghai:Zhonghuashuju. Shanghai shinianjian:minguonianwunian Industry). 玩具业调查资料 (ShanghaiCommercialandSavingsBankSurvey MaterialsontheToy fuzhi zhongxin. ials onEarlyExhibitionsinChina).Beijing:Quanguotushuguanwenxian suowei 2003. Zhongguozaoqibolanhuiziliaohuibian Imports at791,867Yuan).1937.Xiandaifumu 年的玩具进口总数值为七十九万一千八百六十七元 (LastYear’s Overall Value ofToy Dadong shuju. Relevant EducationalTool).Xiandaifumu gongju” 儿童玩具讲话:玩具是一种重要的教育工具(OnChildren’sToys:Toysarea Children’s Day).Xiandaifumu Xiandai 友 (TheShanghai Shenbao ertongzhoukanshe申报儿童周刊社(ed.).zhiyou申报儿童之 Shanghai Shanghai: Shanghaijizhiguohuogongchanglianhehui. (ed.). 1935.Gongshangshiliao工商史料(SourceMaterialsonIndustryandCommerce). Shanghai: Shanghaichubanshe. trated ExplanationofGiftsforPreschoolEducation).Jiaoyushijie Goods Manufacturers).Shanghai:Shanghaijizhiguohuogongchanglianhehui. guohuo gongchangquanmao fumu现代父母,vol.3,no.5,pp.28-29. Shangye chuxuyinghangyouguan wanju ye diaochaziliao 直隶实业杂志,no.11,pp.16-17. 少年杂志(TheYouth’s Magazine).Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. 东方杂志,vol.22,no.17,pp.50-69. NewsChild’sCompanion).Shanghai:Shenbaoguan,vol.1,pp.52-53. 中国国货工厂全貌(ACompletePictureofChineseNational 现代父母,vol.2,no.1,pp.42-43. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S . London:Penguin Books,2005. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 上海市年鉴:民国廿五年(ShanghaiYearbook 上海机制国货工厂联合会 (ed.).1947.Zhongguo 现代父母,vol.1,no.8,pp.28-29. 中国早期博览会资料汇编(CollectedMater- 现代父母,vol.5,no.3,p.37. 儿童节应用标语(SloganstoUseon 上海机制国货工厂联合会编辑部 教育世界,no.46,pp.1-11. 上海商业储蓄银行有关 教育杂志, 去 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Xu Fuyan 徐斧言.1913.“Wanju yuyouzhijiaoyuzhiguanxi”翫具与幼稚教育之关系(The Xie Zhimei谢植梅.1922.“Ertongyuwanju” 儿童与玩具(ChildrenandToys).Zhonghua Xie Wuliang谢无量.1917.Funüxiuyang tan 妇女修养谈(OnWomen’sMoralCultivation). Xiao xuesheng小学生(ElementarySchoolStudent).Shanghai:Beixinshuju. Xiao pengyouhuabao Xiao pengyou小朋友(LittleOnes).Shanghai:Zhonghuashuju. Xiao Encheng萧恩承.1922.Ertongxinlixue儿童心理学(ChildPsychology).Shanghai: Xianshi gongsi先施公司.1925.ershiwuzhoujiniance先施公司二十五周纪 Xiandai fumu Xiandai ertong现代儿童(ModernChildren).Shanghai:shuju. Xian Baiyan 冼百言.1922.“Ertongdeshehuihua”儿童的社会化(TheSocializationof Wei Shouyong魏寿镛.1917.“Ertongwanju wenti” 儿童玩具问题(TheQuestionof Wang Huaiqi王怀琪.1929.Xiaoxueyouxikejiaoxuefa Wang Guoyuan王国元(comp.).1933.Wanju jiaoyu玩具教育(ToysforEducation).Shang- Yang Su杨肃.1933.Xiaopengyouertongjie 小朋友儿童节(LittleOnes’Children’sDay). Yang Chennru杨琛如.1935.“Ertongwanju dexuanze” 儿童玩具的选择(Choosing Xuesheng zazhi学生杂志(TheStudents’Magazine). Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. Wang Muqing王穆清.1927.“Ertongwanju deyanjiu”儿童玩具的研究 (AStudyof “Tongnian quwei” 童年趣味(ChildhoodDelights).1927.Funüzazhi Tao Zhixing陶知行[Tao Xingzhi].1928.Zhongguojiaoyugaizao中国教育改造(TheReform Sun Wanhua 孙婉华.1936.“Tantan wanju” 谈谈玩具 (OnToys).Ertongjiaoyu儿童教育, Sun Mujian孙慕坚.1934.Haohaizi Sun Mingxun孙铭勋.1935.Laogongyou’er tuan劳工幼儿团(ChildcareforLabourers). Sun Fuxi孙福熙.1927.“Xinniandekuizeng”新年的馈赠(NewYear’s Presents).Gong- “Toy ManufacturersinShanghai.”1926.TheChineseEconomicBulletin,vol.9,no.282,p.34. Xu Yasheng 徐亚生.1929.“Ertongwanju deyanjiu” 儿童玩具的研究(AStudyof Xu Songshi徐松石.1926.Jiatingjiaoyuyuertong家庭教育与儿童 (FamilyEducationand Virtual Shanghai Vintage Ad Browser “Tuzhi ertongwanju xiaotuduobeirihuoduoqu”土制儿童玩具销途多被日货夺去(Sales jiaoyu jie Shanghai: Zhonghuashuju,1930. Shangwu yinshuguan. Shangwu yinshuguan. 念册 (given Englishtitle:TheSincereCo.,Ltd.Twenty-fifth Anniversary). HongKong: Children). Funüzazhi Children’s Toys). hai: Shangwuyinshuguan. Children’s Toys). Children’s Toys). yinshuguan. Title: Teaching ofGamesand Sports inElementarySchool).Shanghai:Shangwu 11, n.p. of ChineseEducation).Shanghai:Yadong tushuguan. vol. 7,no.3,pp.93-94. Shanghai: Ertongshuju. xian 贡献,vol.1,no.3,pp.1-4. Children’s Toys). Children). Shanghai:Zhonghuashuju,1931. Relationship between Toys andPreschoolEducation). Guohuo yuekan国货月刊,vol.2,no.5,p.34. Prospects forLocallyMadeToysLargelyCommandeeredbyJapaneseGoods).1935. 中华教育界,vol.11,no.12,pp.1-3. 现代父母(ModernParents). Shanghai:Zhonghuaciyouxiehui. . http://www.virtualshanghai.net . http://www.vintageadbrowser.com, lastaccessed10.09.2015. 小朋友画报(LittleOnes’Pictorial).Shanghai:Zhonghuashuju. Funü zazhi Xiandai fumu Zhonghua jiaoyujie Funü zazhi 妇女杂志,vol.8,no.2,pp.23-27. 妇女杂志,vol.3,no.8,pp.4-6. 妇女杂志,vol.15,no.5,pp.13-16. 好孩子(TheGoodChild).Shanghai:Shangwuyinshuguan. 现代父母,vol.3,no.10,pp.25-29. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S 中华教育界,vol.16,no.7,pp.1-3. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 , lastacce 小学游戏科教学法(Given English ssed 10.09.2015. Funü shibao妇女时报,no.9,pp.24-27. 妇女杂志,vol.13,no. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Zhang Yucai章育才.1935.“Xiandaijiatingyuertongjiaoyang” 现代家庭与儿童教养 Zhang Jiuru,ZhouZhuqing Yu Ji余寄.1917.“Jiaoyushangwanju zhijiazhi”教育上玩具之价值(TheValue ofToysin “Youxi zhiweisheng shangjiazhi” Yong’an yuekan永安月刊(Wing OnMonthly).Shanghai:ShanghaiYong’an gongsi. Ye Gongxiong叶公夐.1920.“KaochaRibenjiaoyuwanju考察日本教育玩具感 ganxiang” Yang Xilei杨锡类.1925.“Xinnianyuertong” Yu Shumin郁树敏.1931.“Xiaoxueertongxingquzhidiaochayuyanjiu” 小学儿童兴趣 Yu Jifan俞寄凡.1933.Wanju yujiaoyu 玩具与教育(ToysandEducation).Shanghai: Zong Liang宗良(tr.fromtheLadiesHomeJournal).1916.“Ertongzhiwanju jiaoyu”儿童 Bai Yun白云.2003.Zhongguolaoguanggao:zhaotie guanggaodeyuanyuliu Bai, Limin.2008.“ChildrenastheYouthful HopeofanOldEmpire:Race,Nationalism, Bai, Limin.2005.“ChildrenatPlay: A ChildhoodBeyondtheConfucianShadow.” Bai, Limin.2001.“ChildrenandtheSurvival ofChina:Liang QichaoonEducationBefore Appadurai, Arjun (ed.).1986.TheSocialLifeofThings:CommoditiesinCulturalPerspective . Secondary sources Zhonghua xueshengjie Zhonghua jiaoyujie Zhonghua guohuoweichihui 中华国货维持会 (ed.).1923.Guohuodiaochalu:diliuqi Zhongguo shiye zazhi Zhong Fuyuan锺富元.1935.“Wanju zaiertongjiaoyushangdejiazhijiqixuanze”玩具 Zhao Yuan赵嫒.1911.“Jiatingjiaoyulun”家庭教育论(OnFamilyEducation).Funü Zhang Zonglin张宗麟.1926.“DiaochaJiangZheyouzhijiaoyuhoudeganxiang”调查江 zazhi 动议 (UrgentMotiononReadingtheNationalToyExhibitionSurvey Report).Jiaoyu hui shenchabaogaohoudejinjidongyi”读了全国儿童玩具展览会审查报告后的紧急 Education). Zhonghuajiaoyujie Jiaoyu zazhi 12, no.11,pp.7-10. 想 (ReflectionsonExaminingJapaneseEducationalToys). Guohuo yuebao国货月报,vol.1,no.10,pp.8-9. Shanghai: Beixinshuju. zazhi 之调查与研究 (Survey and Analysis ofElementarySchoolChildren’sInterests). Zhonghua shuju. 贴广告的源与流 (given Englishtitle:ChineseTraditional Advertisement: TheOrigin 之玩具教育 (ToystoEducateChildren). hua shuju. Youth, vol.1,no.2,Spring,pp.210-231. and ElementaryEducation inChina,1895-1915.”JournaloftheHistoryChildhood and hood, vol.12,no.1,February,pp.9-32. the 1898Reform.”LateImperialChina,vol.22,no.2,December,pp.124-155. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. 调查录: 第六期(SixthNationalGoodsSurvey). Shanghai:Zhonghuaguohuoweichihui. shiye zazhishe. Choice). Jilianhuikan 在儿童教育上的价值及其选择 (TheValue ofToysinChildren’sEducation andtheir shibao 妇女时报,no.1,pp.6-11. Zhejiang). Zhonghuajiaoyujie 浙幼稚教育后的感想 (ReflectionsafteraSurvey ofPreschoolEducationinJiangsuand (Modern FamiliesandChildrearing). 教育杂志,vol.16,no.12,pp.1-8. 教育杂志,vol.23,no.7,pp.41-46. 教育杂志,vol.2,no.7,pp.46-48. 中华教育界(ChungHwa EducationalReview).Shanghai:Zhonghuashuju. 中国实业杂志(IndustrialMagazineofChina).Shanghai:Zhongguo 中华学生界(ChungHwa Students’Magazine).Shanghai:Zhong- 机联会刊,no.114,pp.24-25. 张九如, 周翥青.1924.“Dulequanguoertongwanju zhanlan- 中华教育界,vol.15,no.12,pp.1-13. 中华教育界,vol.6,no.2,pp.1-5. 游戏之卫生上价值 (TheValue ofPlay forHealth).1910. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Dongfang zazhi Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 Funü zazhi 新年与儿童 (TheNewYear andChildren). 东方杂志,vol.32,no.11,pp.91-97. 妇女杂志,vol.2,no.3,pp.1-5. Jiaoyu zazhi 教育杂志,vol. 中国老广告:招 国货 Jiaoyu Child- o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Cahan, Andrew S.2006.ChineseLabel Art, 1900-1976. Atglen: Schiffer. Borevskaya, NinaY. 2001.“Searching forIndividuality:EducationalPursuitsinChina Boretti, Valentina. 2007.“PurposefulLeisure: AspectsofToyDiscourseinRepublican Bodenhorn, Terry D.(ed.).2002.DefiningModernity:GuomindangRhetoricsofaNewChina, Billings-Yun, Melanie.1985.Advertising andMarketinginChina:Past, PresentandFuture Bauman, Zygmunt.2008.Consumo,dunquesono.Bari:Laterza. Baum, Emily.2013.“HealthbytheBottle:TheDr. Williams’ MedicineCompanyand Baudrillard, Jean.1970.TheConsumerSociety:MythsandStructures.London:Sage,1998. Barmé, GeremieR.2002.An Artistic Exile: A LifeofFengZikai(1898-1975) Barlow, Tani E.2008.“Buyingin: Advertising andtheSexyModernGirlIconinShang- Cross, Gary. 2004. “Wondrous Innocence: Print Advertising and the Origins of Permis Culp, Robert.2007.ArticulatingCitizenship:Civic EducationandStudentPoliticsin Cross, Gary.1997.Kids’Stuff:ToysandtheChangingWorldof AmericanChildhood Cook, DanielThomas.2004. Cochran, Sherman.2006.ChineseMedicineMen:ConsumerCultureinChinaandSoutheast Cochran, Sherman.2000.“MarketingMedicineand Advertising DreamsinChina, Cochran, Sherman(ed.).1999b.Inventing NanjingRoad:CommercialCultureinShanghai, Cochran, Sherman.1999.“TransnationalOriginsof Advertising inEarlyTwentieth-cen- Chudacoff, Howard P.2007.ChildrenatPlay: An American History.NewYork andLondon: Chan, Wellington K.K.1996.“Personal Styles, CulturalValues andManagement: The Chan, Marvin.1997.ChineseToys:MarvinChanCollection.Vol.1.Singapore:Chan. Chan, KaraandJamesU.McNeal.2004. Caldas-Coulthard, CarmenRosa,TheoVan Leeuwen. 2001.“Baby’sFirstToysandtheDiscur- 31-53. and IdentityinTwentieth-century China. Ann Arbor: University ofMichiganPress,pp. and Russia.”InGlenPeterson, RuthHayhoe,Yongling Lu(eds.).Education,Culture, China.” PrincetonUniversity Library Chronicle,vol.68,no.3,Spring,pp.880-908. 1920-1970. Ann Arbor: CenterforChineseStudies,University ofMichigan. Hong Kong: Asia Letter. olis, 1926-1945.Leiden:Brill,pp.70-93. Yingjin Zhang(eds.).Liangyou:KaleidoscopicModernityandtheShanghaiGlobalMetrop- the Commodificationof Well-Being inLiangyou.”InPaul G.Pickowicz,KuiyiShen, Angeles, London:University ofCaliforniaPress. Modernity, andGlobalization Yue Dong,andTani E.Barlow,eds.). (Alys Eve Weinbaum, LynnM.Thomas,PritiRamamurthy,UtaG.Poiger,Madeleine hai inthe1920sand1930s.”InTheModernGirl Around theWorldResearch Group and Development ofPoster Advertising). Beijing:Taihai chubanshe. Child RearingintheUS.”JournalofConsumerCulture , vol.4,no.2,July,pp.183-201. sive ConstructionsofBabyhood.” Cambridge, MA,andLondon, England:Harvard University Press. Industry andtheRiseofChildConsumer Asia. Cambridge,MA,andLondon,England:Harvard University Press. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London:University ofCaliforniaPress, pp.62-97. 1900-1950.” InWen-hsin Yeh (ed.).BecomingChinese:Passages to. ModernityandBeyond 1900-1945. Ithaca:CornellEast Asia Series. Shanghai, 1900-1945 tury China.”InShermanCochran(ed.).Inventing NanjingRoad:CommercialCulture in New York University Press. History Review,vol.70,no.2,Summer,pp.141-166. Sincere andWing OnCompaniesinShanghaiandHongKong,1900-1941.”Business Chinese University Press. . Ithaca:CornellEast Asia Series,pp.37-58. The CommodificationofChildhood:Children’sClothing . DurhamandLondon:DukeUniversity Press,pp.288-316. Folia Linguistica a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 The ModernGirl Around theWorld:Consumption, Advertising toChildreninChina.HongKong:The . Durham&London:DukeUniversity Press. , vol.35,no.1/2,January,pp.157-182. . Berkeley,Los . sive . o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Hamlin, DavidD.2007.WorkandPlay: TheProductionandConsumption ofToysinGermany, Hamilton GaryG.andLaiChi-kong.1989.“Consumerism withoutCapitalism: Hamilton, GaryG.1977.“ChineseConsumptionofForeign Commodities: A Compara- Guan Kean-fung Green, Colin.2011.“Turning BadIronintoPolishedSteel:WhampoaandtheRehabilita- Davidson, MartinP.1992.TheConsumerManifesto: Advertising inPostmodernTimes. Dardess, John.1991.“ChildhoodinPremodernChina.”InJosephM.Hawes, N.Ray Dal Lago,Francesca.2000.“CrossedLegsin1930sShanghai:How‘Modern’theModern Cunningham, Hugh.2005.ChildrenandChildhoodinWestern Societysince1500.Second de Certeau,Michel.1984.ThePracticeofEveryday Life.Berkeley:University ofCaliforniaPress. Glosser, SusanL.2003. Gerth, Karl.2003.ChinaMade:ConsumerCultureandtheCreationofNation.Cambridge, Frick, Heike,MechthildLeutner,NicolaSpakowski(eds.).1999.DieBefreiungderKinder: Francks, Penelope. 2009.TheJapaneseConsumer: An Alternative EconomicHistoryofModern Forty, Adrian. 1986.ObjectsofDesire:DesignandSociety1750-1980 Formanek-Brunell, Miriam.1998.MadetoPlay House:DollsandtheCommercializationof Fernsebner, SusanR.2003.“A People’s Playthings: Toys,Childhood,andChinese Farquhar, Mary Ann. 1999.Children’sLiteratureinChina:FromLuXuntoMaoZedong . Farquhar, Mary.1980.“RevolutionaryChildren’sLiterature.”The Australian Journalof Dyer, Gillian.1982.Advertising asCommunication.London:Routledge,2005. Drège, Jean-Pierre.1978.LaCommercialPressdeShanghai,1897-1949. Donald, StephanieHemelryk.2005.LittleFriends:Children’sFilmandMediaCulturein Dikötter, Frank.2007.ThingsModern:MaterialCultureandEveryday LifeinChina.London: Despeux, Catherine.2003.“Biendébuterdanslavie:l’éducation prénataleenChine.”In America, pp.253-279. min S.Orlove (eds.).TheSocialEconomyofConsumption Consumption andBrandNames inLateImperialChina.”InHenryJ.RutzandBenja- tive Perspective.” AmericanSociologicalReview yanjiu, vol.20,no.2,pp.301-325. Children andLosingChildren:LuXun’sConstruction ofChildren’sIdentity). shuxing dejiangou”发现孩童与失去孩童:论鲁迅对孩童属性的建构 (Discovering Recounting War inModernChina.Vancouver: UBCPress,pp.153-185. tion oftheChineseSoldier.”InJamesFlathandNorman Smith(eds.). Angeles, London:University ofCaliforniaPress. London andNewYork: Routledge. and ResearchGuide.Westport: GreenwoodPress,pp.71-94. Hiner (eds.).ChildreninHistoricalandComparative Perspective: An InternationalHandbook Woman?” East Asian History,no.19,June,pp.103-144. Edition. Harlow:Pearson Longman. Southeastern China,1912-1940.Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Asia Center. MA: Harvard University Asia Center. Konzepte vonKindheitimChinaderRepublikzeit Japan. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press. Hudson. American Girlhood,1830-1930.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversity Press. Identity, 1909-1933.”PostcolonialStudies Armonk, NY:M.E.Sharpe. Chinese Affairs China. Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield. Hurst &Co. I. L’éducation élémentaire.Paris, Louvain: ÉditionsPeeters, pp.61-98. Christine Nguyen TriandCatherineDespeux(eds.).ÉducationetinstructionenChine– , no.4,July,pp.61-84. 颜健富. 2002.“Faxianhaitongyushiquhaitong:lunLuXun duihaitong Chinese Visions ofFamilyandState,1915-1953 a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 , vol.6,no.3,November, pp.269-293. . Hamburg:LIT. , vol.42,no.6,December,pp.877-891. . Lanham:University Pressof Paris: CollègedeFrance. . London:Thamesand . Berkeley,Los Beyond Suffering: Hanxue o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Kinney, Anne Behnke.2004.RepresentationsofChildhoodandYouth inEarlyChina. Kinney, Anne Behnke(ed.).1995.ChineseViews ofChildhood.Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Kelly, Catriona.2007.Children’sWorld:GrowingUpinRussia1890-1991.NewHaven and Lien, Ling-ling.2009.“From theRetailingRevolutiontoConsumerRevolution: Li Yuan李媛.2013.“1927-1937nianShenbaoertongyongpinguanggaoyuShang- Leung, Angela Ki Che.1994.“ElementaryEducationintheLower Yangtze Regionin Lee, ThomasH.C.1984.“TheDiscovery ofChildhood:ChildrenEducationinSung China Lee, LeoOu-fan.1999.ShanghaiModern:TheFlowering ofaNewUrbanCultureinChina, Laing, EllenJohnston.2004.SellingHappiness:CalendarPostersandVisual Culturein Kwok, D.W.Y. 1965.ScientisminChineseThought,1900-1950 . NewHaven: Yale University Kuo, JasonC.(ed.).2007.Visual CultureinShanghai1850s-1930s.Washington: New Kopytoff, Igor.1986.“TheCulturalBiographyofThings:CommoditizationasProcess.” Kline, Stephen.1998.“Toys,Socialization,andtheCommodificationofPlay.” InSusan Keenan, BarryC.1977.TheDewey ExperimentinChina Jones, Mark A. 2010.ChildrenasTreasures:ChildhoodandtheMiddleClassinEarlyTwentieth Jones, Andrew F.2011.Developmental FairyTales: EvolutionaryThinkingand ModernChinese Jones, Andrew F. 2002. “The ChildasHistoryinRepublicanChina: A DiscourseonDevel Jacobson, Lisa.1997.“Revitalizingthe American Home:Children’sLeisureandtheRevalua- Hsiung, Ping-chen.2005.ATender Voyage: ChildrenandChildhoodinLateImperialChina. Ho, Virgil K.Y. 2005.“TheLimitsofHatred:Popular Attitudes Towards the West in Harrison, Henrietta.2000.TheMakingoftheRepublicanCitizen:PoliticalCeremoniesand Press. London: Yale University Press. Press. yanjiu 学前教育研究,no.1,pp.9-14. 1927-1937, andtheConstruction ofShanghaiChildren’sDailyLife).Xueqianjiaoyu 儿童日常生活的建构 (Advertisements forChildren’sProductsinthe hai ertongrichangshenghuodejiangou”1927-1937年 «申报»儿童用品广告与上海 University ofCaliforniaPress,pp.381-416. Woodside (eds.). the Seventeenth andEighteenthCenturies.”InBenjamin A. Elmanand Alexander Reimer, pp.159-190. (960-1279).” InSigridPaul (ed.).‘Kultur’: BegriffundWortinChinaJapan.Berlin: 1930-1945. Cambridge,MA,andLondon,England:Harvard University Press. Early-Twentieth-Century Shanghai.Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. Press. Academia. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press,pp.64-91. In Arjun Appadurai (ed.).TheSocialLifeofThings:CommoditiesinCulturalPerspective. Press, pp.339-358. American ConsumerSocietiesintheTwentieth Century Strasser, CharlesMcGovern andMatthiasJudt(eds.). Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press. Century Japan.Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Asia Center. Culture. Cambridge,MA,andLondon:Harvard University Press. opment.” positions,vol.10,no.3,Winter, pp.695-727. tion ofPlay, 1920-1940.”JournalofSocialHistory Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press. Culture intheRepublicanPeriod. Oxford,NewYork: OxfordUniversity Press,pp.49-94. Republican Canton.”InVirgil K.Y. Ho.UnderstandingCanton:RethinkingPopular Symbols inChina,1911-1929 1870-1914. Ann Arbor: TheUniversity ofMichiganPress. Education andSocietyinLateImperialChina,1600-1900 . Oxford,NewYork: OxfordUniversity Press. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 , vol.30,no.3,Spring,pp.581-596. . Cambridge,MA:Harvard University . Cambridge: Cambridge University . Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Getting and Spending: European and Getting andSpending:European Shanghai News, . Berkeley:

- o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Matt, SusanJ.2002.“Children’sEnvyandtheEmergenceofModernConsumerEthic, Margerum, Eileen.1994.“TheChildin American Advertising, 1890-1960:Reflectionsof Manson, Michel.2001. Louie, Kam.2002.TheorisingChineseMasculinity:SocietyandGenderinChina.Cambridge: Lo, Andrew. 2004.“Official Aspirations:ChinesePromotionGames.”InColinMackenzie McGovern, Charles.1998.“ConsumptionandCitizenshipintheUnitedStates,1900-1940.” Mittler, Barbara.2013.“ImaginedCommunitiesDivided:Reading Visual Regimesin Mittler, Barbara.2007.“Gendered Advertising inChina:WhatHistorydoImages Tell?” Minick, ScottandJiaoPing.1990. Miller, Daniel.1987.MaterialCultureandMassConsumption.Oxford:Blackwell. McReavy, Anthony. 2002.TheToyStory:LifeandTimesofInventor FrankHornby. Rawski, ThomasG.1989.EconomicGrowthinPrewar China . Berkeley:University of Rabut, Isabelle.2003.“Émergencedelalittératureenfantine audébutduXXesiècle.”In Pang, Laikwan. 2007.TheDistortingMirror:Visual Modernity inChina.Honolulu:Univer- Pan, Lynn.2008.ShanghaiStyle: Art andDesignBetween theWars. HongKong:Joint Pan Junxiang潘君祥.1998.JindaiZhongguoguohuoyundongyanjiu 近代中国国货运动研 Orliski, Constance.1998.ReimaginingtheDomesticSphere:BourgeoisNationalismandGender Nguyen Tri,ChristineandCatherineDespeux(eds.).2003.Éducation etinstruction en Ng, ChunBong,CheukPak Tong,WongYing, YvonneLo(eds.). 1996. Morris, Andrew D.2004.MarrowoftheNation: A HistoryofSportandPhysicalCulturein Money, Annemarie. 2007.“MaterialCultureandtheLivingRoom:The Appropriation Reed, Christopher A. 2004.GutenberginShanghai:Chinese PrintCapitalism,1876-1937. 1890-1930.” JournalofSocialHistory Green StateUniversity PopularPress,pp.335-353. a ChangingSociety.”InHarryEiss(ed.).ImagesoftheChild Cambridge University Press. 64-75. and IrvingFinkel(eds.).AsianGames:The Art ofContest . NewYork: Asia Society,pp. September, pp.358-389. Department StoresinModernShanghai.”FrontiersofHistoryChina Yeh (eds.).Visualising China,1845-1965:MovingandStillImagesinHistoricalNarratives Shanghai’s Newspaper Advertising (1860s-1910s).”InChristianHenriotandWen-hsin European JournalofEast Asian Studies,vol.6,no.1,June,pp.13-41. Thames andHudson. London: EburyPress. Cambridge University Press,pp.37-58. ing: Europeanand American ConsumerSocietiesintheTwentieth Century In SusanStrasser,CharlesMcGovern andMatthiasJudt(eds.). I. L’éducation élémentaire.Paris, Louvain: ÉditionsPeeters, pp.161-178. Christine Nguyen TriandCatherineDespeux (eds.).Éducation etinstructionenChine– sity ofHawai’i Press. Publishing Co. shehui kexueyuanchubanshe. 究 (AStudyoftheNationalGoodsMovement inModernChina).Shanghai:Shanghai in Shanghai1904-1918 Chine –I.L’éducation élémentaire.Paris, Louvain: ÉditionsPeeters. Modernity: CalendarPostersofthe1910s-1930s.HongKong:JointPublishingCo. Republican China ber, pp.355-377. and UseofGoodsinEveryday Life.”JournalofConsumerCulture,vol.7,no.3,Novem- Leiden: Brill,pp.267-377. California Press. . Berkeley,Los Angeles, London:University ofCaliforniaPress. Jouets detoujours:l’AntiquitéàlaRévolution.Paris: Fayard. . PhDdissertation,University ofSouthernCalifornia. Chinese GraphicDesignintheTwentieth Century , vol.36,no.2,Winter, pp.283-302. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 . Bowling Green:Bowling Getting andSpend- Chinese Woman and . Cambridge: , vol.4,no.3, . London: .

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Sutton-Smith, Brian.1994.“Does Play PreparetheFuture?”InJeffreyH.Goldstein(ed.). Sutton-Smith, Brian.1986. Slater, Don.1997.ConsumerCultureandModernity Seiter, Ellen.1993.SoldSeparately:ChildrenandParents inConsumerCulture Scott, DorotheaHayward. 1980.ChinesePopularLiteratureandtheChild.Chicago: Ameri- Saari, JonL.1990.LegaciesofChildhood:GrowingupChineseinaTimeCrisis1890-1920. Wu, Jen-shuandLing-lingLien.2013.“FromViewing toReading:TheEvolutionof Wicks, Ann E.Barrott (ed.).2002. Wei Dong畏冬.1988.Zhongguogudaiertongticaihuihua Wang Shucun王树村(ed.).1988.Zhongguominjiannianhuabaitu Wang Lianhai王连海.2004.“Wanli baiziyizhongdegudaiwanju”万历百子衣中的古代 Wang, Jing.2008.BrandNewChina: Advertising, Media,andCommercialCulture. Wakeman, FredericJr.1995.“LicensingLeisure:TheChineseNationalists’ Attempts to Wagner, RudolfG.(ed.).2007.JoiningtheGlobalPublic:Word,Image,andCityinEarly Waara, CarolLynne.1994.ArtsandLife:PublicPrivate CultureinChinese Art Periodi- Varney, Wendy. 2002.“OfMenandMachines:ImagesofMasculinityinBoys’Toys.” van Binsbergen,Wim M.J.&Peter L.Geschiere(eds.).2005.Commodification:Things, Tsai, Weipin. 2010.ReadingShenbao:Nationalism,ConsumerismandIndividualityinChina Tsai, Weipin. 2006.“Havingit All: Patriotism andGraciousLivinginShenbao’sTobacco Wartella, EllenandSharonMazzarella.1990.“A HistoricalComparisonofChildren’s Wang Shucun王树村(ed.).1991.Zhongguominjiannianhuashitulu中国民间年画史图录 Wu, Yongmei. 2014.“Selling Modernity:Housewives asPortrayed inYuefenpai(Calendar Xu, Lanjun.2007.Save theChildren: ProblemChildhoodsandNarrative Politicsin Chinese Paintings ofChildren).Beijing:Zijinchengchubanshe. wick: RutgersUniversity Press. can Library Association. Cambridge, MA:CouncilonEast Asian Studies,Harvard University. Vancouver: University ofBritishColumbiaPress. (eds.). Visualising China,1845-1965:MovingandStillImagesinHistoricalvesNarrati Visual Advertising inLateImperialChina.”InChristian Henriot andWen-hsin Yeh 艺研究, no.1,pp.107-117. 玩具 (AncientToysintheWanli Period’s One-Hundred-BoysJacket).Wenyi yanjiu 文 Cambridge, MA,andLondon,England:Harvard University Press. 19-42. Regulate Shanghai,1927-49.”TheJournalof Asian Studies,vol.54,no.1,February,pp. Chinese Newspapers,1870-1910 cals, 1912-1937.PhDdissertation,University ofMichigan. Feminist Studies,vol.28,no.1,Spring,pp.153-174. Agencies, andIdentities(TheSocialLifeofThingsRevisited).Münster:LIT. 1919-1937. Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan. edge andEveryday Life,1900-1940.NewYork: Peter Lang,pp.117-145. Advertisements, 1919-1937.”InPeter Zarrow(ed.).CreatingChineseModernity:Knowl- Toys, Play, andChildDevelopment . Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press,pp.130-146. Leisure intoConsumption. Use ofLeisureTime.”InRichardButsch(ed.). hai renminmeishuchubanshe. (Illustrated RecordoftheHistoryChineseFolkNewYear Prints).Shanghai:Shang- Hundred ChineseFolkNewYear Prints).Beijing:Renminmeishuchubanshe. Emiko and Aoyama Kaoru(eds.). Posters) andMagazine Advertisements inShanghaiofthe1920sand1930s.”InOchiai Leiden: Brill,pp.231-266. Brill, pp.107-137. Toys asCulture Philadelphia: Temple University Press,pp.173-194. Children inChinese Art . Albany: StateUniversity ofNewYork Press. Asian WomenandIntimateWork . Leiden,Boston: a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 . NewYork: GardnerPress. . Cambridge:PolityPress. For FunandProfit:TheTransformationof . Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. 中国古代儿童题材绘画(Ancient 中国民间年画百图(One . NewBruns- . o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Yang Haijun杨海军(ed.).2006.Zhongwai guanggaoshi Yeh, Wen-hsin. 1997.“ShanghaiModernity:CommerceandCultureinaRepublicanCity.” Zanasi, Margherita.2006.SavingtheNation:EconomicModernityinRepublicanChina Yu Xiaoyao, LiuYanjie 俞筱尧,刘彦捷(eds.).2002.LuFeikuiyuZhonghuashuju陆费逵 Yi Yongwen 伊永文.2005.DaogudaiZhongguoqulüxing到古代中国去旅行(Travelling to Yi Bin,LiuYouming, GanZhenhu益斌,柳又明甘振虎(eds.).1995.LaoShanghaiguang- Yeh, Wen-hsin. 2007.ShanghaiSplendor:EconomicSentimentsandtheMakingofModern Yeh, Wen-hsin (ed.).2000.BecomingChinese:Passages. Berkeley, toModernityandBeyond Zhongguo qingshaonianyanjiu zhongxin中国青少年研究中心(ed.).2000.BainianZhong- Zelizer, Viviana A. 1985.PricingthePricelessChild:TheChangingSocialValue ofChildren. Zarrow, Peter (ed.).2006.CreatingChineseModernity:Knowledge andEveryday Life, Zanasi, Margherita.2015.“FrugalModernity:Livelihood andConsumptioninRepubli- History ofChineseandForeign Advertising). Wuhan:Wuhandaxuechubanshe. Twentieth-century ChineseLiterature shuju. 与中华书局 (LuFeikuiandtheChungHwa BookCompany).HongKong:Zhonghua Ancient China).Beijing:Zhonghuashuju. Shanghai: Shanghaihuabaochubanshe. gao 老上海广告(given Englishtitle: Advertisements oftheOldTimeShanghai). China, 1843-1949.Berkeley,London:University ofCalifornia Press. Los Angeles, London:University ofCaliforniaPress. The ChinaQuarterly,no.150,June,pp.375-394. Guangzhou: Xinshijichubanshe. guo ertong百年中国儿童(given Englishtitle:ChineseChildreninthe20thCentury). New York: BasicBooks. 1900-1940. NewYork: Peter Lang. can China.”TheJournalof Asian Studies,vol.74,no.2,May,pp.391-409. Chicago: University ofChicagoPress. Valentina BorettiisaResearch Associate attheSchoolofOriental regimes throughtheprismofplaythings. China explorescitizen-buildingandmobilization underdifferent Her researchontheculturalhistoryoftoysin twentieth-century her interestsincludegender,materialculture andchildhood. the University of London.SheworksonmodernChinesehistory: Postdoctoral Fellowship.Shereceived herPhDinHistory from of History,whereshepreviouslyheldaBritish Academy and African Studies(SOAS),University ofLondon,Department . PhDdissertation,PrincetonUniversity. a hn o etotne/oretti ortance/ reat of hin a S Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 中外广告史(given Englishtitle: .

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Selling Sun-MaidRaisinstotheChinesein1920s-1930s The GrapesofHappiness: conditions andChinese culture? techniques invented intheUnitedStatesordidtheyadapttolocal to adaptthisspecificmarket?Didtheysimply exportthemarketing consumers? Whatkindofmarketingstrategies didthecompanydevelop success, whensomanyotherWestern companiesfailedtoseduceChinese immediately becameavery popular brand.Howdowe explaintheir California in1915,rapidlyexpandingthroughout theworldsoonafter. California Associated RaisinCompanylaunched theSun-Maidbrandin in the1920s,Sun-Maidproved tobeoneofthemostsuccessful.The the many American companiesthattriedtopenetratetheChinesemarket global consumerculture.WhyexamineSun-MaidRaisininparticular?Of ations byvarious consumersasinChina,whicheventually gave birthtoa practices, theircirculationthroughouttheworldandlocalappropri- observe theactual“manufacturing”ofcommercialrepresentationsand companies active inChinasincethebeginningoftwentieth centuryto ideally bringingtogetherthethreemainstrandsofargument. China. Thiscommercialstoryoffersaperfectprologueforthispaper, success storyofSun-MaidRaisinsthroughouttheworld,especiallyin since the18thcentury,itwas alsodesignedtoromanticizetheglobal Capitalizing onthepowerful attractionoftheEastin Western countries consumers aimedtonarratethemythicaloriginsofraisinsinChina. figures 1and2).Thisnarrative-style advertisement addressedto Western Sun-Maid RaisinspublishedintheSaturdayEvening Postin1927(see tourists inChina.Unexpectedly,theycomefromanadvertisement for Prologue emergence ofatranscultural consumercultureinChina,especiallyShanghai? Why examinemodern Shanghaiinparticular? As amajorcommercial Sun-Maid raisinswere introducedinChinatheearly 1920sand The firststranddrawscasestudiesfromamongthe American global These linesarenotquotedfromafairytale,norguidebookfor children did–foreightSun-Maidraisinsinanenvelope. fraction ofourpenny,andhespentityesterday asthousandsofChinese In Chinayesterday sometinytotbecamethepossessorofacash,just CceAa an eAr Ceci How didSun-Maid’sefforts figureintothe Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he u a u u a a f u 1 2 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / of childhoodpercolated throughSun-MaidRaisinadvertisements? What culture inRepublican Shanghai. Whatrepresentationsandexperiences they offerideallensesforaconnective approachtocommercialvisual children becameubiquitousinconsumerculture inthe1920s. As such, youth inmodernsocieties,boththeWestern andnon-Western worlds, scholarship. Intandemwiththeincreasingimportanceof childhoodand childhood torethinkbroadersocialandmajor historicaldebatesinrecent connection withSun-MaidRaisin. Crow, the American commercialattachéJulean Arnold)whoworkedin Municipal Council,French Administration), orindividualactors(Carl Thompson Companyin America), othercompanies,institutions(Shanghai ing agencies(theCarlCrow,Inc.companyinShanghaiortheJ.Walter the Sun-MaidRaisinCompany),butalsothoseemanatingfromadvertis- process –notonlythebusinessmaterialsproducedbycompanies(here, designed advertisements andactively participatedintheir“engineering” there isnoalternative buttodelve intothearchives ofthecompaniesthat order toreveal themakingofcommercialdiscourse.Forthatpurpose, The ambitionofthisresearchistogobeyondthesurfaceimages,in develop tocapitalizeontheirpotentialsandcounteractlimitations? efficient useofsuchsources?Whichtoolsandmethodologycanthey viewers? Towhatextentandunderconditionscanhistorians make ism/. Whatdid(commercial)imagescommunicatetotheir hood, healthandthebody,consumptionbusinesshistory,national- issues, suchasmodern/urbanlife,womenandgender,familychild- ments arearichsetofsourcematerialsfordiscussionsmajorhistorical consumed andcirculatedimagesinShanghai’svisualculture,advertise- of modernsocieties–especiallyRepublicanShanghai. As themostwidely visual sourcesingeneraltovaluable sourcesfordocumenting thehistory priation bytheChinesepopulation. the makingoftransculturaldiscoursesandexperiences,theirappro- distinctly foreignentitiesinChineseterritorymakesShanghairelevant to International andFrenchSettlements.Thejuxtapositionofthesetwo Western power, Shanghaiharboredcolonialregimesintheformof and culturalfields. AlthoughChinahadnever beencolonizedbya tory forinventing hybridrepresentationsandpracticesintheeconomic interacted andintermingledinShanghai.Thecitybecameafertilelabora- communities (mostlyChinese, American, British,JapaneseandFrench) mid-nineteenth centuryuntiltheRepublicanperiod(1912-49),various appropriate groundforthiscasestudy.FromtheOpiumWars inthe hub, aforeign-dominatedandmulticulturalcity,Shanghaipresentsan Chinese children?What visions andpracticesofhealth/hygiene,imperial social rolesdidSun-Maid andother American companiesassign to American and The thirdandlaststrandfocusesontheconcepts ofchildrenand The secondstrandarguesfortheelevation ofadvertisements and Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he ism/ o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / nationalism, women/genderwere codedwithintheimagesofchildren? and were notadvertised asconsumerproductsuntilthe1920s: remained merchandisinggoodsrestrictedto atinypartofthepopulation raisins hadbeentradedinChinaforabouttwothousandsyears, they raisins absolutelyunknowntotheaverage Chineseinthe1920s? Although the comparatively lowpurchasingpower oftheChineseconsumer.Were by Americans, theywere viewed asluxurygoodsinShanghaibecauseof Chinese people.Shanghaiadvertising executive CarlCrow in Shanghaithe1920s-1930sexpressedmuchempathytowards the 1. Global/localaspectsofraisinsconsumptioninRepublicanChina “health appeal”thatgainedworldwidepopularityatthetime. culture toinvent theirownversions ofthe“sex/womenappeal”and how Chineseadvertisements mergedthelocal/globalfeaturesofvisual model theirmainvisualandtextualelements,thelastsectionwillexamine and American commercialimages.Usinghistoricallensestoanalyzeand newspaper Shenbao3willserve asastartingpointtoprobeinto Chinese reading ofaSun-Maidadvertisement publishedin1928theChinese order tobetterunderstandhowandwhyitproved sosuccessful. Aclose also examinethespecificorganizationofSun-MaidinRepublicanChina raisins marketconditionsintheUnitedStatesandChina,thispaperwill not thetexture,designofjewel, notthematerials. differences were mostlyindetails–forinstance,thecolorofcloth, – thandidChineseandother Asian cultures.Hefurtherbelieved thatthe terms offood,clothing,andtoacertainextent,customsmentalhabits posited that Americans andChinesesharedmuchmoreincommon– tunities, culturalpractices,andvisualliteracy. features willbeexamined:socio-economicalconditionsandmarketoppor- gap between Chineseand American consumersatthetime,threesalient While raisinswere consideredtobecommonlyavailable foodstuffs Socio-economical conditionsandraisinsmarketopportunities Western advertisers andadvertising professionalswhooperated After analyzingtheuniversal/particular aspectsofconsumersand household articleuntilthe Californiaraisinplayed a part. Chinese raisinswere notproduced inanyquantityanddidnotbecomea of Christ,andlater,grapes were grownanddriedinNorthChina.These to theChinese. Arabian tradersbroughtraisins toChinaaboutthetime promoted the sale of raisins we were not introducing any new food product familiar sightontheshopshelves ofalmostevery city.(…)Whenwe red boxwhichformsthepacketofworld’smost famousraisinisa years agoraisins were practically unknowninChina,butnowthelittle We didgofartowards makingtheChineseanationofraisineaters.Fifteen Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 6 5 Todiscussthe 4 for instance, o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / China atthetime: trend was supposedtobalancetherelatively highlevel ofpoverty in ous andever-growing Chinese population.Suchapowerful demographic “miracle factor”thatexplainedanyeconomicsuccessinChina:thenumer- Western advertisers, thisprocessofincreasingwealth flowed fromthe of Shanghai,andextendedtocitiesthroughoutChina’sinterior. Raisins was notlimitedtotheelites,butalsoreachedlower classes would naturally,ifnotindefinitely,expand. and morepeoplecouldaffordtobuynewcommodities,theraisinmarket low asexpected,advertisers assumeditwouldgreatlyincrease: As more contributed totheraisin cravinginShanghai: opment ofmodernentertainment andlifestyles inthemoderncityalso not theonlyreasonfor suchsuccess.Newconsumptionhabits,thedevel- to 222,588tonsinthefirsteightmonthsof1924. year inthemid-1920s:from108,165tonsfirsteightmonthsof1923 East DivisionreportedthatexportstoChinamorethandoubledinasingle offered unexpectedopportunitiesatthetime.TheSun-MaidCompanyFar contemporary sourcestestifytothefactthatChineseraisinmarket of Sun-Maid’sadvertising campaignsinChina.However, manyother assertions shouldbetakenwithcaution,asCrowwas himselfincharge mass consumption,therebypopularizingraisinsinChina.However, such with transformingraisinsfrommerchandisinggoodsintoproductsfor other. the onehand,andabsenceoflocalraisin productioninChina,onthe raisin supplyandlocaldemand:thetasteof the Chineseforraisinson California raisinseventually resulted fromtheperfectmatchbetween and Western businesscirclesatthetime: standard oflivingwas notaslowitwas generallythoughtin American while raisinsremainedluxurygoodsformostofthem?First,theChinese do we explainsuchwidespreadpopularityamongChineseconsumers, In theinterwar years (1919-1937),theconsumptionofSun-Maid Not onlywas theoverall level ofChinesepurchasing power notas In thisbriefnarrative, CrowcreditstheSun-MaidRaisinCompany According to American journalistC.A.Bacon in1927,thesuccessof in asatisfactoryvolume. were convincedthatanattractive unitofsale, thoughsmall,wouldresult power oftheaverage Chinameniscomparatively low, theRaisinGrowers multiplicity ofpurchasers. Although itwas recognizedthatthepurchasing The factwas recognizedthatthevalue ofthemarketwas duetoits vast marketismuchhigherthatgenerallysupposed. in Chinaby American advertisers indicatethatpurchasingpower ofthat The principaldetailsofseveral recentsuccessfulmerchandisingcampaigns 12 However, theimprovement ofsocialandeconomicconditions was 11 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 10 Yet inthemindofmost 7

9

8 How o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / in commercialimages, frequentlyadvisedhiscolleaguestointegratethese Crow, whonotedthecareful attentionoftheChinesetodetailsandcolors Consumers that were usedtoeducateChinese peopletotherisingconsumerculture. visual markers:logotypes,coloredpackages, ortypographicalpatterns professionals atthetime.By“visualliteracy, ” Ireferheretoarangeof images ratherthantextsonadvertisements, was vividlydiscussedamong ers’ literacy,especiallytheirvisuali.e.abilityto“read” their celebratedcustomofpresentinggifts. courses attheirfeasts,andthatraisinswere oftenusedbytheChinesein in China,theChinesehadadoptedcustomofservingraisinsbetween Division reportedinitsmarketsurveys that sincethecompany’sarrival scholarship onthehistoryofperceptionsand emotions. historians engagedinthefieldofvisualculture perception, suchaslocaltastesforcolors.Colors areafascinatingissuefor meat. global tasteforsweet combinedwiththeChinesespecialtastefor(sweet) and modernizationinChina. As fortraditions,raisinsellersreliedonthe new patternsofconsumption,derived fromtheprocessofurbanization ers preferredmoresophisticatedproducts, packages forlocalordinaryanddailyconsumption(seefigure3,4). other national/localfestivals, thecompany carefullydesignedcolorful that Sun-MaidcreatedspecialgiftboxesforChineseNewYear orany coolies astastersinordertoselectawinner. client overwhelmed bymorethan500cakes,forcingthemtouserickshaw advertisers. Crowreportedthatthedaycontestclosed,hefoundhis Chinese consumers,thoughperhapsnotinthesensefirstintendedby the recipe.Thatmarketingstrategyproved extremelysuccessful among those whowouldsendthebestcakesinwhichraisinsformedapartof idea tofirstintroduceraisinstheChinese,offeringcashprizes popular inChinaaswell. CarlCrowemployed thecake-bakingcontest by American advertisers asanewsalesmethodthatproved incredibly cakes. Intheearlytwentieth century,cake-baking contestswere launched Contemporary advertising agentsobserved differencesinconditionsof Building consumers’ visualliteracythroughadvertisingandpackaging Advertisers capitalizedbothontraditionalChinesefoodhabitsand Cultural PracticesofRaisinConsumption While theChineseconsumedplaindriedraisins, American consum- recreation andmodernimprovements quiteaswell asshelikestoeat. and birds’nestsofBorneoareimportedatgreatcost.NowChinalikes But even certainkindsoffoodluxuriessellwell inChina.Shark’sfin Very fewkindsofeating-frompackagescanbeclassedasluxury. 14 Regarding newhabitsofconsumption,theSun-MaidFarEastern ’ visualhabitsgreatlydiffered intheUnitedStatesandChina. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 16 15 18 suchasraisinbreads Although thereisnoevidence

19 andinthemostrecent 20 Chineseconsum- 17 or 13

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / anthropological factsintotheprocessofmakingadvertisements. misunderstanding ofChinesevisualcodesandcolorregimes: against themisuseofcolorsduetoforeignadvertisers’ ignoranceor differences, localcolorshadtobeusedwithmuchcaution.Crowwarned reflect thecolorofsun.However, duetotheaforementionedcultural nal “Sun-Maid,”modelLorraineCollett,becauseit was thoughttobetter the redcolorwas chosentomatchtheredsunbonnetwornbyorigi- less exemplifiedpositive values inbothcountries.IntheUnited States, distinct culturalsignificanceinChinaandtheUnitedStates,itnonethe- red, whichwas andstillisvery popularinChina. Although redhada ment –becameubiquitousinthe1920s,notonlymediasphere, remedy againstconsumers’illiteracy tisement asthebestway toreachChinesepeopleandthemostefficient tising. Inhisreportpublishedin1927,C.A.Baconpresentedvisualadver- advertisement wouldbeentirelyvisual–without awordoftext. specific visualhabitsfurtherledCrowtoclaimthattheidealChinese erate consumerswouldexperiencevarious formsofoutdooradvertising: also andabove allinthestreetsofShanghai,whereinnumerableillit- Bacon furtherreports in 1927thatanothermajoradvertising agent, Visual devicesincluded theuseofvividcolors,especiallycolor The concernforvisibility–thepotentialvisualattractionofadvertise- Crow was nottheonlyonetocallfora “visualturn”inmodernadver- one designedfortheOrient. elephant wouldjustaseffectively decorate an Americanadvertisement as advertisement. Thatdoesn’tprove anythingexceptthatthepictureofan the foreground–butwhyputapictureofanelephant onatoothpaste Siamese templeinthebackgroundandatechnically correctelephantin a well-known American toothpastefeaturinganacceptablepictureofa your advertising ridiculous (recentexampleinaposteradvertising of hints astolocalcolor,betterleave italone,foryouarelikelytomake certain youareright.Ifhave todependonanencyclopediafor Local colorisvaluable, butdon’ttrytouseit,unlessyouareabsolutely cannot readwillrecognizeitinthepictureandonshelf. will attractattentionandshowtheproductsoplainlythatacooliewho the artdepartmentofanagencymustdevisepicturesforpostersthat would attracttheeye oftheChinesecooliecustomer…Bysametoken … A propersitehadtobeselectedandtheposteritselfsuchas cannot read-andthelattermakeup90percentofpopulation. or billboards,sincesignsareintelligibletoallwhoreadand Then againalltheseandavast numbermorecanbereachedbyhoardings 27

Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 . 23 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 26 25 21 22 Chinese 24 but o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / industrial centerswas notaccustomedtopackagedgoodsandbrandlabels Government in1926,whichreportedthattheaverage immigrantinmost described inaninvestigation onraisinconsumptionconductedbytheU.S. that modernadvertising successisbuiltupontheskillfuluseofartwork.” Millington, Limited,also“callsattentionto‘China’sColourSense’,showing import anddistribution system;2)TheJ.Walter ThompsonCompany, ities: 1)Sun-Maid’sown in-houseadvertising department,asfortheir of Sun-Maidmarketing strategiesinShanghai.Therearethreepossibil- their distributioninChina. it reliedonitsownorganizationtointroduce itsgoodsandtomaintain 2. Thekeytosuccess:importedproductsand locallymadeadvertising ular demandsandcustomsoftheChinese. study themarketandadapttheirsellingmethods toconformthepartic- Sun-Maid agentsinChinawere well aware thattheyneededtocarefully process ofmakingSun-Maidadvertisements. Suchreportsreveal that archives, historianscanlooktoothernarrative testimoniestotracethe ing campaign. Although thedataisabsentfromSun-Maid’sownbusiness the Chineseraisinmarketmadeitnecessarytocarefullyplantheadvertis- endow raisinswithmagicpowers. Therefore,theopportunitiesofferedby fairy talesandmyths,suchasCinderellaorRobinsonCrusoe,inorderto Americans byinventing ritualsofconsumptionorrewritingfamous struggled torenderanordinaryfoodproductexceptionaltheaverage average Chinese?”OntheothersideofPacific, Americanadvertisers consumption remained: and theUnitedStates.InChina,mainquestionsurroundingraisin work madebyChineseartistsandlocalagents. tions ofperception,mostprofessionalsrecommendedhavingtheartistic technical skills,butalsoaspecialknowledge oflocalcultureandcondi- anthropological habits.Becausevisualartinadvertising requirednotonly objects orhumanfigures,hadtobecarefullydesignedmeetwith agents inChina.Manyotherrepresentations,suchasanimals,natural something tobeashamedof. choice ofproductpurchase,asthoughsusceptibilitytoadvertising were consumers wouldstilldenythatadvertising hadanythingtodowiththeir package habitwas underway among American consumers,inmanycases States. Thisculturalgapamongconsumersofvarious nationalitiesiswell born consumers(Black,LatinoorEuropeancommunities)intheUnited For advertising, we arestilluncertainof whowas locallyincharge The Sun-MaidCompanyimportedraisinsdirectly fromCalifornia,and Advertising agentseventually faced twooppositechallengesinChina Colors were nottheonlysourceoftroubleforforeignadvertising According tothesamereport,althoughagradualconversion tothe In the1920s,Chinesewere probablyasinexperiencedforeign- “Howtomakealuxuryproductaccessiblethe 33 30 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 32 31 . 28 29 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / in thecountrywhereadvertising was toappear. residing inChina,withthehelpoftrainedandeducatedChinese. successful campaignswere thoseworkedoutbyexperienced foreigners failures. According tohimandother contemporaryprofessionals,themost advertising campaignsworkedupindetail America were nearly always with thetastesandhabitsofChinesepeople.Hefinally warned that undertaken bysomeonewhowas familiarwithChinese “psychology,”i.e., mended thatthepreparationofadvertising copyshouldonlybe ing campaigns. suggests thathewas personallyinchargeofSun-Maid’sadvertis- Sun-Maid Raisininhispersonalwritingsseveral times,inaway that 3) TheCarlCrow,Inc.company–themostlikelyoption.Crowmentions whose Londonofficemanagedforeignadvertising inEuropeand Asia; left: the upperrightcornerofadvertisement shouldbereadfromrightto Translating thebrandname:challengeofChineselanguage 5, 6). to analyzeanadvertisement publishedin1928theShenbao(seefigures to bettervisualizeSun-Maidadvertising strategies,thissectionproposes 3. Adapting Sun-MaidRaisinstoChineseconsuminghabits thing remainedtosubmitthewholeplancompany’srepresentative the copywrittenandillustrationsdecidedon,mostimportant Crow forinstanceadvisedthataftertheadvertising hadallbeenplanned, who were familiar with Chinese culture, as it was recommended at the time. Raisins companyhiredChineseartistsorlocaladvertising professionals I. Textual elements modern Shanghai. images participatingintheemergenceofaglobal-local visualculturein examined inconnectiontootherpartsand thewhole,aswell astoother down intovarious textualandvisualelements.Eachonewillbeclosely perspective. Theadvertisements showninfigures5&6canbebroken special methodologyforanalyzingvisualmaterialsfromahistorical strategies totheChinese,butalsoasastartingpointfordeveloping a made bytheSun-Maidcompanytoadaptitsproductsandmarketing foreign companyfaced inChina. brand namewillserve asacasestudytodiscussthedifficulties that every of Crow’sdirectclients. Koshinjo, LimitedCompanyexplicitlyincludesSun-MaidRaisininthelist In hiswritings,Crowalways warned advertisers on the difficultiesthat The brandname(seefigure6:redsection1), strategicallyplacedin In ordertore-embodythegeneralconsiderationsexposedabove and Although thereisnocertainty,itvery likelythattheSun-Maid 美奴牌葡萄幹 38 Thisvisualanalysiswillnotonlyserve asanexampleoftheefforts 6 Furthermore, a1930confidentialreportbytheTokyo (meinüpaiputaogan). A closeinspectionofSun-Maid’s 35 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 36 Hefurtherrecom- 37

34

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / ies. to automobilethatwere thenintegrated inChinesetechnicaldictionar- in theprintingofaglossarycontainingwide selectionoftermsrelated for inventing appropriatewords.Thetranslationwork eventually resulted engineers, whosecomplexterminologyoffered arichsourceofinspiration tisers turnedtotheslangusedbyShanghai chauffeursandmarine Chinese words or putting old words into new uses. advertisers managedtoovercome thesedifficultiesbycombiningexisting through adeep,patientacculturationprocess totheChineselanguagethat nate suchnewnovelties fromtheWest. According toCrow, itwas only concerned, sincenowordsyet existedintheChineselanguagetodesig- were moreespecially some sectors,suchasautomobilesorgames(poker) following thesamemethodusedforvisualwork: the translationdonebyanative speakerfamiliarwiththelocalculture, isting linguisticrepositories. Therefore,advertising actively participated consisted ofcreatingnew wordsratherthanchoosingtermsfrompre-ex- christened, sotospeak,ward offanyriskofimitation,confusionorparody: literal translationsandtheoriginalbrandnameshadtobecompletelyre- Chinese. Mostofthetime,advertisers couldnotsatisfythemselves with Western companiesencounteredwhentranslatingtheirbrandnamesinto 43 While every Western companyfacedthechallengeoftranslation, Apart frompraisingsimplicity, require somereferencetothedictionary. which theadvertisement istoappearandwhoseknowledge ofEnglishmay work shouldbe,andusuallyis,donebymenwhothinkinthelanguage translation doneinthecountrywhichadvertising istoappear. The possible andacleartranslationisthenextbestthing.Betterhave the with theproduct,andyouradvertising policies.Butthatisnotoften language bysomeonewhohashadanopportunitytofamiliarizehimself The bestadvertisements are nottranslatedbutwritteninthenative one ortwice,butsofarhave escaped. we have toguardagainstaswe wouldthe plague.We have almostslipped turned into a ribald quip which will make the vulgar roar. This is something of punsters,andthemostsedatephrasemay,byasimplechangeintone,be these requirementswe have tomakeatestforribaldry.Chinaistheparadise imitated orconfusedwithothernames.Whenwe getanamewhichmeets must besimple,easilyreadandyet sodistinctive thatitcannotbeeasily many countries,hastoberechristenedinChina.TheChinesebrandname a troublesometimeexplainingtohimthathisbrand,whichiswell knownin understands eitheritsimportanceordifficulties.Infact weusuallyhave select asuitableChinesename,anditisnotaneasyone.Butnoclientever Every timewe takeontheadvertising ofanewbrandourfirsttaskisto Toputitanotherway, translatingforeignbrandnames intoChinese Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 40 Crow stronglyrecommendedhaving 39 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 41

42 For motorcars, adver- o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Mandarin language: Chinese, andbecauseeachprovincehaditsways ofpronouncingthe was even morecomplicatedduetothegreat variety ofdialectsinspoken markets targetedbytheglobalcompany,challengeoftranslation Post advertisement (seefigures1,8),Chinaisjustoneamongthemany have appliedthesamestrategy. Although inthe1927SaturdayEvening often printedEnglishwordsontheirpackaging,andSun-Maidmay Sun-Maid Raisin.Companiesthatadvertised themselves asmodern ality ofaprettymaidgatheringtheharvest andmakingtheraisins. raisins were madebytheCalifornia sun,thewordssuggestedperson- American advertising manE.A.Berg.Besidesreferring tothefactthat ny’s officialnarrative, thename“Sun-Maid” wascreatedin1914bythe top-down direction(seefigure6:redsection 2). Accordingtothecompa- gan gongsi,literally“American Raisin Company”)shouldbereadina Shih, sion withpossiblecompetitors. According toliteraryhistorianShu-mei teaching aidsforhelpingtoidentifytheoriginalbrandandavoidconfu- were designedasvisualhookstoattractconsumers’attention wellas culture. TheEnglishlettersarisingfromthepagecovered withChinese to theworldandjoinSun-Maid’seffortsbuildaglobalcommercial lingual messagetoWestern consumers,thusinvitedtoopentheirmind was purposelymaintainedonthepackageinordertoaddressamulti- throughout theworld(seefigure7).TheoriginalbrandnameinEnglish 1). Theimagedisplayed thevarious namesusedforSun-MaidRaisins advertisement publishedintheSaturdayEvening Postin1927(seefigure borrowing andhybridizingvarious glossariesandlanguages. in thebroaderdynamicofculturalcreation,throughacomplexprocess 2. Adapting thecompanynametoconsumers’ geographicalknowledge often calleduponasa symbol ofmodernityandotherpositive values, highlighted instead America. InChineseadvertisements, theWest was consumers, theChinese nameofthecompanyskippedCaliforniaand Sun-Maid’s translationproblemsareperfectlyexemplifiedinone The Chinesenameofthecompany( In contrasttoadvertisements specificallyaddressedtothe American understand oneanother. neighboring Provinces,sometimeseven ofneighboringcounties,cannot the pronunciationofwrittencharacters vary sogreatlythatnatives of thespokenlanguageand Mandarin tongue,yet withtheremainder[of] China, andwhilethree-fifthsofthepopulationspeakwhatisknownas of thedifferentProvinces.Whilewrittenlanguageissameallover is toappearinallpartsofthecountryneedscarefulcheckingbynatives Even in Chinathepreparationofcopyisbynomeanseasy.Thatwhich 44 English lettersalsoserved todemonstratethemodernnatureof 45 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 美奴牌葡萄幹公司 Meinüpaiputao- 46

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / blood”) andappetite( contained inraisinswas actuallyconducive tohealth. could findsugarinitspurestandmosteconomicalform,thattheiron states thatitwas easytoconvinceChineseconsumersthatinraisinsthey in ordertofacilitatethe importationofWestern goodsanddiscourses and science togetherwithChinese “traditional”physiologyandcosmology, expressed thecoexistence oftheoldandnewbyminglingWestern Pills forPale People. BothSun-MaidandDr.William’s advertisements products atthetime,suchasfamousand worldwideDr.Williams’ tisement employed thesamemarketingstrategiesusedformostmedical life) implicitlyappealedtoChinesemedicine andbodycultureTheadver- 3. Theslogan:anappealtohealthandtaste Chinese were notexpectedtohave ever heardofCalifornia. supposed tobefamiliarwiththegeographyoftheirowncountry, of designingtheiradvertisements: whilethe American audiencewas difference reveals thejudgmentadvertising menmadeintheprocess such ashealth,wealth orfamilyhappiness. Thisslightyet important characters obsession forenrichingchildren’s blood 4. Thevaluesofraisins:Chinesemedicine,body cultureandtheglobal advertising appealsinChinaremainedfocusedonhealth. more suitedtothetransformationsof American consumerculture,while abandoned theold“ironappeal”andreplaceditwitha“modern”appeal Raisins oftenhybridizedappealstohealth( appeal” invented byLord&Thomasin1921: Shenbao advertisement didnothesitatetorecycletheoriginal“iron the healthappealpredominatedover thetasteappealinChina.The1928 “still-life” artisticgenrefrequentlyusedin American advertisements, marketing histories.Whiletheappetiteappealwas strengthenedbythe had theirownspecificcombinationsoftheseappealsanddistinct In the1928Shenbaoadvertisement (seefigure6:3b&4),theChinese In theUnitedStates,J.Walter ThompsonCompanysoon In Chinaaswell asintheUnitedStates, slogansforSun-Maid sulphur ormolasses. grocery storeover concernfortheirneedofatonic.Raisinswere medicinelike pleas producedmoretalksthansales.People didnotseemtobedriven tothe raisins provokeduniversal comment,butlikemostslogansandhealth-food helped the‘nickelseller’ along…Buttherewas nocontinuedincrease…Iron in five-cent package was developed. The‘iron’slogantook well, andundoubtedly featuring intheslogan‘HadYour IronToday?’andalmostsimultaneouslythe Early in1921,Lord&Thomascrystallizedthe‘health’ideayhadbeen 活泼 (huopo,lively, vivacious) and 48 香甜 xiangtian, lit.“Sweet andfragrant”). Crow Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 補血 身强 buxue, lit.“Toenrichthe (shenqiang,strongbody/ 47 Yet eachmarket 49 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / arguments. and handbooksfortoysmakingusingemployed thesamekindsof their acceptancebyChineseconsumers. 良友 health. From August 1926toMarch1927,theYoung Companion(Liangyou and toresistforeignimperialistpowers. aimed tocuretheso-called concerns oftheNationalgovernment and its socialreformprojectsthat ers especially,thecarefulattentionpaidtochildrenmayhave echoedthe the generalanxietyabouthealthofyouth.For1920sChineseconsum- of theadvertising image,the1928Shenbaoadmayhave intendedtomirror individuals, ofthehealthnation.Byplacingalittlegirlatcenter with theirchildren’sbloodasanindicatorofphysicalhealthand,beyond ( consciously mergedwiththeglobalobsessionforenrichingtheblood ipate inthemoraleducationofcitizens-to-be, advertisements fortoys nor toChinesecommercialculture.Because they were supposedtopartic- that complextriangulation. children asfuturemodelcitizens–were purposelyplacedatthecenterof primary buyers ofcommercialproductsandmanagerstheirhomes government underChiang-KaiShekfrom1927to1937.Women –asthe with nationbuilding/modernizationasthetoppriorityofNational hygiene asamajorsocialconcernintheinterwar years, finallylinkingit relationship between milkasaproductofmassconsumption,healthand expected inadvertising. TheBaohuaCompanyestablishedatriangular propaganda andcommercialdiscoursethatoccurredmoreoftenthan concerns andbusinessinterests.Itfurtherreveals ablurringofpolitical (Baohua PowderedMilk),participatedintheinterminglingofnationalistic Company, thecompanythatproducedfamousmilkbrandMomilk expressed afervent nationalisticspirit.ThesponsorshipoftheBaohua promise strongpeople,peopleguaranteeanation,”clearly Shanghai, organizeda“HealthyBabyContest.”Itsslogan“Strongbabies in manycontemporaryadvertisements in the UnitedStates. 血氪强健怒 Sun-Maid Raisinwas nottheonlycaseofanappealtochildren’s Both Chinese and American societies were more particularly concerned On the1928Sun-Maidadvertisement, local referenceswere then Such atriangulationwas neitherrestrictedtofoodstuffsadvertising ), oneofthemostimportantpopularmagazinesinRepublican xuekeqiangjiannu,“Toenrichtheblood”),whichalsoappeared 54

“sick manof Asia,” tostrengthenthenation Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 50 52 51 53

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / and sketch-likedrawings: where advertisers/artists wouldsatisfythemselves withroughpictures even moresensible/delicate inChinacomparedtotheUnitedStates, A. Resizingandredesigningthepackage(seefigure6:bluesection A) II. Visual elements between 15to500grams. we maysafelypresumethatthepackagesin1920s-30soffered sizes each country.BasedonthecontemporaryfiguresprovidedbySun-Maid, (see figures3,4). “Sun-Maid PuffedRaisin”publishedintheLadies’HomeJournalin1927 large asaboxofbreakfastcereal,depictedonanadvertisement for package, intheUnitedStatesapackagesoldforfive centsand was as each packagecostonepennyinChinaandwas thesamesizeasacigarette deliberately tomeetthepurchasingpower oftheaverage Chinese.While raisins ascookingingredientsfortheirhomemade breadsorcakes. tic usesofraisinsintheUnitedStateswhere American housewives used to orfromwork.Theheavierbreakfast-sizepackagebetterfitthedomes- raisins assnacks,anytimeandanywhere,even inthestreet,whilegoing and thusmoreportable,inordertoencouragetheChinesehabitofeating packages were muchsmallerinChina,theywere supposedtobelighter that packageswere carefullyadaptedtospecificmarketconditions. Asthe theless, beyondquantitative data,themostimportantthingtoconsideris cigarette-style package was probablynoheavierthan50grams.Never- The closerattentionoftheChinesetodetails makesthegraphicwork It remainsdifficulttodocumenttheactual weightofpackagessoldin In modernChina,raisinspackageswere madesmallerandcheaper because thepicturesof merchandisearetoosketchy. illustrations usedin America wouldnotpassacritical testintheOrient details whenitcomesto merchandise. A greatmany oftheadvertising troublesome personalidiosyncrasy,butheisastickler foraccuracyof in every detail.TheOrientalmaybearomancerandholdtruthto It isvery important thatthepictureofpackageorarticlebecorrect attractive, very inexpensive packagethataresoldforapenny. their producttoChinainbulkandtheraisinsarefinallyretailedsmall, Growers reducedtheirexportingcoststoaminimum. Theyareshipping for foodproductthatheconsideredaluxury.SotheSun-MaidRaisin impossible, sincethecooliecouldnotbeexpectedtospendaday’swages Obviously, alargenumberofsalesatfive ortencentsapackagewouldbe unit ofsale,thoughsmall,wouldresultinasatisfactoryvolume. comparatively low,theRaisinGrowers were convincedthatanattractive it was recognizedthatthepurchasingpower oftheaverage Chinamenis One ofthefirstproblemstobesolved was thatofthepackage. Although 56 At thelowest endofthescale,Chinese Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 58

55 57

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / had continuouslybeenassociatedwithcharlatansandquackdoctors: more generalChinesesuspiciontowards theadvertising profession,which with similarproducts–especiallycigarettes: previous marketingerrors.Itwas primarilydesignedto avoidconfusion used, butresultedfromaprocessoflearning/acculturation,inreactionto general concernforquantity: product –suchascigarettesorpillstomeetwithChineseconsumers’ consumers toidentifytheproductandpackage’scontents: had toshowthepackageopenandraisinsspillingout,helpChinese advertisements shouldobserve several rules.Firstofall,theillustration by advertising professionals: from beingfortuitous,thisresemblancehad been observed andtheorized tising sampleofeachproductisjuxtaposed side by(seefigure9).Far and raisinsadvertisements, whichisallthemorestriking whenanadver- Realistic anddetaileddescriptionsfurtheraimedatcounteringthe The practiceofrepresentingthepackageopenhadnotalways been That visualdevicewas notrestrictedtoraisins,butextendedevery To have achancetoseduceChineseconsumers,Crowadvisedthat The latter point helps to explain the visual similarity between cigarettes is apackageofpills,howmanypillsandyoutakethepills. that. Hewants toknowhowmanypods,catties,ortubesitcontains. Ifit package isofgeneroussize.Hehasbeenfooledbeforebygeneralitieslike emptor guidingevery transaction,itisnotenoughtoassurehimthatthe After generationsofsharptradingwiththeprinciplecaveat open andtheraisinsspillingout. was anewbrandofcigarettes.Sincethenallpicturesshowed thepackage months ofthisadvertising itwas learnedthatmanythought Sun-Maid used showingthesealedpackageasin American advertising. After some When Sun-MaidRaisinswere firstadvertised intheOrient,copy was will beinterestedinthequantity. of interestandhelptheconsumertovisualizearticle.Whatever itis,he The colorofthepackage,size,andmaterialwhichitismadeare misunderstandings astowhatyouareadvertising. itself; thecontentsmustalsobedepicted,ifyouwishtoavoidany is used.Ifitapackagedarticlenotenoughtoshowthepackage The illustrationshouldshowthepackageorarticleandhowit protruding sothatthecustomer maycountthenumberofcigarettesin picture always shows thepackageopenandendsofcigarettes In cigaretteadvertising inChina andmostotherOrientalcountriesthe Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 62 60

ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 59

61

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / mother. of romanticlove indisregardoftherolesdutiful daughter,wifeand “use ofspecificcommoditiesandherexplicit eroticism,”andherpursuit fiable byher“sometimesflashy,always fashionable appearance,”her distinctive physicalattributes,suchasbobbedhair andhighheels,identi- was usuallyrepresentedasanattractive pleasure-seeking woman,with ened NewWomanandtheperfecthousewife/mother. Republican Shanghaivisualculture:thesexy ModernGirl,theenlight- visual cultureofChinaandtheUnitedStates. to theusuallyconspicuousfemalefiguresand tolocateitinthebroader However, itisstillpossibletocontrastthisdiscretefemaleappearance 1928 Shenbaoadvertisement withadvertising samplesforthesamebrand. found intheoverwhelming Chinesepress.Thereisnoway tocomparethe and ratherintriguingly,nootheradvertisement forSun-Maidcouldbe logotype since1916.Howcanthisdifferencebeexplained?Unfortunately the femalepresenceisconfinedtoiconicmaidusedasauniversal reemployed theimagesorvisualpatternsusedinpreviouswork. for various productsandbrandsforseveral companies.Hethusmayhave circles. Itwas notuncommonforagiven artisttodesignadvertisements other advertising professionalswithinShanghaicommercialandartistic patterns. Second,there was thecollaborationandcirculationofartists reproducing imagesresultedintherecyclingofandvisual several factors.First,theuseofmechanical techniquesofprintingand housewife andmother. As adocile yet smartmanagerofthehouseand 美奴牌葡萄亁 woman/sex appeal(seefigure6:bluesectionB) B. Theiconicmaidasuniversallogotype:localadaptationsoftheglobal products everywhere intheworld, women were ubiquitousandostensiblyputondisplaytosellcommercial and majorprotagonistsinfamilylifescenes(seefigure3),while – ifnotalways –featuredwomenasmodernhousewives andmothers out intwoways. While American advertisements forSun-Maidusually commercial cultureingeneral,the1928Shenbao attract consumers. commercial cultureandtodiscussthewideuseofwoman/sexappeal exemplifies theambiguoussignificanceoffemalerepresentationsin Three mainfiguresofwomencoexistedand partiallyoverlapped in Visual mimicryamongdifferentproductsmayhave derived from The Sun-Maidtrademarkimage,alongwithitsChinesebrandname( In contrastwithmostSun-Maidadvertisements in America and correct inevery detail. package. Itisvery importantthatthepictureofpackageorarticle be 66 ThatModernGirlwas symmetricallyopposedtotheperfect meinüpai putaogan)whichdirectlyreferredtothelogotype,

63

Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 64 inthe1928Shenbaoadvertisement ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he advertisement stands 65 The ModernGirl o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / States, advertisers introduced adistinctive femalefigure,namelythe can representationsof housewives/mothers were two-fold. IntheUnited appeared onSun-Maid advertisements, differencesinChineseand Ameri- and culturalbackgroundofthevarious geographicallocations. incarnations ofthefemalefiguresdiffered according tothesociopolitical same associationswithspecificproducts.However, nationalandlocal women coexistedin American visualculture androughlyreproducedthe Chinese archetypesmentionedabove, threemainfemale archetypesof sunbonnet whichwas partofwomen’sfashioninCaliforniaatthetime. Sun-Maid executive L.R.Payne toposeforapainting,wearing thered created in1915afterarealperson–MissLorraineCollett–was askedby . According tothecompany’s officialhistory,thetrademark was the UnitedStates,sameobservations alsoapplytoits American incar- and maternalduties. As thelogotypewas exactlyidenticalinChinaand perfect housewife/mother’s wholehearteddedicationtodomesticwork ity andthehardworkingnatureofafemalepeasant,whichrecalled mingling theModernGirl’ssexappealwithahintofchildishingenu- the iconicmaidusedasalogotypepresentedanambiguousfigure,inter- this complexcommerciallandscape?Inthe1928Shenbaoadvertisement, citizens. model citizen,apotentiallyidealhousewifeandmother-to-beofvirtuous tuals andreformerspraisedherasasymbolofprogressive nation,asa ment, freelove andmarriagechoice.Yet ontheotherhand,maleintellec- a strongnationthroughhersearchforindependence,personalachieve- female “traditional”rolesandthreatenednationalisticprojectstobuild presented themostambivalent figure. Ontheonehand,shechallenged crossroads oftheModernGirlandmodelhousewife,NewWoman potentially repulsive modelof“confinedmotherhood.”Situatedatthe a sortofvisualcompromisebetween thethreateningModernGirland stone oftherejuvenated Chinesenation. wise motherofstrongchildren,thelatter was presentedasthecorner- Sun-Maid Growers.” character onevery boxofraisinsaswell asinevery advertisement ofthe enthusiasm as“atributetothestrategythathasdisplayed thispictorial other marketingdevices.Thecompanyfurtherinterpretedtheconsumer iconic femalefigureintheUnitedStatestoitsubiquityonpackagesand The J.Walter Thompsonattributedtheunchallengedpopularityof America, butinmanyothermetropolises the world. housewife/mother were globalphenomena,notonlyinChinaand demonstrated thattheModernGirl,New Womanandthemodern ties withthetriadicportraitofChinesewomen. Recentscholarshiphas Leaving asideModern GirlsandNewWomenwhoalmostnever Where shouldtheSun-Maidrepresentationsofwomenbelocatedin Commercial cultureintheUnitedStatessharedmanycommonali- 69

Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 67 Last,theNewWomanoffered 70 Similartothe 68 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / the nation. ing thesametobecomemothersofnumerouschildreninordersustain manager ofasmallfamilyandratherconservative slogans/texts encourag- the tensionbetween images/visual discourseschampioninganeducated women’s personalachievement Suchsubtledifferencesarebetrayed by to strengthenthenation,ratherthanindividualisticprojectspromoting In Chinaappealstoemancipationwere partofthenationalistic program social organizationofthestateandakindmicrocosmthenation. independent fromthestate,Chinesemodelviewed familyasthebasic While Western idealssupportedindividualismandprivate life,relatively their fifties? society paidtotheincreasingnumberofmenandwomenwhoreached in theinterwar years andtotheincreasingattentionthat American 8). Didsuchadvertisements reflecttheemergenceofseniorityunder way Norman Rockwell painting“A WonderfulBargainBag”in1927(seefigure elderly womanorgrandmother.Theywere represented,forinstance,in published inLiangyoumagazine1932contrasted inasatiricalway an of RepublicanShanghai. A sketchentitled “Past andpresentChina” child andhertenderfather was notanisolatedcaseinthevisualculture were equallyrepresented. Thoughunusualatthetime,thispictureofa seedless raisins.(Seefigure6:c) carefullyfeedingalittle girlSun-Maid by amalefigure(probablyfather) Shenbao advertisement chosetoreplacetheubiquitousfemaleprotagonist market, whichsystematicallydepictedhousewives andmothers,the 1928 C. An unusualfatherlyscene:probingintovisuallanguage the individual,familyandnationdeveloped ineachcountry. the smallmodernfamily,basedonspecifictriangulationbetween diverged throughtheslightyet significant variations inthevisionof less visible–ifnottotallyabsentfrom(visual)commercialculture. the Xinwenbao in1933(seefigure9),oldwomen were comparatively much tisements, forinstanceononeadvertisement forthe“RatCigarettes”in mothers todaughtersandsolidaritythroughmultiplegenerations. of people,toencouragetransmissionknowledge andpractices from probably expressedSun-Maid’sconcerntotargetevery ageandcategory the fateofnation. world” suggeststhatindividualandfamilyachievement areplacedbefore personal pronoun“your”usedintheslogan“Your personalpost-war national renewal afterthewar throughrebuildingtheirownhouse,the Companies of America whichdepictsamodelfamilycontributingtothe In the1928Shenbaoadvertisement, theproductandconsumers In contrasttoSun-Maidadvertisements producedfor the American Commercial portraitsofChineseand American housewives further While figuresofmatureandoldmenoftenappearedinpressadver- 74 71 Incontrast,onwartime advertisements fortheLifeInsurance Fromamarketingpointofview,suchadvertisements Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 72 73

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / scene, purposelydesignedtostirconsumers’emotions: conveyed anaive atmosphere whichperfectlyfitthatkindofintimate found inmagazines,thesketchyappearanceofimageeventually in comparatively lessvividandeye-catching advertisements thanthose prevented artistsfromemployingvarious colorsandtonesresulted the product. Although thecrudematerialsusedforprintingnewspapers to themediumconstraintsoranactive visualstrategyaimedatselling observed thattheblack&whitedrawingmaybeeitherapassive response Sun-Maid advertisement assurprisingwe firstassumed. may supposethatactualconsumersin1928nothave viewed this their newbornbabytorearandamessyhomemanage.Therefore,we published in1933depictedafatheratlossafterhiswifelefthimwith even moreintriguingcaricaturepublishedinanotherissueofLiangyou by placingthebabyintohisfather’s arms,insteadofhismother’s. An old andamoderncouple,thelatteroperatingreversal ofgenderroles women wouldbetheprimary targetofcommercialproductsand“v isual “serious” content: have dedicated their readingtimetopoliticalnewsandothermore other side,educatedmenfromtheeliteand the middle-classeswould “visual readers”ofadvertisements andcommercialdiscourses;onthe joined byworkersandthelowest socialclasses)were viewed aspurely separated intwomaingroups:ononeside,illiteratewomen(sometimes by advertising menatthetime. According tothem,readerscouldbe doubt onthesimplisticviewofagenderedreadershipoftenassumed of theShenbao’sreadersandtoknowtheirlevel ofliteracy,we maycast illiterate astheywere said tobe? discourses inbothChinaandtheUnitedStates?Were Chinesewomenas Linking visualdiscoursewithgraphictechniques,itshouldbe In themindsofforeign advertisers and advertising men,thefact that Although itisalmostimpossibletoidentifytheactualdemographics Who were theactualconsumersofSun-Maidcommercialproductsand mechanical andotherlimitationsofthepublication...Itfollowsthatall Advertisers whoplantousetheChinesenewspapersshouldrealize presented amessagetothe readerwhocannotread. article isusedfor,we feelthatithasprobablyaccomplishedsomething, shows agoodpictureofthepackagewithanillustration showingwhatthe subscribes for,butshewilllooksatthepicturesand, ifouradvertising who spendsthemoneyinfamilycannotread thepaperherhusband female educationhasonlyrecentlybecomeapopular fad.TheChinesewife There areeven morewives ofprosperousmenwhocannotread,because used. HalftonesareoutofthequestionexceptinlargeShanghaipapers. Chinese papersarecrudelyprintedandthatonlycoarselinedrawingscanbe Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 76 75

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / women appeal”and reshaped Chinesevisualculturebyoffering hybrid versions ofthe“sex/ lowest inEast Asia, andlower thanitisgenerallythought. popularity atthetime. rendered theuseofvisualdevicesinadvertising allthemorenecessary: reader” ofadvertisements, altogetherwiththeirassumedilliteracy, hai. As asinglecasestudy,it hasnopretentiontorepresentativeness. Such company toadaptthe localpeculiaritiesofadistantmarketlikeShang- our understandingof the commercialstrategiesdeveloped byaglobal individuals, includingwomen,togaineducation. schools was sixtimesthatof1912andmodern highschoolsallowed more actually becameeducated.By1936,thenumberofChineseattendinghigh role intheprocessofbuildingastrongnation–moreandmorewomen to producethesmarthousewives andmotherscalledtoplayanimportant education was encouragedbymaleintellectuals andreformers–inpart of Chinesegirlsattendingschools were particularlyhighinthe1930s. Chinese consuming can consumercultures,lessbyreducingthe gap thanbyadaptingto and merchandisingwere carefullyusedtobridgeChineseand Ameri- convert aluxuryproductintovery popularbrandinChina. Advertising raisins importsandlocally-madeadvertising, thecompanysucceededto the 1920-1930s.Byrelyingontheirowndistributionsystem,combining Sun-Maid RaisinCompanymanagedtoseducetheChineseconsumersin egies intheUnitedStatesandChina,thispaperhasshownhow Epilogue target oftheiradvertising campaigns. certainly remainedtheprimaryactualconsumersofraisinsandmain every ageandsocialclassin America, modern middle-classhousewives scene. WhiletheSun-MaidCompanyaimedtoreachbothsexesand the 1928Sun-Maidadvertisement throughitsnaive drawingofafatherly the emotionalreadersintendedbyforeignadvertisers andsuggested by Therefore, we cansurmisethatChinesewomenwere not(exclusively) However, illiteracyratesinRepublicanShanghaiwere amongthe This casestudyofthe Sun-Maid RaisinCompanycontributesto Through aconnective casestudyofSun-Maid’smarketingstrat- argued thatthosewhosubscribefornewspapersmustbeabletoreadthem. In nocountryoftheOrientisrateliteracyvery high.Itmightbe if youwishtoavoidanymisunderstandingsaswhat it isnotenoughtoshowthepackageitself;contentsmustalsobedepicted, show thepackageorarticleandhowitisused.Ifapackaged they can’treadbutdoliketolookatthepictures.Theillustrationshould Quite right,butthewomenfolksdomostofmoneyspending;asarule habits andpurchasingpower. Thecompanyeventually of the“healthappeal,”whichbothenjoyed aworldwide Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he 79 InShanghai,therates are advertising. 78 As female 80 77

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / ers’ testimonials. Most cultural approaches tend to consider advertisements als, especiallycommercialreports,professionalhandbooksandadvert visual analysisshallinturnbeenlightenedbyotherhistoricalmateri- background andthemarketstowhichitappealed. to enrichoreven reviseourknowledge ofthecompany,historical aimed toshowthevalue ofanalyzingavisualadvertisement withaview or differentproductsinthesamesimilarcontexts.Thispaperhasalso to eithercompetingcompanies,similarproductsindifferentcontexts, method ismorevaluable whenconnectedtoothercasestudies,related haiese intheireveryday lives. was notonlyreadorseen effort bemadetobetterunderstandthe waysthroughwhichvisualculture of streetphotographsandmunicipalarchives, we finallysuggestthatan the proteanfacesofoutdooradvertising. Throughthecarefulobservation also postersandbillboards,paintedwalls andneonlights,streetcars printed advertisements (newspapers,magazinesorcalendar posters),but images withinthecityofShanghai:notonlyconventional formsof endeavor tograftSun-Maidadvertisements ontothewidernetworkof and campaigninwhichitwas includedatthetime. Another stepwould consist inplacingtheisolatedadvertisement withinthewholeseries single image.Tobroadenculturalapproachesonestepfurtherwould assumptions onvirtualconsumersandcommercialculture. society asawhole,shallgive afreshlifetopastimages,beyondtheusual the 1920-1930s,aswell astheirrelationshipswithotherinstitutionsand The knowledge oftheirinstitutions,andhics,theoriespracticesin new breedofadvertising menwhowere responsiblefortheirproduction. scrutinizing theactualmakingofadvertisements, we shallunmaskthe ing thecommercialstrategiesthatlaidbeneathsurfaceofimages.By cigarette). Inordertodeepenculturalstudies, we suggestdocument- calendar posters)andtwoprominenttypesofproducts(medicines and confiningthemtotwomainmedia(newspapersormagazines, ing themtotheirsemioticdimensions,ignoringmaterialfeatures, as mererepresentations,systemsofsignsor«mirrors»society,restrict- Nevertheless, ourapproachisliabletothefollowingconditions.First, Moreover, we shallnotsatisfyourselves withaclosereadingof , butactuallyexperiencedbyordinaryShang- Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he is- o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figures Figure 2. Figure 1. Thompson Company.35mm Microfilm Proofs,1906-1960andundated.Reel36. Advertisement forSun-Maid Raisins, 35mm MicrofilmProofs,1906-1960andundated.Reel36. Sun-Maid Raisins, Detail drawnfrom“OnlyRaisins supremelyfinecouldwinsuchworld-widefavor.” “Only Raisinssupremelyfinecouldwinsuchworld-widefavor.” Advertisement for Saturday Evening Post, August 6,1927.Source:J.Walter ThompsonCompany. Saturday Evening Post, August 6, 1927.Source:J.Walter Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Thompson Company.35mmMicrofilmProofs,1906-1960 and undated.Reel36. for Sun-MaidPuffedandNectars. Figure 3. “More of That Fine Old Muscat Flavor in the Seeded Raisin That Pour!” Advertisement Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 Ladies’ HomeJournal.December1927.Source:J.Walter ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 5. Figure 4. Shanghai, 1928.Source:http://commonpeople.vcea.net/Image.php?ID=25415 . December 1927(detail). Original Chineseadvertisement forSun-MaidRaisinspublishedintheShenbao, Advertisement forSun-MaidPuffedandNectars. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he Ladies’ HomeJournal, o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 6. Shanghai, 1928.Source:http://commonpeople.vcea.net/Image.php?ID=25415 . Analyzing aChineseadvertisement for Sun-MaidRaisinspublishedintheShenbao, Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 7. Company. 35mmMicrofilmProofs,1906-1960andundated. Reel36. win suchworld-widefavor,” world. DetaildrawnfromtheSun-MaidRaisinadvertisement “OnlyRaisinssupremelyfine could Sun-Maid Raisin’sbrandnametranslatedintovarious languagesthroughout the Saturday Evening Post, August 6,1927.Source:J.Walter Thompson Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 8. “Market DaySpecial”bag.1927.Source:Sun-Maid,2012:62-63. Norman Rockwell, “A WonderfulBargainBag.” Advertisement forSun-MaidRaisin Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 9. Cigarettes,” Xinwenbao, 17September,1933(right). Detail fromthe1928Shenbaoadvertisement (left)andadvertisement for“TheRat Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 8. “A Smaller SellingUnitGetsChineseMarketforSun-Maid.”J.W.T. Newsletter 7. Despite China’scivilwar andJapan’seconomicdepressionresultingintheJapanese 6. Crow, 1937:212-215 5. Crow, Carl.1927.”WhenYou Advertise toOrientals.”Printers’InkMonthly,December, 4. Carl Crow (1883-1945) was one of the first advertising men in Shanghai. After studying 3. The Shenbaowas oneofthemostimportantChinesedailypapersinShanghai. 2. http://www.sunmaid.com/our-history/our-history.html 1. “Only Raisinssupremelyfinecouldwinsuchworld-widefavor.” Advertisement for Notes 10. “A Smaller SellingUnitGetsChineseMarketforSun-Maid.”J.W.T. Newsletter, 9. In ordertoadaptthosespecificsocialconditions,raisinsimporterschosesell 17. “When we startedpromotingtheconsumptionofraisins Isuggestedthatwe should conduct 16. “Bread asafoodofuniversal dailyconsumption,was thegreatestsinglecarrierofraisinstobe 15. “Your American audienceissophisticated;yourOrientalsnot;andthat,to my 14. “Since establishing our Oriental offices we have received reports that the Chinese have adopted 13. Crow, 1937:214-215. 12. Ibid. 11. Bacon, 1927:763. Newsletter Collection,1910-2005.BoxMN6(1923-1925). Newsletter, no.54,November 20,1924(p.5).Source:J. Walter ThompsonCompany. Quota by3,557tons–SalesSetNewRecordforEighthConsecutive Month.”JWT 1924 asagainst108,165caseinthefirsteightmonthsof1923.“Sun-Maidbeats August in thisDivisionhave reached thefinetotalof222,588casesinfirsteightmonths luxury tariff,Sun-Maid’sFarEasternDivisiondidexcellentbusiness.Thetotalsales Society ofMissouri. ManuscriptCollections,C41.ScrapbookSeries,vol.2(1916-1937). 39-40, 11623.Source:Crow,Carl(1883-1945),Papers, 1913-1945.TheStateHistorical for thehistoryofadvertising andconsumptioninRepublicanChina. several bestsellersdealingwithChinaduringhislifetime.Heremainsamajorsource advertising agencyatthetime,CarlCrow,Inc.in1918.Hewas theauthorof where helived fortwenty-five years andfoundedonethemostimportant American journalism attheUniversity ofColumbia,Missouri,hesettledinShanghai1911 Published from1872to1949,itclaimedacirculationofmorethan50,000inthe1920s. Company. 35mmMicrofilmProofs,1906-1960andundated.Reel36. Sun-Maid Raisin, Sun-Maid.” Ibid.Crow,1927:39. satisfactory salesvolumes.Source:“A SmallerSellingUnitGetsChineseMarketfor small yet attractive unitsofsale,whichbycumulative addition were saidtoresultin 1910-2005. BoxMN6(1923-1925). October 2,1924(p.7).Source:J.Walter ThompsonCompany.NewsletterCollection, 1910-2005. BoxMN6(1923-1925). no.31, June12,1924,p.8.J. Walter ThompsonCompany.NewsletterCollection, of thenationonedayoutseven.” Source:“TheStoryofSun-Maid.” found andtheultimateobjective oftheplanwas nolessthanthis:toputraisinsintothe bread Crow, 1927,p.116. mind, is the principal reason American copy does not pull as it should in the Orient.” Source: serving raisins Source: RecordOrderfromOrient,”thattheChinese have adoptedthecustomof Raisin GetsRecordOrderfromOrient,”J.W.T. Newsletter, no.20,March27,1924(p.3). by theChineseintheircelebratedcustomofpresentinggifts the customofservingraisinsbetween courses attheirfeastsandthatraisinsareoftenused 1910-2005. BoxMN6(1923-1925). October 2,1924(p.7).Source:J.Walter ThompsonCompany.NewsletterCollection, Saturday Evening Post, August 6,1927.Source:J.Walter Thompson Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he .” ChicagoOffice–Sun-Maid J.W.T. Newsletter , no.47, no. 47, , o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 31. “A Smaller SellingUnitGetsChineseMarketforSun-Maid.”J.W.T. Newsletter, 30. Bacon, 1927:758-759. 29. Bacon, 1927:758-759. 28. “Government Investigation ofConsumerDemand forRaisins,”March15,1926(p.14). 27. “Government Investigation ofConsumerDemand forRaisins,”March15,1926(p.14). 26. Bacon, 1927:758. 25. Crow, 1927 24. Bacon, 1927:756-757. 23. Bacon, 1927:763-764 22. Des Forges,2007. 21. Bacon, 1927:763-764 20. Crow, 1927:119. 19. Demartini, Kalifa,2005;Matt,Stearns2014.“ 18. Henriot 2014;Kuo,2007,Laing2004;Pastoureau, 2000. 40. The translationoftherulespokerwas themostdifficultjobofthatsort we ever undertook, 39. Be surethatyourlanguageissimpleandavoidthefatalerror ofcleverness (…)..Makethe 38. Be surethatyourlanguageissimpleandavoidthefatalerror ofcleverness (…).Makethetext 37. Crow 1937:192-193 36. Established byaBritishmerchant(ErnestMajor,1841-1908)andpublishedfrom1872 35. Crow, 1926:195 34. Crow, 1927:123. 33. Report byTheTokyoKoshinjoLimited(InformationNo.27340).Shanghai, 32. “Sun-Maid RaisinsGrowers Association.” March15,1926,p.1. J. Walter Thompson 1920-1995. Box41. Source: J.Walter ThompsonCompany. Account Files,1885-2008andundated,bulk 1920-1995. Box41. Source: J.Walter ThompsonCompany. Account Files,1885-2008andundated,bulk do otherpeoples.”(Crow,1926:192). buyers, payingagreatdealmoreattentiontoallthedetailsofanarticlethan accuracy, andmysystemworkedaswell asanyother.”(Crow1937:214). the mostfavourableofcircumstancesmeritsacakecannotbedeterminedwithscientific cakes tobejudged,andtheonlysensibleway tojudgethemwas bytastingthem(...).Under surrounded byaseaofcakes(p.212)(...)With thesethrownouttherewere stillmorethan500 for nothing.ThedaythecontestclosedIwent toseemyclientandfoundhimcompletely instinct iswiththeChineseandhoweagerlytheywillsizeonopportunitytogetsomething sort, anditwasn’t untiltheentriesbeganpilinginthatIrealizedhowstronggambling raisins formedapartoftheingredients.Itwas myfirstexperiencewithanythingofthis a cake-bakingcontest,offeringcashprizestothosewhowouldsendthebestcakesinwhich ‘frog gun’andanelectriclight iscalled‘bottledmoonlight’,twoperfectlydescriptive phrases. introduced toChina,andsometimes ithasbeenvery easy.Forinstance,amortar iscalled Chinese wordsortoputold tonewuses.Thishashadbedonewithevery newarticle and, inordertodefinethem, it was necessarytodefinesomearbitrary combinationofexisting terms intheChineselanguage.Naturallytherewere noChinesenamesforthepartsofcars but whenwe beganadvertising motor-cars,we foundplentyoftroubleexpressingmotor-car text simpleandunequivocal.(Crow,1927:116-117). simple andunequivocal. Shanghai, withanestimatedaudienceof150,000in1931 (Mittler,2004,Tsai, 2010). to 1949,theShenbaowas oneofthelongest-lived andmostsuccessful newspapersin November 1930.Source:ShanghaiMunicipal Archives :Q275-1-1840-37(1934). Company. Account Files,1885-2008andundated,bulk1920-1995.Box41. 1910-2005. BoxMN6(1923-1925). October 2,1924(p.7).Source:J.Walter ThompsonCompany.NewsletterCollection, (Crow, 1927:116-117). Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he The Chinesearemostdiscriminating no. 47, o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 46. Lord &Thomaswas thefirstadvertising agencytohandletheSun-Maidaccount 45. Crow, 1937:214-215. 44. Sun-Maid Company,op.cit., 43. Crow, 1926:195. 42. Shu-mei Shih,“ShanghaiWomenof1939:Visuality andtheLimitsof 41. Crow, 1937:185-189 53. “A SmallerSellingUnitGetsChineseMarketforSun-Maid.”J.W.T. Newsletter 52. In theUnitedStatestoo,advertisements helpedtheconsumersthreadhealth, 51. Fernsebner, 2003. 50. David Fraser,Smokingouttheenemy:NationalGoodsMovement andtheadvertising 49. As itisthecaseinanadvertisement forForemostMilkmade byJ.Walter Thompson 48. Lean, 1995:76. 47. J.W.T. Newsletterno.31, 62. Wu, 2012. 61. Ibid.. 60. Crow, 1927:117 59. Ibid. 58. Crow, 1927:116. 57. Ibid. 56. Crow, 1927:117 55. “The RuralCampaign”Sun-MaidRaisinsGrowers Association , 1926(p.9).Source:J. 54. Sun-Maid Company,2012:94. before J.Walter Thompson.Source:Sun-MaidRaisinsGrowers Association, 1926,op.cit. New Academia Publishing,Washington D.C.,2007(205-240):222. Feminine Modernity.”inJasonC.Kuo(ed.),Visual CultureinShanghai1950s-1930s, and topoeticphrases.(Crow,1937:185-186) as onewhichatleasthasgreatedadvertising possibilitiesandwouldlenditselftoromance As between ‘bottledmoonlight’and‘incandescentbulb’Iwouldchoosethe moonlight’ personal pronoun“your”(seefigure24). placed atthecenterofslogan“Your well-born baby,”throughtheuseof a happymotherandherhealthynewbornbaby,themother’s emotionsareclearly Milk publishedin1929-1930various women’sandparents’magazines,depicting individual achievement camefirst.Forinstance,onaadvertisement forForemost interests were placedbeforefamilyhappiness,intheUnitedStatesand of prioritizingeitherfamilyorthestate(Glosser,2003).WhileinChina,national anxieties towards children’shealthdifferedinbothcountriestheirrespective ways and thencontributetothebuildingofahealthynation(seefigure23).However, 1925, explicitlyencouragedchildrentoeatbreadinorderstrengthentheirbody advertisement forFreihofer’s breadpublishedinthemagazineReadingEagle as medicines,vitamins,dairyproductsorotherfoodstuffs.Forinstance,one childhood, familyandthenationwithoneneedle:healthyproducts,such Berkeley, Fall1999.Gerth,2003.Glosser of nationalisminChina,1880-1937 and undated.Reel9. in 1929.Source:J.Walter Thompson Company.35mmMicrofilmProofs,1906-1960 Newsletter Collection,1910-2005. BoxMN6(1923-1925). bulk 1920-1995.Box41. p.1. Source:J.Walter ThompsonCompany. Account Files,1885-2008andundated, Box 41. Walter ThompsonCompany. Account Files,1885-2008andundated,bulk1920-1995. 1910-2005. BoxMN6(1923-1925). October 2,1924(p.7).Source:J.Walter ThompsonCompany,NewsletterCollection, June 12,1924(p.8).Source:J.Walter Thompson Company. 2012,p.10. , Thesis(Ph.D.inHistory),University ofCalifornia, Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he , no.47, o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 78. In 1933,Chinesegirlsrepresentedmorethan35%ofthechildrenattendingschoolin 77. Schmidt, 2014:4. 76. Yan, 2008. 75. Crow, 1927:119. 74. Crow, 1937:170-171 73. Crow, 1926:197. 72. Jung, op.cit.,2013:190 71. Glosser, 2003.Schneider,2011.Tsai, 2010. 70. We questionedevery typeofultimateconsumer:men,women,andchildren.Source: 69. Laslett, 1989. 68. The ModernGirl Around theWorldResearchGroup,2008.Schmid,2014: 67. The femaleiconicfigureissaidtobe 66. Sun-Maid Company,2012:10. 65. Glosser, 2003.Jung,2013:179-199.Schneider,2011. 64. The ModernGirl Around theWorldResearchGroup,2008. 63. Ibid. the ChineseMunicipality.Source: Company. Account Files,1885-2008andundated,bulk1920-1995.Box41. Sun-Maid RaisinsGrowers Association, 1926(p.11).Source:J.Walter Thompson 1-16. Schneider,2011. the-sun-maid-girl.html bulk 1920-1995.Box41.Forahistoryofthelogotype,seehttp://www.sunmaid.com/ 1926 (p.14-15).J.Walter ThompsonCompany. Account Files,1885-2008andundated, Growers. Government Investigation ofConsumer,DemandforRaisins,March15, pictorial characteronevery bowofraisinsaswell asinevery advertisement oftheSun-Maid 上海市统计补充材料 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 …a tributetothestrategythathasdisplayed this ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he (1934年编), Table 9. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Henriot, Christian,andWen-Hsin Yeh. 2013.Visualising China,1845-1965:MovingandStill Shanghai Municipal Archives (SMA): Q275-1-1840-37(1934). ______. 1937.Fourhundredmillioncustomerstheexperiences–somehappy,somesad,ofan ______. 1927.“WhenYou Advertise toOrientals.”Printers’InkMonthly,December, Crow, Carl.1926.“Advertising andMerchandising.”InChina. A CommercialandIndustrial Bacon, C.A.1927.“Advertising inChina.”ChineseEconomicJournalandBulletin Primary Sources References Kuo, Jason.2007.Visual cultureinShanghai1850s-1930s . Washington D.C.:New Academia Kinney, Anne Behnke.1995.ChineseViews ofChildhood Jung, HaYoon. 2013.“Searching forthe‘ModernWife’ inPrewar ShanghaiandSeoul Glosser, SusanL.2003. Fernsebner, Susan.2003.“A People’s Playthings: Toys,Childhood,andChineseIdentity, Fass, Paula S.2013.TheRoutledgeHistoryofChildhoodintheWestern World.London;New Des Forges, Alexander Townsend.2007. Demartini, Anne-Emmanuelle, andDominiqueKalifa.2005. –––––––––––––––– .2004.“MarketingMedicineacrossEnemyLinesChinese‘fixers’and –––––––––––––––– .1999b.“Transnationaloriginsofadvertising inearly20th-century Cochran, Sherman.1999a.“CommercialcultureinShanghai,1900-1945:Importedor Büchsel, Ulrike.2009.“Lifestyles, GenderRolesandNationalismintheRepresentationof Secondary resources Common People andthe Artists inthe1930s(Advertisement forSun-MaidRaisins, Shenbao, J. Walter ThompsonCompany.NewsletterCollection,1910-2005. BoxMN6(1923-1925). J. Walter ThompsonCompany. Account Files,1885-2008 andundated,bulk1920-1995.Box41. J. Walter ThompsonCompany.35mmMicrofilmProofs,1906-1960andundated. Reels35,36. Images inHistoricalNarratives . Leiden;Boston:Brill. of CaliforniaPress. American inChina,andwhattheytaughthim.NewYork ;London:Harper&Brothers. 39-40, 116-23. ing Office. Handbook aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=39034 University ofHawai’i Press.http://search.ebscohost.com/login. 1909-1933.” PostcolonialStudies York: Routledge. Production. Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press.http://site.ebrary.com/id/10386685. XIXe siècle:étudespour Alain Corbin. Grâne(Drôme): Créaphis. Japanese Occupation Shanghai’s Wartime Centrality.” In Ithaca [NewYork]: East Asia Program,CornellUniversity. China.” InInventing NanjingRoad:CommercialCulture inShanghai,1900-1945,37-58 Shanghai, 1900-1945 invented? Cutshortorsustained?”In Heidelberg University: 2009.) Women inCigarette Advertisements fromtheRepublican Period.” (PhDdissertation, Shanghai, 1928) Brill. 1926-1945 Magazines.” InLiangyou: , editedbyJuleanHerbert Arnold, 191-200.Washington: Government Print- , editedbyPaul Pickowicz,KuiyiShen,andYingjin Zhang,179-99.Leiden: , CambridgeUniversity Press,66-89. , 3-18.[NewYork]: East Asia ProgramCornellUniversity. Chinese Visions of FamilyandState,1915-1953 Kaleidoscopic ModernityandtheShanghaiGlobalMetropolis, 6(3):269-93. In theShadowofRisingSun:Shanghaiunder Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 Mediasphere Shanghaithe Aesthetics ofCultural Inventing NanjingRoad:commercialculture in ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he . Honolulu: Imaginaire etsensibilitésau . Berkeley:University : 754-67. . o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Mittler, Barbara, Wen-Hsin Yeh, andChristianHenriot.2013.“ImaginedCommuni- Mittler, Barbara.2004.AnewspaperforChina?Power, identity,andchangeinShanghai’snews Matt, SusanJ.,and Peter N.Stearns.2014.DoingEmotionsHistory.Urbana:University of Lean, Eugenia.1995.“TheModernElixir:MedicineasaConsumerItemintheEarly Laslett, Peter. 1989. A FreshMapofLife:TheEmergencetheThird Age. London:Weiden- Laing, EllenJohnston.2004.SellingHappiness:CalendarPostersandVisual CultureinEarly Schneider, HelenM,Virginia PolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity, andDepartment Schmid, Carol.2014.“The‘NewWoman’GenderRolesandUrbanModernisminInter- Salmon, Christian.2007.Storytelling:machineàfabriquerdeshistoiresandformaterles Plum M.C.2012.“LostChildhoodsinaNewChina:Child-Citizen-WorkersatWar, Patch, Gooseberry.2012.Sun-MaidRaisins&DriedFruit.Lanham:GooseberryPatch. Pastoureau, Michel.2000.Bleu:histoired’unecouleur.Paris: ÉditionsduSeuil. Zhenzhu Wang. 2011.“Popular MagazinesandtheMakingofaNation:TheHealthy Yan, Se. 2008.“RealWages andWage InequalityinChina:1860-1936.”(PhDdiss.,Univer- Wu, Huaiting.2012.“Themarketingofmodernwomeninearlytwentieth centuryShang- Weinbaum, Alys Eve, andModernGirl Around theWorldResearchGroup.2008.The Tsai, Weipin. 2010.ReadingShenbao:Nationalism,consumerismandindividualityin China Shih, Shumei.2007.“ShanghaiWomenof1939:Visuality andtheLimitsofFeminine 1910s).” InVisualizing China ties Divided:ReadingVisual RegimesinShanghai’sNewspaper Advertising (1860s- Harvard University Press. media, 1872-1912.Cambridge(Mass.):Harvard University Asia Center;Distributedby Illinois Press. Twentieth-Century ChinesePress.”UCLAHistoricalJournal15:65-92. feld andNicolson. Twentieth-Century Shanghai.Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. Publishing. Modern China.Vancouver: UBC Press.http://site.ebrary.com/id/10459084 of History.2011.KeepingtheNation’sHouseDomesticManagementandMakingof war BerlinandShanghai.”JournalofInternationalWomen’sStudies15(1):1-16. esprits. Paris: LaDécouverte. 1937-1945.” EuropeanJournalofEast Asian Studies11(2):237-58. http://public.eblib.com/choice/PublicFullRecord.aspx?p=2001705 China 6(4):525-37. Baby ContestOrganizedbyTheYoung Companionin1926-27.”FrontiersofHistory sity ofCaliforniaatLos Angeles, 2008). of Minnesota.http://gradworks.umi.com/34/94/3494681.html. hai: Thecreationofconsumingmodernityandnationalisminadvertising.” University Duke University Press.http://site.ebrary.com/id/10268948. Modern GirlaroundtheWorldConsumption,Modernity,andGlobalization 1919-37. Basingstoke[England];NewYork: Palgrave Macmillan. Washington D.C.:New Academia Publishing. Modernity.” InVisual cultureinShanghai1850s-1930s,editedbyJasonKuo,205-40. , 267-377.Leiden;Boston:Brill. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he . . Durham,N.C.: . o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / ______. 2016c.“Casestudyno.10–Sun-MaidRaisinsIII(1922-1928):l’enfance ______. 2016b.“Casestudyno.10–Sun-MaidRaisinsII(1922-1928):l’imag- Armand, Cécile.2016a.“Casestudyno.10–Sun-MaidRaisinsI(1922-1928):l’enfance About theSun-MaidGirl:http://www.sunmaid.com/the-sun-maid-girl.html Sun-Maid OfficialHistory:http://www.sunmaid.com/our-history/our-history.html Digital Resources history.hypotheses.org/2079. publicitaire enChine.”Blogpost.Last Accessed: February6,2016.http://advertising- tisinghistory.hypotheses.org/2075 inaire del’enfance détourné.”Blogpost.Last Accessed: February6,2016.http://adver- advertisinghistory.hypotheses.org/1967. publicitaire par-delàlesmers.”Blogpost.Last Accessed: February6,2016.http:// 美奴牌葡萄幹 Cécile ArmandiscurrentlyadoctoralstudentinHistoryat Etudes enSciencesSociales(EHESS)inParis. program inHistoryandCivilizationattheÉcole desHautes She alsoworksasateachingassistantinthe master’s degree student attheEcoleNormaleSuperieureofLyon (ENS-Lyon). humanities andleadsajuniorresearchlabwith otherdoctoral half ofthetwentieth century.Sheisalsoinvolved indigital the spacesofadvertising inModernShanghaithefirst town University, Washington, D.C.).Herresearchdealswith (Aix-Marseille University) andProf.CarolBenedict(George- France, underthesupervisionofProf.ChristianHenriot the LyonsInstituteforEast Asian Studies(I.A.O.)inLyon, 美奴牌葡萄幹公司 血氪强健怒 Glossary ofTerms 活泼 補血 香甜 身强

xuekeqiangjiannu xiangtian shenqiang meinüpai putaogan meiguo putaogangongsi huopo buxue . Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ere o ie /Aan / Ar ine a of e ra he o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / they and theyarerenderednothaafuenoughinJapandespitethefactthat undergo difficultlives becauseoftheirnotfittingintothesestereotypes, gual, friendly,rich,cosmopolitan,andpart-Japanese.Someordinary contribute tothecreationofstereotypes the popularityof addresses manyaspectsofconsumercultureinJapan,yet noresearchon appliances, trips,weddings, andsoon.Theirpresenceinadvertisements of consumerproductssuchasfood,cosmetics,clothing,cars,electric In theworldofJapaneseadvertising, haafupromotequiteawiderange have yet toexaminewhyhaafuaresopopularinJapaneseadvertisements. Horiguchi andYukiImotoresearchhaafuinnewspapers.Todate,scholars in films,Toko Tanaka focusesonhaafuincomicbooks,whileSawako topic ofhaafuinthemedia,MikaKoexaminesrepresentations Advertisements Haafu IdentitiesInsideandOutsideofJapanese themselves. Thisresearchhasincludedtopics of category denotingpeopleofmixed-raceor-ethnicityusedinJapan, representations ofhaafuinthemedia, kuara Methodology feeling ofnothaafuenough,andembracetheirheritages. themselves canchallengehaafustereotypes,enabletoovercome the experiences ofheterogeneoushaafu.Finally,thisarticleargueshow haafu homogeneous imagesof they are“nothaafuenough.”Thisarticlewillshowhowtheidealized of haafu?Howhave thesestereotypescontributed tosomehaafuthat the presenceofhaafuinadvertisements contributedtothestereotypes of consumption?Whyarehaafuusedforadvertisements? Howhas the followingquestions:WhydohaafustimulateJapanesedesire enough inJapanesesociety. While haafuarequitepopularinadvertisements, they inadvertently Scholars and This articleexaminesthe representationsofhaafuinadvertisements This articleexaminestheadvertisements ofhaafuanddiscusses are haafu,too. A 2013filmentitled HAFU, andLalaPerez Takagi, reveals howsomehaafuareseenasnot haafu have recentlyundertakenresearchonhaafu,a haafu inadvertisements hasbeenattempted. haafu inadvertisements contraststarklywiththe ar r n h ant ori aori Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 2 thehistoryofhaafu, haafu asgood-looking,multilin- directed byMegumiNishi- haafu identityissues, ette /ant / entitie Haafu a 3 etc.Onthe haafu 1

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / native Englishspeakers,” but atthesametimewordhasanegative connotationtotheearsof points outthattheword“haafuisusedwithanuancearecool, haafu asobscuringitsmulticulturalroots.Forexample,ItsukoKamoto the Japanesepronunciationofterm.Somehave criticizedtheterm haafu representationsbothinsideandoutsideofadvertisements. and stereotypesexpressedinadvertisements. Thus,thearticleexamines lived experiencesoffive haafu,whicharenotconsistentwiththetropes 2013 film,HAFU, tions inadvertisements, thisarticlewillalsodrawuponstoriesfromthe watches whichfeaturehaafu. As acounter-narrative ofhaafurepresenta- article focusesonadvertisements forfoods,cosmetics,clothing,andwrist- haafu outsideofadvertisements. narrative onhaafuchallengesthesestereotypesandempower ordinary the stereotypesrepresentationsofhaafuinmedia,andhowcounter- made byhaafuthemselves, anddiscusshowordinary and part-Japanese.Second,Iwillexaminetherepresentationsofhaafu haafu asgood-looking,part-Western, multilingual/cultural,rich,friendly, how haafuinthemediahave contributedtoreproductionofstereotypes haafu topromoteproductsandservicesinadvertisements. We willalsosee racial samenessanddifferencetoconsiderwhyJapanesemarketersuse framework ofmixed-racemodelsastheembodimentsimultaneous advertisement madebymarketers,Idevelop JulieMatthews’stheoretical in twoways. First,throughananalysisoftherepresentationshaafuin referred toashaafuinJapan.Forexample,Koichi Iwabuchi defineshaafuasfollows: both ashaafu originated fromtheEnglishword“half.” Although haafuistranscribed Haafu inJapan the wordhaafu.Personally, Ithinkthewordisnaturaltocallmyself.” of myselfashaafu,andusuallyusethewordformyself.Itherefore support issues, whosemotherisJapaneseandfather German,writesthat“Ithink “cross-cultural kids,”“mixed-rootsetc. ethnic peoplesuchas“double,”“Amerasian,” “internationalchildren,” the problematicnatureofword. circulating inJapan,sothispaperusestheword haafuwhileacknowledging is themostcommontermdenotingmixed-race/ethnic individualscurrently with it.Forexample,SandraHaefelin,awriter andanadvocateofhaafu In ordertocomparethetwocompetingrepresentationsofhaafu,this People whohave halfJapaneseandnon-Japanese heritageareusually On theotherhand,somehaafuthemselves supportthetermandidentify Multiracial/ethnic peopleinJapanarecalledhaafu.Thewordis Haafu arearacializedgroup duetotheirphenotype.Itisadiscourse 4 andhafu madebyhaafuthemselves. Thefilmdepictsthediverse 5 , thisarticleuseshaafusinceitismorefaithfulto 6 andshelistsotherexpressionsformultiracial/ Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 7

ette /ant / entitie Haafu haafu are affected by 8 Haafu

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / social attention. the 1960siscalledfirsthaafuboom,whentheybegantoreceive greater were visibleinshowbusinessbeforethe1960s,popularity ofhaafuin whose nameissaidtobetheoriginofword,haafu. actors. Among them,therewas agirls’singinggroupcalledGoldenHalf haafu becamepopularinshowbusinessassingers,models,athletes,and babies, etc. As theyreachedtheirteensandtwenties inthe1960s,some called konketsuji(mixedbloodchildren), women, resultinginthebirthof democracy. SomeservicemenhadphysicalrelationshipswithJapanese servicemen, mainly American men,cametoJapaninorderinstitute Forces cametooccupyJapanin1945. Approximately 400,000 Allied Forces as haafuordefined defined aspeoplehaving morethanonenationality,race,orethnicity. is notlegallydefined;for thepurposesofthispaper,haafuwillberoughly even iftheydonotconsiderthemselves in Japanofmixedracial,ethnic,ornationalbackground coulddefineoneself 1926 introducingnewhaafuactressesreads: appearance sincetheTaisho era(C.E.1912-1926). A newspaperarticlein Japanese ancestryisessentialformembership inthecategory. Any person upon havingJapanesenationalityor parentage. His caseshowsthatthedefinitionofhaafudoesnotnecessarilydepend and workedever since.Herefers to himselfas family moved toJapanwhenhewas threeyears old,wherehehaslived model whoseparentsare American andItalian.BorninTaiwan, heandhis who claimhaafuidentity.Forexample,JonathanSiegerisaJapanese nese personsinJapandonothave Japanesenationality,yet therearesome racially/ethnically part-Japanese.Forexample,childrenborntonon-Japa- Japan isalsohometohaafuwhoarenotlegallyJapaneseor have halfJapaneseandnon-Japaneseracial/ethnicheritages. Yet, Haafu visibilitybecameheightenedinthepostwar erawhenthe Allied Haafu have beenconsideredattractive bytheJapanese for theirexotic The definitionofhaafuisthusfluid:neitherJapanesenationalityor Iwabuchi’s definitionofhaafucouldbereadthatarepeoplewho historically constructed. and non-Japaneserace,ethnic,orforeigners,allofthesecategoriesare category forthemixed-racepeoplewhoarebornbetween theJapanese exotic beautiesandtheywillenjoytheirfameasnewmoviestars. are bothmixed-raceJapanese,andthisistheirfirsttimetoact.They this movie, actors are mixed-race, too. Shizue Okamoto and Emiko Oshima protagonists aremixed-raceJapaneselivinginKamakuraorShanghai.In National Cinemawillshootamovie,MissingtheFather,whose 12

haafu byothers.Othersmaydefineaassuch 9 haafu children. At thetime,haafuwere Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 haafu. Thedefinitionofthe word haafu ainoko (mixed-racechildren),G.I. haafu inhisTwitter posts. ette /ant / entitie Haafu 11 Sincefewhaafu 10

13

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / race models–theircosmopolitanism,inMatthew’s words–assophisti- iar toconsumers.Consumersregardthemulticultural heritageofmixed- mixed-race models,andthatiswhythesemodelsareknowable andfamil- any consumercanidentify.Consumersidentifytheirownethnicityin in globalconsumersbecausetheyhave diverse racial heritageswithwhich the Japanese.Haafuembodybothracialdifferenceandsamenesssimul- Japanese, haafuwhoarepart-Asiangive asenseofracialfamiliarityto their facialandphysicalcharacteristicsaredifferentfromtheaverage features: lightskin,apointynose,largereyes, andtallerstature.While popular haafuhave Western roots,andexhibitWestern facialandphysical nose, smalleyes, andbeingshortinstature.Ontheotherhand,many Japanese, whosefacialfeaturesareusuallycharacterizedashavingaflat sis ofthemixed-racemodels astheembodimentofracialsamenessand non-Japaneseness constitutes racialdifference.However, Matthews’analy- demography inwhich Japanesenessisthemarkerofracialsamenessand non-Westernness. Thesituationisreversed inJapanbecauseoftheJapan’s context, racialsamenessmeansWesternness, whileracialdifference means countries whereWesterners arethemajorityof population.Inthat global consumersandresultintheirsuccess theworldofadvertisements. their racialdifferenceascosmopolitanindividuals, makethemattractive to cated andworldly.Mixed-racemodels’racial similaritytoconsumers,and worldly.” other isrecodedas‘cosmochic’–familiar,knowable, sophisticatedand ity andCosmopolitanism,”Matthewsdiscusseshowthe“mixed-race racial samenessanddifference. Matthews’s theoreticalframeworkofmixed-raceasanembodiment For thisanalysisofhaafuinadvertisements, thisarticlewillutilizeJulie tion tosaythathaafupermeateevery cornerofJapan’sconsumerculture. appliances, wedding services,andsoon.Itwouldnotbeanexaggera- products andservicessuchasfoods,cosmetics,clothing,cars,electric Analysis ofthePopularity haafu inadvertisements have created. marketers usehaafuforadvertisements, andwhatkindsofstereotypes of thepopularityhaafuinadvertisements, thisarticleexamineswhy popularity ofhaafuinadvertisements. Inordertoaddressthe question how haafuarerepresentedinthemedia,buttheyhardlyargue quite visibleinadvertisements. As statedbefore,somescholarsexamine present, thepopularityof taneously, andthatmaybeoneofthereasonsforhaafu’spopularity. At Haafu areperceived topossessphysicaldifferencesfromtheaverage Matthews’ articledealswiththepopularity of mixed-racemodelsin In herarticle,“EurasianPersuasions: MixedRace,Performativ- Many haafuareusedinadvertisements topromoteawiderangeof 15 Mixed-racemodelsdonotfunctionasan‘other’ evokingfear haafu inshowbusinesspersists,andtheyare in Advertisements Haafu 14 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ette /ant / entitie Haafu o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / blush, eye shadows,lipcreams,etc. for cosmeticproductsmadebythecompanyKanebosuchas Japanese andfatherisWestern (American).Sheappearsinadvertisements Meisa Kuroki(seefigure1)isanactresswhosemotherOkinawan sameness anddifference, we lookatanadvertisement ofbeautyproducts. clothing, andwristwatches. three typesofhaafuadvertisements inadvertisements offoods,cosmetics, haafu’s racialsamenessanddifferenceinadvertisements, we willexamine for marketingpurposes.Inordertoillustratethedifferentusagesof can seethattheirracialsamenessanddifferenceisconveniently exploited discussion. Fromananalysisof racial difference,andtheirother-nessisevoked,unlikeinMatthews racial heritage.Forexample,someadvertisements emphasizethehaafu’s difference, butsomeadvertisements focusononlyoneaspectofahaafu’s are surelyusedforadvertisements duetotheirracialsameness and furthers herdiscussionfortheanalysisof embodiment ofsimultaneousracialsamenessanddifference,thisarticle manner asmixed-racemodelsinMatthews’article. because haafualsoembodyracialsamenessanddifferenceinthesame difference isusefulinexaminingthepopularityofhaafuadvertisements popular. features becamedesirableintheTaisho erawhenWestern culturebecame in Japan.Wagatsuma andYoneyama alsoarguethat Anglicized facial women. Sincethen,havinglightskinhasbeen astandardoffemalebeauty under theinfluenceofChineseculture,which valued lightskinfor women startedusingwhiteningpowderintheNaraperiod(C.E.710-794) face forJapanesewomen? Western women.Howandwhyhasthehaafufacebecomedesirable able, shewouldnotbeusedinadvertisements ifshelookedexactlylike nose, andchiseledfacelines–whichJapaneseconsumersconsiderdesir- Figure 1:MeisaKuroki into thepresent.Many haafuhave bothlightskinandWestern aswell as regards lightskinand Western facialfeatures asbeautiful,haspersisted Western andJapanesefacialfeatures. TheJapanesementality,which facial features,itseemspossibletoemulatethe haafuface,whichhasboth period. WhileitisimpossibleforJapanesewomen tohave Anglicized idealized asastandardoffemalebeautysince roughlythesametime twentieth century.Inthesamevein, Anglicized facialfeatureshave been cultural ideal,andJapanattemptedto Westernize thenationinearly For ourfirstexampleoftheusagehaafu’ssimultaneousracial While relyingonMatthews’discussionofmixed-racemodelsasthe According toHiroshiWagatsuma andToshihiroYoneyama, Japanese While KurokihasWestern facialfeatures–meaning,bigeyes, apointy 16 TheJapaneseregardedtheWest asapolitical,economic, and haafu rolesinJapaneseadvertisements, we Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 haafu inadvertisements. Haafu ette /ant / entitie Haafu

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / for itsadvertisements. Trauden (seefigure2),whosemotherisJapaneseandfatherGerman, also themodel’sbiculturalheritage.SaganokanuseshaafumodelNaomi model’s racialsamenessanddifferencethatareutilizedbymarketersbut Japanese kimonocompany,Saganokan.Inthiscase,itisnotonlythe difference inadvertisements isfoundinadvertising forthetraditional products haafupromote. standard ofbeauty,anddesiretobeabeautylike women findpossibletocopy. AsJapanesewomenidealizethehaafu Asian facialfeatures,embodyingastandardofbeautywhichJapanese among foreignersbut foods suchasthepickledvegetables andbeefbowl Figure 3:Rola audience believes (falsely)thatforeignersdonoteattraditionalJapanesefoods. words, theirracialdifference–seemtobeexploited becausetheJapanese Rola’s advertisements, theirculturalrootsaspart-foreigners–inother their advertisements. Ontheotherhand,incaseofbothKabiraand understand whyhaafu’smulticulturalbackgroundswouldbeuseful in national foodcompanies’advertisements alsouse beef bowls, afoodproductquitepopularamongtheJapanese.Sometrans- is Bangladeshi,featuredinadvertisements forYoshinoya, whichsells figure 3),amodelwhosemotherispart-Japanese/part-Russianandfather promoting asauceusedtomaketraditionalJapanesepickles.Rola(see Japanese father.HeisfeaturedinanEbaraFoodsIndustryadvertisement ence. JayKabiraisahaafuactorwithan American motherandOkinawan valued, someadvertisements placemoreemphasisontheirracialdiffer- Saganokan’s marketingneeds. of marketers.NeitheranethnicJapaneseorWestern modelcouldsatisfy Japanese andWestern cultures,herhaafuheritageisusefulforthepurpose as “modern,”i.e.,Western culturalheritage. As Trauden representsboth she embodiesboth“retro”–read“Japanese”culturalheritage,aswell Modern Style” suggests,thecompanyusesTraudenasamodelbecause both aspectssimultaneously. As the advertisement’s catchphrase,“Retro aspects ofSaganokan’sproducts,theiradvertising modelsmustembody To promoteboththetraditionalJapaneseandmodernWestern cultural since Western culturewas introducedintheearlytwentieth century. customers. Western elementshave beenconsideredmoderninJapan as Western elements,suchaslaces,toattractyoungJapanesefemale Figure 2:German-JapaneseHaafumodelNaomiTrauden Another illustrationofmarketers’usehaafu’sracialsamenessand Traditional Japanesefoods suchastempuraandsushiarepopular While haafu’ssimultaneousracial/culturalsamenessanddifferenceis Saganokan’s kimonoincorporatestraditionalJapanesestyle aswell Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ette /ant / entitie Haafu haafu, theyconsumethe haafu, anditiseasyto

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / foods, theadvertisements confoundviewers’ assumptions,impact heritage. Byusinghaafu,whopresumablydonoteatJapanesetraditional Rola wouldnoteattraditionalJapanesefoodsbecauseoftheirpart-foreigner Japanese audiencemaythereforeassumethathaafusuchasKabiraand among foreigners.Thesefoodsareconsideredvery localtoJapan.The that KabiraandRolapromoteintheiradvertisements arelessknown to thestatusofOther becauseoftheirracialdifference.Their uals orasordinaryJapanese. depicted astheOther, makingitdifficultforthemtobetreatedasindivid- whether denigratedorexoticized,the American-Japanese arealways positive, even fashionable, imagetothepopularstereotypesofhaafu.But have beenraised bilinguallyandbiculturallyhasaddedamuchmore haafu Amerasians or American-Japanese). Murphy-Shigematsu explainstheOtherstatus of still regardedastheracial“Other”inmind oftheJapanese.Stephen on theirracialdifferenceinsomeadvertisements signalsthathaafuare and thatmakesthemfamiliartoaJapaneseaudience. Yet, theemphasis alent attitudetowards haafu.Manyhave part-Japaneseheritage, Japanese marketers’ emphasis of is theirracialdifferencewhichemphasizedmoreinadvertisements. ence arerecognizedsimultaneously,butinKabiraandRola’scase,it frequently usehaafufortheiradvertisements. and Rolapromote.ThisexplainswhyJapanesetraditionalfoodcompanies the audience,andincreasingconsumerinterestinproductsKabira the falseassumptionthatforeignersdonoteatJapanesefoods,surprising They arestillreadasforeignersbytheJapanese.KabiraandRolabetray that haafu,whoarepart-foreigners,donoteatJapanesetraditionalfoods. that KabiraandRolaarepart-Japanese,sharethefalseassumption in KabiraandRola’a advertisements. TheJapanese audienceforgetthefact thus didnoteatsoba.Thesamekindoffalseassumptionseemstofunction was surprisedbecauseshefalselyassumedthatgirlswere foreigners,and two “foreigners”eatingaJapanesetraditionalfoodwithchopsticks.She in theeveryday lives ofhaafu.Haefelinrecountsherexperienceeating do noteatJapanesefoodsisafabricationinthemediabut audience viasurprise.ThefalseassumptionamongtheJapanesethat (buckwheat noodles)withherfriendwhilelivinginJapan: No matterhowpopular The increasedappearanceintheJapanesemedia of Amerasians who In beautyproductadvertisements, haafu’sracialsamenessanddiffer- The Japanesewoman’sremarkcouldbereadashersurpriseonseeing that “youtwousechopsticksvery well! You speakJapanesewell, too.” and half-Swedish, amiddle-agedJapaneseladytalkedtous.Shesaidus When Iwas eatingsobanoodlewithmyhaafufriend,whoishalf-Japanese haafu areinthemedia,they arestillreduced 18 haafu’s racial difference reveals anambiv- Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ette /ant / entitie Haafu haafu asfollows(hecalls does happen ing the 17 haafu soba

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / and SaniBrown.Hecommentedinaninterview: his popularity,Ruisisquiteconsciousofdiscrimination againstbothhe Figure 4: Yu Darvish in GrandSeiko’sadutilizingsportsfigureYuDarvish(seefigure4). tisements emphasizetheirracialsameness.We canseeanexampleofthis status ofhaafu. racial differenceofKabiraandRolainadvertisements reveals theOther sameness isnotfullyacceptedbytheJapanese.Theemphasisupon nated againstinJapanese society.Unlesstheyachieve something,theyare media wroteofBrownastherepresentative ofJapanesetrackandfield a record20.34seconds,beatingtheheldbyUsainBoltin2003.The ran the200metersin2015WorldYouth Championshipsin Athletics in Ghanaian fatherandaJapanesemother,istrackfieldathletewho in themedia.Forexample, Abdul HakimSaniBrown,borninJapantoa heritage islessacknowledged inGrandSeiko’sadvertisement. This suggeststhatheistreatedexclusively asaJapaneseandhisIranian forgotten. DarvishistheprideofJapan,notJapanandIran. Successful praised notfortheirmulticulturalheritagebutJapaneseheritage. Japanese heritage. A successful but theGrandSeikoadvertisement primarilyemphasizesDarvish’s racial differenceortheirsimultaneousandsameness, advertisements. As we have seen,manyadvertisements playuponhaafu’s Japanese consumers’desiretodisplaytheireconomicsuccess. Grand Seikoisavery expensive wristwatch brandwhichappealsto watch makerGrandSeiko,whereheisbilledas“theprideofJapan.” Rangers intheUnitedStates.Heappearsadvertisements ofwrist- successful majorleaguebaseballplayer whocurrentlyplaysfortheTexas hailed byJapan’smediaasthenewstarofprofessional baseball. Raised inTokyo,hismotherisJapaneseand fatherisNigerian.Ruis player, just18years old,whohasasimilarracialheritage asSaniBrown. Another haafuathlete,OkoeRuisisapromisingprofessionalbaseball and praisedhisachievement asthefirstofitskindmadebyaJapanese. While haafu’sracialdifferenceisusedinadvertisements, someadver- Ruis’s interviewexposes thefactthatdark-skinnedhaafuarediscrimi- Some multiracialathleticnationalstarshave hadasimilarexperience This advertisement isdifferentfromotherappearancesofhaafuin Darvish, thechildofaJapanesemotherandanIranianfather,is or whatever, andhave theJapaneserecognizeus. against. ThatiswhypeoplelikemeandSaniBrown needtoexcelinsports in Japan.InJapan,ifyourskinisdarklikemine, youarediscriminated It isnormalthattherearepeoplewithmanyskin colorsoverseas butnot haafu areregardedasJapanese,whiletheirracialdifferenceis haafu inaninternationalsettingisusually Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 22 ette /ant / entitie Haafu 21 Despite 19 20

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / tisements embodyall of thesequalities.However, actualhaafuingeneral itan, friendly,wealthy, good-lookingandpart-Japanese.Haafuinadver- remarks, we cansee thattheJapaneseperceive haafuasexotic,cosmopol- actual experiencesofheterogeneoushaafuinJapanesesociety. homogeneous imagesof tisements hascreatedhaafustereotypes,andillustratehowtheidealized general. Next,thisarticlewillexaminehowthepresenceofhaafuinadver- tisements inadvertently contributestostrengthening popular inadvertisements. However, theproliferationofhaafuinadver- Haafu promoteproductsineitherrole. while thehaafu’sJapanesefacialfeaturesmakesuchbeautyaccessible. difference satisfiesJapaneseconsumers’ yearningfor Westernbeauty, they couldbeseenasJapanese.Theirsimultaneousracialsamenessand some advertisements, haafucouldberaciallydifferentOthers.Inothers, useful commoditiesformarketersbecauseoftheirracialambiguity.In niently manipulatedbymarketers. Darvish’s example,we canseethathaafu’smultiracialidentityisconve- and advertisements usesocialsentimentstopromotetheirproducts.From aligns withthehypocriticalattitudeofJapanesesocietytowards haafu, ment ifhewas notasuccessfulmajorleaguebaseballplayer. Themedia and Brown,Darvishwouldnotbe“theprideofJapan”intheadvertise- heritage isoverlooked, and theyarehailedasJapaneseheroes.LikeRuis national statusofJapanthroughtheirachievements, theirpart-foreigner subjected tosocialprejudice.Yet, ifhaafucontributetoenhancingtheinter- Shoichi Inouecomments: some entertainmentmagazinesexplainwhyhaafuaresopopular.Critic of Japaneselife.Lookingattheiroverwhelming presenceinthemedia, ances inadvertisements, promoting productsthatcover almostallaspect Not HaafuEnough:ContradictoryDesireandRepulsiontowards aggressive like Westerners becausethey arepart-Japanese.” yearning fortheabroad.” Japanese have ayearning forforeigncultures. HaafureflecttheJapanese and outgoingpersonality(sic).” very popularin showbusinessbecausetheyhave beautifulface(sic), Haafu serve thevarious purposesofmarketers,andtheyaretherefore From theanalysisofadvertisements above, we canseethathaafuare Haafu areeverywhere inJapan’sconsumercultureviatheirappear- According toHideoHorikoshi,“Japanisan insular countyandthe popularity of unrealistic andexotic.With the continuationofglobalization,the popular. Inthecurrentglobalizationera,haafuembody something In theworldofentertainment,somethingunrealisticorexotichasbeen haafu maycontinue. haafu inadvertisements contraststarklywiththe 24 TomokazuTakashino writesthat“Haafuare 25 MiruoShimawritesthat“haafuarenot Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 23

ette /ant / entitie Haafu haafu stereotypesin 26 Fromthese Haafu o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / and overseas.” and Japanese,arerichenoughtotravel backandforthbetween Japan the stereotypethat these characteristicsarerendered“nothaafuenough.” multi-lingual, friendly,rich,andpart-Japanese.Haafuwhodonotpossess as haafuintheeyes oftheJapaneserequireshaafutobegood-look cannot seethediversity ofhaafubecausethestereotypes.Tobeseen while theactuallives ofhaafuarequitediverse, manyJapanesepeople thus troublesomehaafu,andgive themafeelingofbeingnot haafu enough. ability. (iv) Disappointinghaafu:notgood-lookingandhavingnobilingual ability (iii)Bilingual ability (ii)Beautiful into fourtypes:(i)Idealhaafu:theyaregood-looking,andhave bilingual cultural background,linguisticability,familyroots,personality,etc. In reality,haafuindividualsarequiteheterogeneousinappearance,class, do notnecessarilysharethequalitiesportrayed inthesehaafustereotypes. as nothaafuenoughbecauseofhis darkskininJapanesesociety.Oneof born haafuwhosemotherisfrom GhanaandfatherisJapanese.Heseen foreigners. gual Without suchskills,monolingualhaafuareperceived andtreatedas because oftheJapanesebeliefinstereotype of language skills.Herlackofability makeshernot she findsherselfisolatedfromtheJapanese duetoherlackofJapanese decides tomove toJapan. Although shetriestofitintoJapanesesociety, Born andraisedin Australia, shedesirestofindherculturalroots,and of notbeinghaafuenoughduetoherlackJapaneselanguage ability. After livingforacertainperiodoftimeinJapan, Sophiahasgrownasense Fukunishi, thedaughterofan Australian motherandaJapanesefather. tisements have hadnegative influencesonordinaryhaafu. feel nothaafuenough,Iwillarguethatthestereotypescreatedbyadver- ments. Byexplainingwhyandhowthefive haafufiguresinthefilmdonot of some Nishikura andTakagi depictsthediverse andsometimesdifficultlives some haafunotenoughinthefilmHAFU. only Japanese,and[are]financiallydisadvantaged,” Haefelin notesthat“therearemany are categorizedas“disappointing”have themostdifficulttimeinJapan. everyday lives becausetheydonotfitinthesestereotypes.Haafuwho stereotypes, theyinternalizethem,andexperiencediscomfortintheir In ordertoillustratethediversity ofhaafu,Haefelincategorizes The second The filmintroducesthediverse lives offive haafu.FirstisSophia We canseehowstereotypesofhaafumadeinadvertisements render 27 Haefelincontendsthatmorethan80%ofJapanesepeoplebelieve haafu, whichareinvisiblebehindthesmilesofinadvertise- 28 haafu figureintroducedin the filmisDavid Yano,aJapan- Sheexplainsthatassomehaafuareexposedtothese haafu are“prettylikefashionmodels,speakEnglish haafu: theyaregood-lookingbuthave nobilingual haafu; notgood-lookingbuthavingbilingualability; Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 haafu whoarenotbeautiful,speak This2013filmdirectedby ette /ant / entitie Haafu haafu asbeingbilin- 29 Haafu emphasizingthat stereotypes haafu enough ing, o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Amerasians): the Japaneseracialviewstowards haafu skincolor(whomhereferstoas which causedhimtohateJapan.StephenMurphy-Shigematsuexplains such asbeingbulliedbyJapanesechildren,andstaredatinpublic, light skin.Yano recountsnegative experienceshewent throughasachild the stereotypesofhaafucirculatinginadvertisements isthathaafuhave the Eliminationof All FormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen (hereafter The revisionwas madepossiblebecause JapansignedtheConvention on the lawsuit,Japanese government decidedtorevisethelawanyway. by parentsofhaafuchildrenintheearly1980s. Although theparentslost pass downJapanesecitizenshiptotheirchildren. Thelawwas challenged Until then,Japanesewomenmarryingnon-Japanese mencouldnotlegally Sumoto nothaafuenoughbecausehedoeshave Japanesecitizenship. Japanese assumethathaafuarenationals.Thisassumptionmakes tisements aremostlypart-Japaneseandhave Japanesenationality,many mother inJapanbuthecarriesaVenezuelan passport. As haafuinadver- of aJapanesemotherandVenezuelan father.Hewas raisedonlybyhis invisible tomanyJapanese. resulting harshrealityexperiencedbysomehaafuinJapanesesocietyis consistent withhaafustereotypesareregardedasnotenough.The tisements lookvery happyandfriendly,realhaafuwhodonotbehave mates orteacherstoseehimasnot ing totheschoolenvironment. Alex’s withdrawnattitudeallowshisclass- due tostress,whichcombinedwithhisshynessprevents him fromadjust- rectly concludesthathehasalearningdisability.Hedevelops astutter Alex’s teacher,unaware ofhismultilingualfamilyenvironment,incor- ability hasdeveloped slightlybehindthatofotherJapanesestudents. home. Duetohismultilingualhomeenvironment,Japaneselanguage father, andheusesthreelanguages,Spanish,English,Japaneseat haafu aresociableandfriendly. Alex hasaMexicanmotherandJapanese enough duetohisshypersonalitywhichrunscounterstereotypesthat dark skindisqualifieshimfrombeingconsidered“ haafu arediscriminatedagainstinJapanesesociety,andbecauseofthat,Yano’s facial features,andthisbeliefisreflectedinadvertisements. Dark-skinned Sumoto was bornbeforeJapanrevisedtheNationalitylawin1985. The fourthpersonthefilmfocusesonisEdward YutakaSumoto,child The filmnextintroducesapre-teennamed AlexOi, whoisnothaafu The Japaneseviewofhaafuisthattheyhave lightskinandWestern African-American culture,whichtheJapaneseregardasinferior. because oftheirskincolor.Theircolorisassociatedwith African and other races.Darkskinned Amerasians [haafu]faceharsherdiscrimination beauty, andWestern cultureandCaucasianracialfeaturesarebetterthan The Japanesestillhave theprejudicethatlightskinisstandardof Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 haafu enough.Whileinadver- haafu enough”inJapan. ette /ant / entitie Haafu 30

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / invisible becausethey donotfitintohaafustereotypes.Inthiscase, itis They aremoredominant thanotherhaafuinnumbersbutarethe most could notenjoythatright,whichrendershimhaafuenough. But asSumoto’smotherdidnotopttogainhimJapanesecitizenship,he Japanese motherorfathercanhave Japanesenationalityasaninnateright. regardless offather’s nationality.Nowallhaafuwhoareborn to allowJapanesewomengive Japanese nationalitytotheirchildren of women’srightsnow.Forthesereasons,theNationalitylawwas revised Japanese womenmarrynon-Japanesemen.Thearemoreaware In addition,Japanhasbecomeamoreglobalizedsocietywheremore ited Japanesewomenfromgivingtherightofnationalitytotheirchildren. Japan, thegovernment hadtorevisetheNationalitylaw,whichprohib- the bestowal ofnationalityonchildren.TomaketheCEDAW effective in the sexesinacquiring,changing,ormaintainingnationality,including called CEDAW) in1980. Article 9oftheCEDAW statedtheequalityof Their issuesareexcludedfromthediscourse of difference isunacknowledged, andtheyfeelalienatedfromotherhaafu. Korean-Japanese haafuarephysicallynotdifferentfromtheJapanese,their focusing onthecaseofKorean-Japanesehaafu.Hecontendsthatsince the Japanese. biethnic haafuarethusnotenoughduetotheirphysicalsimilarity landscape, anditisrareforthemtoberecognizedas by anyone.TheyaresubsumedintothehomogeneousJapaneseethnic Their mixedethnicheritagesarethereforeusuallynotacknowledged not reveal anyethnicdifference,itiseasyforthemtopassasJapanese. Since manyofthemphysicallylookJapaneseandtheirnamesusuallydo haafu enough. A biethnichaafu’ssocialpositionlikeMiyako’s iscomplex. Miyako hasnoWestern physicalfeatures,her appearancerendershernot heritage, andthereforetheyarephysicallydifferentfromJapanese.Since to haafuthatcirculatesinadvertisements isthathaafuhave apart-Western Asian, andphysicallyshedoesnotlook and aZainichi Korean women). or Koreanmen;58.2per centwere JapanesemenmarriedtoChineseor to Japanese(e.g,39.8percentwere JapanesewomenmarriedtoChinese in 2013.Themajorityofthesecouplesarenon-Japanese Asians married statistics reveal thatthenumberofinternationalmarriages was 21,448 demographic statistics.Japan’sPopulationand SocialSecurityResearch ble thanother features thatmarkthemashaafu.Theirexistenceisthereforemoreinvisi- part-Western ordark-skinnedhaafu,biethnic Asian haafuhave nophysical KoheiKawabata problematizestheinvisibilityofbiethnic Asian haafu, The lasthaafuinthefilmisFusaeMiyako, childof a Japanesemother The invisibilityofbiethnic Asian haafuisstrangeifwe lookatJapan’s (Korean residentofJapan)father.Herparentsareboth haafu. 32 Inotherwords,most Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 haafu are Asian biethnic haafu. haafu. Oneofstereotypescommon haafu andZainichi. ette /ant / entitie Haafu haafu. These Asian to eithera 31 Unlike o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Mixed RootsJapan,whosepurposeisdescribedasfollows: of thefilmHAFU disseminating therealityofhaafu.Edward Sumoto(one ofthesubjects has haltedduetotheirparentalresponsibilities,anothergroupbegun problematic socialpositionofhaafuinJapanesesociety.Whiletheirproject pamphlet, theyinterviewed andphotographedhaafu,questionedthe Yumi Lisa,whoarealso consciously challenginghaafustereotypes.NatalieMaya Millerand Marcia have begungivingvoicetomorediverse experiencesofhaafu,and negotiate thedifficultiestheyface? haafu stereotypessothatordinarywhodonotfitthecan to maximizeprofits.Ifthisisthecase,cantherebeanyhopeforchanging as muchpossibletostimulatetheJapanesedesireforconsumption,and using them.Rather,theywillcontinuetoexploitthestereotypesof promote consumerproductsinadvertisements, marketerswillnotstop mind arealsodeep-rooted. As longashaafuareusefulcommoditiesto Conclusion not haafuenougheven thoughthey areethnicallyorculturally haafu facepainintheireveryday lives becausetheyareseenassomehow stereotypes. Themorehaafuglitterinadvertisements, themoreordinary Mixture, MediaRepresentation, Negotiation,whichanalyzedthevarious the publicationofanedited volumeonhaafu,entitledWhoisHaafu ? Race have startedexamininghaafuissuesinacademia.For example,2014saw of mixed-rootspeopletotheJapanese. radio broadcasts,meetings,etc.Indoingso, they trytoconvey thereality including haafu,andtheJapanesebyholdingvarious activitiessuchas to thecreationof from oneanother.Haafu are seenasnothaafuenoughinJapanesesocietyandsuffer ways unique their physical similarity to the Japanese that makes them not As stated,haafuthemselves, suchasHaefelin,NishikuraandTakagi wide-ranging, andthehaafustereotypestheyinscribeinJapanese As we have seen,theproliferationofhaafuinadvertisements isquite Taking acuefromthestatedpurposesofMixed RootsJapan,scholars The groupattemptstopromotedialoguebetween mixed-rootspeople, The storiesoffive haafuinthefilmillustratefactthatsome accumulate andanalyzestatisticsonmulticultural individuals. the diversity ofits population,we alsoworktogetherwithacademiato enrich theirculturalheritages.InorderforJapanese societytoembrace and Japanesesocietyarenecessarysothatmulticultural individualscan multicultural individuals.Dialoguesbetween multiculturalindividuals Japanese culture,languageandcustomsareanindispensablepartofus, ) haslaunchedagroupformulticulturalpeoplecalled haafu stereotypes,andthepainof inadvertisements have inadvertently contributed haafu, startedtheHafuProjectin2008.Ina2010 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ette /ant / entitie Haafu haafu whodo not fitthe haafu enough. 33 haafu.

haafu o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / is ontheshouldersofnotonlyhaafuthemselves butonallJapanese. in whattheyare,andembracetheirmultiracial/ethnicheritage.Thistask haafu whohave beenperceived asnothaafuenoughmaygainconfidence more heterogeneousvoicesof because haafuareusefulformarketers.Butwiththespreadofmoreand areas ofJapanesesociety,haafustereotypesareincreasinglychallenged. to discover solutions.With theemergenceofmorehaafuvoicesinmany haafu wherescholarsdiscussedproblemsexperiencedby Women’s University, RitsumeikanUniversity) heldajointsymposiumon 2015, several universities (includingKonanWomen’sUniversity, Kyoto representations ofhaafuinthemediaaswell ashaafuexperiences.In The reproductionofhaafustereotypeswillcontinueinadvertisements haafu throughoutJapanviamanymedia, Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ette /ant / entitie Haafu haafu inaneffort o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / http://www.nomorerules.net/ http://www.saganokan.com/furisode/ Figures Figure 2. Figure 1. NaomiTrauden, MeisaKuroki,Koseadvertisement, NoMoreRules,©2015. Saganokan advertisement, ©2015. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ette /ant / entitie Haafu o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / https://www.seiko-watch.co.jp/ Figure 4. Figure 3 http://www.yoshinoya.com/ . Rola,Yoshinoya advertisement, ©2015 YuDarvish,GrandSeikoadvertisement, ©2015 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ette /ant / entitie Haafu o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 31. Kawabata, “A BoundarywhereDoubleBecomes anIssue,”224. 30. Murphy-Shigematsu, Amerasian Children,95. 29. Ibid., 4. 28. Ibid., 3. 27. Haeflin, ItIsanIllusion,7. 26. Shima, “Why Are ThereSoMany 25. Takashino, “NineteenHaafuBeauties,”1. 24. Horikoshi, “Haafu 23. Inoue, “ExpirationDatesofHaafuFemaleBeauties,”187. 22. “Okoe FightingagainstPrejudice.” 21. “Okoe isBright.” 20. “Sani BrownastheFirstJapanese Athlete.” 19. [N.a],“Mixed Race Athletes.” 18. Murphy-Shigematsu, “MultiethnicLives,” 212-213. 17. Haefelin, ItIsanIllusion,64. 16. Wagatsuma andYoneyama, AStructureofPrejudice,26. 15. Ibid., 43. 14. Matthews, “Eurasian Persuasions,” 50. 13. Sieger, commentonhimself,“JonathanSiegerTwitter.” 12. Murphy-Shigematsu, AmerasianChildren,101. 11. Horikosi, “HaafuBeauties,”29. 10. Yomiuri NewsPaper, “A UniqueMovieofMixedBlood Actors,” 5. 9. Iwabuchi, “CulturalPoliticsofMixing,”13. 8. Haefelin, ItIsanIllusion,17. 7. Ibid., 145. 6. Kamoto, ATheoryonInternationalMarriage,151. 5. Nishikura andTakagi, HAFU. 4. Small andKing-O’Riain,introduction. 3. Welty Tamai, “MultiracialityandMigration;”Spickard,MixedBlood 2. Ko, “TheGenealogyofRepresentationsMixedRace”;Tanaka, “TheRepresentation 1. Murphy-Shigematsu, AmerasianChildren;Haefelin,ItIsanIllusion;MillerandLisa,The Notes Horiguchi, Sawako andYukiImoto,“How Are Mixed-RaceRepresented:Tracingthe Haefelin, Sandra.ItisanIllusionthathaafu Are Beautiful: StruggleswiththeJapanese(Haafu “A UniqueMovieofMixed-Blood Actors ProducedbyNationalCinema (Konketsujino References 33. “Mixed RootsJapan.” 32. National InstituteofPopulationandSocialSecurityResearch,DemographyTrend,106. (Tokyo: Seikyuu,2014),55-79. (Haafu tohaDareka:JinsuKonko, Mediahyoushou,koushoujissen), Gensetsu wotadotte),” Discourse onMixed-race(Mix racehadoKatarareteKitaka:HaafuniItarumadeno sho Laclef,2012). ga BijinnanteMousouDesukara:KomattaJunjapatono Tatakai no Hibi) News Paper, April 24,1926,5. Haiyuu wo Atsumete Keirono Kawatta EigawoNationalKinameshaGa),”Yomiuri Represented.” of HaafuinGirls’Comics;”HoriguchiandImoto,“How Are Mixed-Race Hafu Project. BeautiesDominatingShowBusiness,”29. Who isHaafu?RaceMixture, MediaRepresentation,Negotiation Haafu Celebrities.” Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ette /ant / entitie Haafu ed.,KoichiIwabichi . (Tokyo: Chuoshin- o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / “Okoe FightingagainstPrejudicewithSaniBrown(OkoeBrwntokyoto),” Nishikura, MegumiandLalaPerez Takagi, HAFU(Tokyo:UnitedPeople, 2013). National InstituteofPopulationandSocialSecurityResearch.DemographyTrend:Japan ______. “MultiethnicLives andMonoethnicMyth: American-Jap- Murphy-Shigematsu, Stephen.AmerasianChildren:UnknownMinorityProblems “Mixed RootsJapan.”accessedJanuary17,2016. “Mixed Race Athletes MakeaSplashinJapan.”http://aramajapan.com/news/ Miller, NatalieMaya andMaciaYumiLisa, Matthews, Julie.“Eurasian Persuasions: MixedRace, Performativity andCosmopolitan- Ko, Mika.“TheGenealogyofRepresentationsMixedRaceandHaafuinthePostwar- Kamoto, Itsuko.ATheoryonInternationalMarriage?(KokusaikekkonRon?),(Kyoto: Kawabata, Kohei.“A BoundarywhereDoubleBecomesanIssue(DouburugaIsshu-ka Iwabuchi, Koichi.“CulturalPoliticsofRacialMixingShedLightbyHaafu,”Whois Shima, Miruo.“Why Are ThereSoMany “Sani BrownastheFirstJapanese Athlete Awarded RisingStar Award ofInternational “Okoe isBrightandStar(Okoewa akarukutestarsei),” NikkanSports.February13,2016. Inoue, Shoichi.“ExpirationDatesofHaafu Horikoshi, Hideo.2007. Toko, Tanaka. “TheRepresentation ofHaafuinGirls’Comics(ShojoMangniokeru Small, StephenandRebecca King-O’Riain.“GlobalMixedRace: An Introduction,”Global Spickard, Paul. MixedBlood:IntermarriageandEthnicIdentityinTwentieth Century Sieger, Jonathan.“JonathanSiegerTwitter,” accessed August 17,2015, 2015). noDokou:NihontoSekai2015) and theWorld2015(Jinkou Press, 2001),207-216. ed., Teresa Williams-Leon andCynthiaNakashima.(Philadelphia:Temple University anese Amerasians inJapan.”TheSumofOurParts: MixedHeritage Asian Americans, Sakai. (Tokyo:Shueisha,2002). (Amerajian noKodomotachi:ShirarezaruMainorityMondai) mixed-race-athletes-make-a-splash-in-japan/50700/ ism,” JournalofInterculturalStudies,Vol.28,No.1,February2007,41-54. 80-113. Konko, Mediahyoushou,koushoujissen)ed.,KoichiIwabichi (Tokyo:Seikyuu,2014), Who isHaafu?RaceMixture,MediaRepresentation,Negotiation(HaafutohaDareka:Jinshu Japanese Films(SengoNihonEiganiokeruKonketsujiHaafuHyoushounoKeihu,” Horitsu Bunkasha2008). chi. Tokyo:Seikyuu,2014),222-242. (haafu tohadareka:JinshuKonko,Mediahyoushou,koushoujissen) suru Kyoukaiiki),”WhoisHaafu?RaceMixture,MediaRepresentation,Negotiation Media Hyoushou,KoushouJissen),ed.,KoichiIwabuchi (Tokyo:Seikyuu,2014),11-26. Haafu? RaceMixture,MediaRepresentation,Negotiation(HaafutohaDareka:JinshuKonko, 2008, 186-187. 27, 2015. Nihonjin hatsu!KokusaiRikurenShinjinshoniSenshutsu),” SportsNippon Association of Athletics FederationsWorld Athletes oftheYear for2015(SaniBrown Sports, September3,2015. Song, andPaul Spickard(NewYork: NewYork University Press,2014),vii-xxii. Mixed Race.ed.,StephenSmallandRebecca King-O’Riain,MinelleMahtani,Miri America (Madison:University ofWashington, 1989). https://twitter.com/jonathansieger http://news.livedoor.com/article/detail/6277751/. arento Tairyo HasseinoNaze),”Men’sSaizo “Haafu BeautiesDominatingShowBusiness,” Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 Haafu CelebritiesinShowBusiness?( FemaleBeauties,”SundayMainichi, The HafuProject.(TheProject,2010). , accessedFebruary14,2012, http://www.mixroots.jp/about.htm , (Tokyo:KoseitokeiKyokai, ette /ant / entitie Haafu , trans.Junko d,Kih Iwabi- , ed.,Koichi Flash , May8,29-33. , November April 20, Haafu Tokyo

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Welty Tamai, Lily Ann Yumi.“MultiracialityandMigration:Mixed-Race American Wagatsuma, HiroshiandToshinaoYoneyama. AStructureofPrejudice:Japanese Takashino, Tomokazu.“NineteenHaafuBeautieswhomJapaneseMen Adore,” 167-187. ain, MinelleMahtani,MiriSong,andPaul Spickard(NewYork: NewYork UP,2014), Okinawans, 1945-1972,”GlobalMixedRace, Racial Views (HenkennoKouzou:NihonjinJinshukan)(Tokyo:NHKBooks,1967). Playboy, No.51,December19,2011,1-5. Iwabichi (Tokyo:Seikyuu,2014),143-177. Negotiation (HaafutohaDareka:JinsuKonko,Mediahyoushou,koushoujissen) Haafu CharacternoHyoushou),”WhoisHaafu?RaceMixture,MediaRepresentation, Kaori MoriWant received herPh.D.inEnglishfromtheState Mapping theWorld,Culture,andBorder-Crossing (2011). Nationality, Globalization,andMappingJapanese Identity”in in TheJournalofComparative Culture(2013),and“Emigration, Racially/Ethnically Mixed Asian andPacific AmericanStars” ture andCulture Couples andMulticulturalisminJapan”Comparative Litera- ary approaches.Herrecentpublicationsinclude“Intermarried and childrenofmixedracial/ethnicheritagesviainterdisciplin- Japan. Hercurrentresearchexaminesissuesofintermarriage in theDepartmentofEnglish,KonanWomen’sUniversity, University ofNewYork atBuffalo.Sheisassociateprofessor (2014),“HapaHollywood:TheEmergenceof Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ed,.StephenSmallandRebeccaKing-O’Ri- ette /ant / entitie Haafu , ed.,Koichi o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Gerth’s bookAsChinaGoes,SoDoes theWorld, ment begantoconstruct consumerismwithinitsownpopulace.In Karl rely onexternalforcesforthestabilityofits economy; hence,thegovern- However, theChinese government realizedthat itcouldnotcompletely “hurdles” thatChinahad toovercome tocreateChineseconsumers,as foreign companies,Chinaquicklybecamethe world’slargestexporter. economy. Moreover, throughforeign investments andjointventures with Chinese businessesasthefoundationofitstransformation toamarket industries were stillstate-owned,Chinabegantoallowprivatization of Chinese Consumerism The NotionofChineseNationalismintheDiscourseon Why Are ChineseNotBuyingBrands? the WorldTradeOrganization(WTO)in2001. share intoChinaandallowed Chinatoprepareits trade policiestojoin reform alsopermittedforeigncompaniesto expandtheirglobalmarket nist countryintoonewithmorecapitalistcharacteristics.Thiseconomic China’s OpenDoorpolicyintheearly1980s,transformingCommu- Evolution ofChineseConsumerism to beanobstacleforthegrowthofChinesedomesticluxurybrands. upper andmiddleclassescontinuetogrow,theirbuyingpower continues tion thatall“madeinChina”productsareofpoorquality. As theChinese China hasalegacyofproducingpoorlymadegoods,creatingthepercep- potential development oftheseconceptswithinChina.Furthermore, thus appropriatingtheconceptof“Chineseelements”andlimiting luxury brandshave includedvarious Chinesemotifsintheirproducts, Western idealsandconceptsofluxuryfashion.Inaddition, Western such Chinesedomesticbrandsisthatconsumershave adopted gling toattractmoredomesticconsumers.Oneofthechallengesfacing Western luxurygoods,Chinesedomesticbrandsare stillstrug- economy inthe1980s.DespitegrowthofChinesebuyingpower for Such consumersaretheresultofChina’snationalistagendatoreformits most lucrative anddesirablemarketforthe luxuryandfashionindustries. Contemporary Chineseconsumerculturedeveloped asaresultof Since the2008financialcrisis,Chineseconsumershave becomethe iaa an ina r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Graduate Student,MA in Asia PacificStudies,USF Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 3 1 theauthorexamines Although manyChinese 2

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / that Chineseconsumersareessentialtooverall retailsales. law againstgift-givingtogovernment officials,expertscontinuetobelieve in ChineseluxurygoodsconsumptionduetotheenactmentofaChinese to theQingDynasty(1644-1911): Western imperialism throughconsumptionofWestern goodsdatingback ism constituteaninseparableentitythatwas shaped throughthefearof consumerism. GertharguesthatChinesenationalism andconsumer- nationalism isstillunmistakablyembedded in thediscourseonChinese constantly associatedwiththeideaofquality, thenotionofChinese Consumerism withaNationalist Agenda creation ofChineseconsumerism. industries hasdiverged fromthenationalistagendathatsparked values. Inthisregard,Chineseconsumerismintheluxuryandfashion concepts ofluxuryareheavilyinfluencedby Western aestheticsand consumers aremoreinclinedtopurchaseWestern luxurygoods,their strates thegrowingeconomicwealth ofChina.However, asChinese of expressingthemselves, andconsumptionofsuchgoodsalsodemon- of theglobalconsumptionluxurygoods. in 2000,whereasChineseconsumersarenowresponsibleforonethird consumers onlyaccountedfor1%ofglobalpersonalluxurygoodssales rapidly in their preferences for luxury. According to a Bain report, Chinese Chinese consumerisminthe1980s,consumershave evolved socially toconsumeluxurygoods.” “bail[ing] out”theluxurymarketin2009,whichwas a“year ofshame the significanceofChineseconsumersfortheircontributionstowards crisis, themarketforluxurygoodssufferedas well. BrookeUngernotes world’s luxuryconsumption. Chinese consumershave becomeresponsibleforalargepartofthe under theMaoistregime(1949-1976).However, withinjustfourdecades, Chinese consumerismpriortotheeconomicreformwas nonexistent luxury goods. Hermes BirkinpursesandLouisVuittontravel trunksareconsidered goods thatonecanacquirewithenoughfinancialmeans.Forexample, Chinese consumers. fashion housesandluxurybrandscontinuetheireffortstoattractmore Despite Chineseconsumers’desiresforWestern goods,whichare As mostWestern countriessufferedduringthe2007-08financial In thispaper,theterm“luxurygoods”referstopremiumsetof implicit inthegrowingforeign dominanceofthecommercialeconomy. read worksonWestern politicaleconomy,fearedthelossof exemplified byopiumdens andaddicts.Intellectuals,whohadbegunto Politicians worriedabouttradedeficitsandthe new consumerlifestyles 7 Chineseconsumersusethesecategoriesofgoodsasmeans r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 4 Sincethebeginningofcontemporary 5 Despitetherecentdecrease 6 Thus,global 8

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / responded tothegovernment agenda,asChineseconsumershave become encouraged Chineseconsumers tospend.Chinesepeoplehave clearly becoming aneconomic superpower, andtothatend,thegovernment market. However, theChinesegovernment ofthe1980senvisionedChina were conscious oftheriskallowingforeignbrandstoenterChinese Open DoorPolicyinthe1980s,heandother Chinesegovernment officials with thenationalistagenda.Hence,whenDeng Xiaopingestablishedthe contributes tothenationaleconomy,Chinese consumerismisaligned the vein of“nationalisticvisuality.” As consumerisminChinaactually complete, andconsumerismwas reintroducedinapositive lightandin the nationalizationofprivate enterprisesbythe Chinesegovernment was symbol ofeliminatingsuchbackwardness. government begantoencourageChinesemencutofftheir queuesasa alist Chinesegovernment decidedtoshed“China’sbackwardness.” The China, andthepopularityofsuitsbegantotakeoffwhennewNation- of wool.Thistransformationbecamethebasisdemandforwoolin change duetotheintroductionof“Western” suitsandtheintroduction discourse ofnationalizingtheappearanceChinesemen. used acrossavariety ofspectrumsbutmostdistinctlycenteredonthe foreign anddomesticacrosssociallife. on trainingtheeye toidentifyvisualcluesanddistinguishbetween the movement was thenotionof“nationalisticvisuality,”which“centered thus defendChinafromimperialism.Oneofthekeycomponentsofthis aged theChinesepeopletopurchasenationalproductsand lishment oftheNationalProductMovement inthe1930s,whichencour- of theRepublicChinain1912.Inparticular,fearledtoestab- consumption ofWestern commoditiescarriedover totheestablishment saved thesilkindustry. to advocatefortheusageofsilkaspatriotic,astrategythatsuccessfully the silkindustryformedNationalProductsPreservation Association the “longgown,”orchangpao(長袍).Infaceofthisthreat,members provided themainmaterialtoproducetraditionalChineseattireof “Western attire” were highenoughtoendanger thesilkindustry,which tic aspirationsofurbancoastalChina. Party usedanti-consumeristrhetorictodenouncethegreedandcapitalis- against theCommunistdoctrine.In1950s,ChineseCommunist consumerism iscloselytiedtoabourgeoislifestyle, itisfundamentally tion offoreigngoodsinChinabecameextremelylimited.Sinceexcessive has continuedtoexistthroughCommunistMaosuitsandbeyond. Although theCommunistParty tookcontrolofChinain1949, this notion fies unityofnationalismandconsumerisminmodernChinesehistory. With theimportof“Western” goods,Chinesemen’sfashionbeganto This concernover thelossofsovereignty throughtheChinese After theCommunistParty tookcontrolofChinain1949,consump- r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h 11 Thisnotionof“nationalisticvisuality”signi- Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 12 9 This“nationalisticvisuality”was However, bytheend of the1950s, 10 Thedemandsforwooland o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / also makeupalmost50%ofmarketcapitalization. nie FinancièreRichemontSA,HermèsInternationalSociète,etc.),butthey Western companies(LMVHMoëtHennessyLouisVuitton SA,Compag- The toptencompanieswiththelargestmarketcapitalizationarenotonly Poor’s apparel,accessories,andluxurygoodssegmenttobe$639.9billion. Zackiewicz calculatesthetotalmarketcapitalizationofStandardand domestic luxurycommodities. Additionally, inaWWDarticle, Arthur buying power forluxuryitems,Western luxurycompanieshave recipro- consumerism. SinceChineseconsumershave proven theirenormous luxury goods,theideaofChinesenationalismcontinuestobelinkedwith third ofgloballuxurysales. will continuetostrengthenthisinfluence,astheyareresponsibleforone have astronginfluenceonthegloballuxurymarket.Chinese consumers ization intheluxurysegmentdemonstratesthatWestern luxurybrands $9.498 billioninmarketcapitalization.Thisdominanceofmarketcapital- the list,loneChinesecompany,HeilanHomeCo.Ltd,comesinwith “modern.” as asignofwealth, sincesuchgoodsareperceived as“prestigious”and China’s Consumerism,ownershipofWestern commoditiesisinterpreted As Allison Hulmeexplainsinherbook,TheChangingLandscapeof that thereisaWestern influenceonthecontemporaryconceptofluxury. Why areChinesenotbuyinggoods? buying Chinesegoods? visuality” fitintothemoderncontext,andwhyareChineseconsumersnot outcome promptsthequestions:Howdoesnotionof“nationalistic strong preferencetowards Western goodsover Chinesebrands.This educated aboutforeignbrandsandgoods,theyhave developed a consumers. ContemporaryChineseconsumersaremoreexposedtoand domestic brandshave notgainedmuchsuccessinattractingdomestic responsible forone-thirdofgloballuxurysales. and thecorrectintercultural communicationbetween Chinaandtherest as adrive tostimulatecreativity,aswell as to promotethenationalspirit constitutes “Chineseelements,” Hulmearguesthatit“mustbeconceived of “Chineseelements.” Although thereisnocleardefinitionofwhat notion of“nationalisticvisuality”hastransformed intothemodernnotion Western luxury goodswithintegrated“Chineseelements.” Arguably, the consumerism, Chineseconsumersarealsointerested inconsuming luxury goods. As Chinesenationalismiscloselylinkedwith contributes significantlytotheChineseconsumer’s desirefor Western cated byincluding“Chineseelements”intheir luxuryproducts.Thisstrategy As ChineseconsumersbecomemoreinterestedinbuyingWestern One potentialobstacletothegrowthofdomesticluxurymarketis Interestingly, despitethegrowthofChinesebuyingpower, Chinese 13 Thus,theyareperceived asnaturallysuperiortoChinese r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 14 At onlynumber 14on o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / ded Rihanna’sfashion choices.Rihannastolethespotlightbywearing an cultural meanings. forms fromculturalicon tofashionaccessories,thusitisstrippedfromits the headpieceswithhisownuniqueinterpretation. Thisheadpiecetrans- from thoseoftraditionalPeking Opera,heappropriatedthedesignof in Western luxury goods. As Treacy‘sPeking Operaheadpiecediffered fashion, italsosignifiedthecurrentappropriation of“Chineseelements” headpiece. Although the headpiecealludedtothehistoryofChinese whose frequentcustomersincludetheEnglish royal family,createdthe of Peking operasigners (seefigure2).Famoushatmaker,PhilipTreacy, H&M, pairedwithaflameheadpiecethatresembled theheaddecorations actress SarahJessicaParker, whichconsisted ofacustomsilkgrownfrom perceptions ofChinesefashion.Onethepopulartopicswas theoutfit of code forthisevent evokeddebatesonChinesefashionaswell asWestern (MET Gala)was “China: ThroughtheLookingGlass,”anddress high-profile example,thethemefor2015MetropolitanMuseumGala priation of“Chineseelements”continuesthroughfashionevents. Inone covered byaveil ofWestern interpretationofChinesecharacteristics. producing “Chineseelements,”thevery conceptof“Chineseelements”is motif ofahorse.Throughtheefforts Western luxurybrandsengagedin the Horse.Forthisspecialcollection,RollsRoyceincludedaChineseart Royce launcheditsMajesticHorseCollectionincelebrationoftheYear of cious, success,”andotherpositive notes. Another exampleishowRolls Weibo account,Gucciexplainedthatthiscollectionrepresented “auspi- of theworld.” purses with“detailedDesignofgoldhorsemouthpiece.” collection tocelebratetheYear oftheHorse,whichincludedbrightly red costs around€80,000to€100,000. depiction oftheannualzodiaconwatch dial,andeachtimepiece tion (seefigure1).Thetimepiecesfromthiscollectioneachincludea in launchingtheirMetiersD’art “TheLegendofChineseZodiac”collec- Vacheron Constantin,hasutilizedthesignificanceof“Chineseelements” their products.Forexample,theoldestSwissmechanicalwatch company, luxury brandshave proven quitereceptive toincluding Chinesemotifson consumers. “Chinese elements”asaway oflocalizingtheirproducts toattractChinese breaking intonewmarkets,Western luxurybrandshave incorporated practice oflocalizationisapopularstrategyformanyinternationalbrands also incorporateChinese“spirit,values, andhabits.” famous landmarks,suchasthedragonorGreatWall ofChina,but should notjustconsistoftheinclusionChineseculturalsymbolsand Another populardebate stemmingfromthe2015METGalasurroun- In additiontoWestern luxurygoods,thediscourseonWestern appro- Due tothegrowingnumberofChineseluxuryconsumers,Western 15 Shefurtherarguesthatthenotionof“Chineseelements” r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h 17 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 In2014,Guccilauncheda“China-red” 16 However, asthe 18 Throughits o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / US$12 billion,in2013. China. According toCNN,thissegmentgenerated74.4billionyuan,or has flourishedthroughthehighdemandfor Western luxurygoodsin The businessofoverseas personalshoppers,or the newmarketsurroundingconsumptionofWestern luxurygoods. reliant onWestern commoditiesasapromiseofquality,evidencedby with higherqualitygoods.Over time,Chineseconsumersbecametoo ing domesticbrandsover foreignbrands,whichhave beenassociated of poorquality.Thus,Chineseconsumersarenotreceptive topurchas- context, “MadeinChina”productscontinuedtostrugglewiththenotion economic growth,thusattractingmanyoutsourcedjobs.Inthemodern Historically, Chinahasdependedonitscheaplaborforceforitsprimary also overcome theperceptionof“madeinChina”goodsaslowquality. appropriation of“Chineseelements.” luxury goodsmarketcontinuestoabidebyWestern ideasofluxuryand Chinese designers.Furthermore,thegrowthofdomestic elements” negatively affectthedevelopment of“Chineseelements”by such Western ideals.Unfortunately,Western appropriated“Chinese luxury, andthesechoicescontinuetobeapproved byaudiencesholding are willingtopaymoreforamade-in-U.S.A. product. from theBostonConsultingGroupthat61percentofChina’sconsumers shoppers will likely continue to flourish, especially in light of a 2011 report reselling luxurygoods.Thebusinessphenomenon ofoverseas personal upon price.Overseas personalshopperscanoftenmakeaheftyprofit by countries thaninChina),resellingtheitems to theirclientsatanagreed and otherfees,itischeapertobuyWestern luxurygoodsinWestern shoppers willbuybrandnameitemsatadiscountedrate(duetotariffs platform, Taobao. Dependingonthearrangement,overseas personal social mediachannels,likeWeChat orWeibo, aswell astheecommerce in whichtheyarestudying.Theytypicallyfindtheirclientsthrough countries, whofrequentlytravel between Chinaandthecountries students studyinginWestern countries,suchastheU.S.orEuropean market. However, theprocessbywhichconsumerschoose fashion designerswhowere previouslyunknownoutsideoftheChinese na’s selectionofGuoPei’s worksshoneaninternationallightonChinese extravagant goldgownbyChinesedesigner,GuoPei. Admittedly, Rihan- ers’ worksisstillfixatedonthecriteriaof Western-identified ously have tofacefiercecompetition toattractChineseconsumers. overseas personalshoppers, Chinese domesticluxurybrandscontinu- to thedomesticluxury brands.Furthermorewithboomingindustr ies, like increase inaccessibilityofWestern luxurygoodsserves majorchallenges nation ofhighdemand,poorperceptionChinese madegoods,and The development oftheChinesedomesticluxurygoodsmarketmust Despite allofthechallenges facingChinesedomesticbrands,there 19 r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Theoverseas personalshoppersareoftenChinese Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 haiwai daigou 20 Hence,thecombi- these design- idealsof ( 海外代购 ), o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / els ofChina(seefigure 3). Wen, FeiSun,DuJuan,ShuPei, MingXi, andSuiHeasthesupermod- example, thecover oftheSeptember 2011issueofVogueChinafeaturesLiu magazines, soshemade itapointtofeaturemoreChinesemodels.For that therewas alackofrepresentationChinesesupermodelsin culture, youcannotchangethat.” jobtomeetwiththeChineseculture.Five thousandyears of time, it’s[her] her roleistoproduceamoderninternationalmagazine,“[b]utatthesame Angelica Cheung,theeditor-in-chiefofVogueChina.Cheungexplainsthat interviews withsomeofthemostwell knownnamesinfashion,including and supportedbytheministryofcommerce. Shanghai FashionWeek ishostedbytheShanghaiMunicipalGovernment to backdomesticluxurygoodsprojectsandfashionevents. Forexample, China. MultipleChineseprovincialgovernments have startedinitiatives ers fromtheChinesegovernment andotherinfluentialpartieswithin are signsofsupportaswell aspromotionofChinesedomesticdesign- design withinthegarmentindustry. and GarmentFestival formorethantwenty years toencourageinnovative Northeastern coastalcity,hasalsoheldanannualInternationalFashion ing fashionevents andlocaldesigners.Thegovernment ofDalian,a domestic fashionbrands. government hashighhopesthatitspeoplewillinvest moneybackin consumer incomeandriseoftheChineseecommerce,Shanghainese disposable incomesthantherestofcountry.With extradisposable Week andthefactthat,onaverage, peopleinShanghaihave higher the fashioncapitalofChina,duetogovernmental supportforFashion China’s fashionindustrybytheKingdomofNetherlands,Shanghaiis Companies &CultureIssue.” Business ofFashion,publishedaspecialeditionmagazinecalled“The apparent inVogueChina.Inspringof2014,thepopularfashionwebsite, appears inChinesemedia,includingthemagazineVogueChina. tic fashionandluxurygoodsindustries,suchsupportive rhetoricalso Nanjing, andChengdu. Aside fromgovernmental promotionofdomes- fashion designersanddesignsincludeGuangzhou,Shenzhen,Dongguan, its “pillarindustry.”OtherChinesecitiesthatstronglypromotedomestic Northeastern coast,hasheavilysupportedthecreative industrybecoming of the“Chineseelements.” Chinese coulddosomething,”reflectingthe nationalismbehindthenotion proud tosaythattheincentive forherjobis“toprove totheworldthat rate “Chineseelements”thatChinesereaders atlargecanrelateto.Sheis enough tojustbringWestern beautyandfashiontrendsintoChina. Aside fromShanghai,manycitiesaroundChinahave startedpromot- The Chinesereclamationof“Chineseelements”mayperhapsbemost In orderforVogueChinatobesuccessfulinChina,itmustincorpo- r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h 26 25 Themodelsarealldressed inclothingfrom Insettingouttoprove thispoint, shesaw 23 Within thisspecialissuewere numerous 24 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 Cheunggoesontoexplainthatitisnot 22 ThecityofShandong,alsoonthe 21 According toareporton o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / the notionofspiritualitywithin“Chineseelements.” ism butinsteadcreatingherownsenseofbeauty andelegancethrough Liyuan isnotconformingtotheWestern style ofbeautyandcommercial- ladies ofmanyothercountries.Thereisanationalistic notionthatPeng reflects onhow Peng Liyuandoesnot wear brand-nameattirelikethefirst explaining whytheChinesepeopleadoretheir firstlady,thearticlealso from American designer,JasonWu,and American brands,likeJ.Crew.In have seenwith American firstladyMichelleObama,who wears products is notuncommonforfirstladiestobeaffiliated withconsumerism,aswe “Chinese positive energy,”orzhongshizhengnengliang(中式正能量). Chinese firstlady was praisedforherelegance,confidence,anddistinctive stirred upacrazeforChinese designergoodsamongChineseconsumers: readers] want toseethatacertainlookwouldgoodonChinese.” people toseethat“aChinesecouldbecomebig–andultimately[our Western brands,andCheungbelieves thatitisimportantfortheChinese over thefashionmarket.Inparticular, GuhighlightshowPeng Liyuan Labels,” theauthor,Wei Gu,writesabout howallfirstladiesexertinfluence of “SinaFemale,”orXinLangNüXing Peng Liyuanasthe“bigfigure”or One popularonlinemediawebsite, Sina,featuredFirstLadyofChina who have notfollowed Western trendsorboughtintocommercialism. for luxurygoodscompanies,theChinesemediahasalsopraisedthose sion rateofaudiencemembersintoclientsisstillundetermined. influences thedesignershadincreatingtheirpieces.However, theconver- with theideasofChinesefashiondesignersandtogetknowdaily This showisanexcellentoutletforChineseaudiencestobecomefamiliar when designingtheircollectionsandwhatmakesdesignsspecial. show allowsthedesignerstotalkabouttheircreative thoughtprocesses a popularChineseactress,andareaskedtodisplaytheircreativity.The creations onnationaltelevision.Theyaregiven ataskby“goddess,” i.e. purposefully showcasesthenewbreedofChinesedesignersandtheir the onewithlowest bidwillbeeliminatedfromthecontest.Thisshow a groupofbuyers. Whichever designerreceives thehighestbidwins,and introduces various groupsofdesignersandhasthemcompeteinfront show “Goddess’sNewClothes,”or consumers tonewdomesticdesigners. Chinese nationalism,VogueChinacanserve asaplatformtoattract Chinese with themissiontoreconnectlinkbetween Chineseconsumerismand through theirpictorialsandarticleswithinfashionmagazines. Additionally, editors areincreasinglyusinga“Chinese”interpretationofWestern trends cover exemplifiestheheightenedfocuson“Chineseelements,”asfashion In theWall StreetJournalarticle“TheFirst-Lady EffectonChina’sFashion In contrast,asChineseconsumptionhassecuredthrivingrevenues Aside fromVogueChinaasaplatform,thereisalsonewtelevision r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 Da RenWu(大人物) Nü ShenDeXinYi (女神的新衣),that ( 新浪女性 ). Inthisarticle,the in its107thissue

27 28 has This It

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / been disregardedbythenewChineseconsumersociety.” regain Chineseculture…,which,accordingtosomecommentators,had of “Chineseelements”was “designedbyChina’smarketcommunityto elements” inconsumergoods. According toMikeThompson,thepurpose alism inthediscourseofconsumerismandacalltocreate“Chinese Chinese brandfashionchoices,therehasbeenasparkofChinesenation- fashion brands. As theChinesepublichaspraisedfirstladyforher corruption, Chineseconsumersarebecomingmoreinterestedinlocal (see figure4). AlongsidetheChinesegovernment’s actionstocombat labels, whichmakesithardtodeterminethepricerangeoftheiroutfits the worldwillfollow. recognize thepotentialofChinesedomestic designers beforetherestof fashion roadmap.However, theChinesepeoplethemselves willneedto Chinese fashionanddesignersofluxurygoods appearontheglobal within Chinesemainstreammedia.Thus,itis onlymatteroftimebefore ment agendas,Chineseluxurydesignsarealso appearingmorefrequently As promotingfashionandluxurydesigners becomes partoflocalgovern- have thepotential tobecomeaglobalplayer intheluxurybrandsegment. Chinese-made goods.Despitealloftheseobstacles, China-madegoods consumers preferWestern aesthetics,theyalsohold apoorperceptionof break intothedomesticmarket. At thesametime,notonlydoChinese designers isfacingtheobstacleofinnovating beyondtheseidealsto heavily influencedby Western ideals,thisgenerationofChineseluxury limited byvarious challenges.Inparticular,withtheluxurymarketso products, thegrowthofChinesedomesticluxurygoodsmarketis luxury andtheappropriationof“Chineseelements”inWestern luxury for Western luxurygoods.With thecombinationofWesternized idealsof brands, anditisevidentthatChineseconsumershave astrongpreference Conclusion tion oflocalfashionevents. China’s economy,PresidentXi’scondemnationofcorruption,andpromo- “Chinese elements”inChineseconsumerism,especiallywiththeriseof markets. However, nowisanopportunemomenttostrive toincorporate elements” serve asachallengeinthealreadyWesternized consumer Oftentimes, Ms.Peng appearsinatailoredoutfitswithoutparticular Chinese luxuryconsumptionisskewed towards Western luxury thrived there. consumption inChinaandtakentheshineoffluxurybrandsthathave husband’s callforausterityhasdampedthemoodofconspicuous The timingofMs.Peng’s fashionstatementcouldn’tbebetter.Her 29 r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 30 The“Chinese o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / jessica-parkers-headdress-brought-fire-2015-met-ball/ http://www.watchuseek.com/vacheron-constantin-metiers-dart-year-of-the-monkey-le-watch/ Figures Figure 2. Figure 1. SarahJessicaParker at2015METGala. Source:http://uinterview.com/news/sarah- Vacheron Constantin, “TheLegendOfChineseZodiac,”Year oftheMonkey.Source: r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / ming-xi-sui-inez-vinoodh/ fashiongonerogue.com/vogue-china-september-2011-cover-liu-wen-fei-fei-sun-du-juan-shu-pei- Du Juan,ShuPei, MingXi,andSuiHeasthesupermodelsofChina.Source: Figure 3. Cover oftheSeptember2011issueVogueChinafeaturesLiuWen, FeiSun, r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 http://www. o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Buckingham-Palace.html visit-Peng-Liyuan-exudes-elegance-cool-white-dress-suit-accompanies-President-Xi-Jinping- Source: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-3280964/Is-Chinese-lady-real-star-state- Figure 4. Peng LiyuanatCeremonialWelcome atHorseGuardsParade inLondon2015. r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 22. Consulate GeneraloftheNetherlands inShanghai.“China’sFashionIndustry: An 21. Johnson-Woods, Toni,andVicki Karaminas.ShanghaiStreetStyle. 20. The BostonConsultingGroup.“Madein America, Again: WhyManufacturing 19. Hunt, Katie,andSerenaDong.“ShoppersorSmugglers? ChinaCracksdownon 18. Jing Daily.“SpringFestival Spotlight–Gucci’sChina-Exclusive Year oftheHorse 17. Lau, Chester.“ReviewVacheron Constantin ChineseZodiacYear OfTheGoat(With 16. Ibid. 15. Hulme (2014),p.190. 14. Zaczkiewicz, Arthur. “LVMH, RichemontTopListofBiggestFashionFirmsby 13. Hulme, Alison. TheChangingLandscapeofChina’sConsumerism.Oxford:Chandos 12. Gerth, Karl.“CompromsingwithConsumerisminSocialistChina:Transnational 11. Ibid., p.71. 10. Ibid., p.69. 9. Ibid., p.10. 8. Gerth (2003),p.3. 7. McArdle, Megan.“Doyoustillwant thatBirkinBag?”BloombergView blog 6. Bloomberg, “WhatMotivates ChineseConsumerstoShop Abroad?” BloombergTV, 5. Bain &Company.LuxuryGoodsWorldwideMarketStudy,accessedJanuary31,2016, 4. Unger, Brooke.“Exclusively forEverybody.” TheEconomist, accessed December14, 3. Gerth, Karl.AsChinaGoes,soGoestheWorld:HowChineseConsumers Are Transforming 2. Sims, David.“ChinaWidens LeadasWorld’sLargestManufacturer,”accessedMarch 1. World TradeOrganization.“MemberInformation:ChinaandtheWTO,”accessed Notes overview oftrends, opportunities,andchallenges.” Accessed onJanuary31,2016 government&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false quSGKQC&lpg=PT46&dq=shanghai%20fashion%20week%20municipal%20 Bristol: Intellect[u.a.],2012.https://books.google.com/books?id=m0JH- documents/file84471.pdf Will ReturntotheU.S.” Accessed January31,2016from: asia/china-personal-shoppers/. ‘Daigou’ Boom.” spotlight-guccis-china-exclusive-year-of-the-horse-collection/#.VrDN2DYrKWZ. Collection.” JingDaily review-vacheron-constantin-chinese-zodiac-year-goat-specs-price/. Specs And Price).”Deployant.com forecasts-analysis/lvmh-richemont-fashion-apparel-ranking-10303382/. Market Cap.”WWD.COM aspx?p=1728075. Publishing, 2014,p.17.http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord. karlgerth.com/mm_uploads/gerth-past-y-present-2013.pdf Flows andInternalTension in‘Socialist Advertising’.” Past andPresent do-you-still-want-that-birkin-bag post, March03,2014.http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-03-03/ what-motivates-them-to-shop-abroad-0DcVRJtiT46O~b8woR7G_g.html November 26,2014,2:07.http://www.bloomberg.com/video/chinese-consumers- http://www.bain.com/Images/BAIN_REPORT_Global_Luxury_2015.pdf industry-rests-paradoxbut-thriving-nonetheless-says-brooke# 2014. http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21635761-modern-luxury- Everything. NewYork; Godalming:HillandWang 2011. ;Melia[distributor], IMT/2013/03/14/china-widens-lead-as-worlds-largest-manufacturer 14, 2013,Thomasnet,ThomasPublishingCompany. March 20,2015.https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/china_e.htm CNN.com , January2,2014.https://jingdaily.com/spring-festival- r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h , December30,2015.http://wwd.com/business-news/ , August 19,2014.http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/19/world/ , January15,2015.http://www.deployant.com/ Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 http://news.thomasnet.com/ https://www.bcg.com/ . 2013.http:// o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 28. “Figure ( 27. Amed (2014):p.25. 26. “2011 VogueChinaSeptember2011Cover –LiuWen, FeiSun,DuJuan,Shu 25. Ibid., p.24. 24. Ibid., p.25. 23. Imran Amed, “BuildingVogueChina.”BusinessofFashion,May5,2014.http://www. Hulme, Alison. TheChangingLandscapeofChina’s Consumerism.Oxford:ChandosPublish- ______. “CompromsingwithConsumerisminSocialist China:TransnationalFlows ______. ChinaMade:ConsumerCultureandtheCreationofNation. Cambridge: Gerth, Karl.AsChinaGoes,SoGoestheWorld:HowChineseConsumers Are Transforming Geng SongandTracyK.Lee.“’NewMan’‘New Lad’ withChineseCharacteristics? Euromonitor. “LuxuryGoodsintheBRICCountries:WhyThey Are Consulate GeneraloftheNetherlandsinShanghai.“China’sFashionIndustry: An Chery International.N.p.,n.d.,accessedMarch29,2016. The BostonConsultingGroup.“Madein America, Again: WhyManufacturingWill Bloomberg. “WhatMotivates Chinese Consumers toShop Abroad?” November 26,2014, Bain &Company.LuxuryGoodsWorldwideMarketStudy,accessedJanuary31,2016. References 29. Wei Gu,“TheFirst-LadyEffectonChina’sFashionLabels,” 30. Thompson, Mike.“SignalsofVirtue inChineseConsumerismandBusiness,” ing, 2014.http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=1728075. com/mm_uploads/gerth-past-y-present-2013.pdf and InternalTension in‘Socialist Advertising’.” Past andPresent Harvard University Asia Center:DistributedbyHarvard University Press,2003. Everything. NewYork; Godalming:Hill andWang; 2011. Melia[distributor], line.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10357823.2012.711808. Asian StudiesReview(September2012),Vol.36,no.2,pp.345-367. http://www.tandfon- , CulturalHybridityandMen’sLifestyle MagazineinChina.”In report countries-why-they-are-still-crucial-to-the-industry-landscape/ 29, 2016.http://www.euromonitor.com/luxury-goods-in-the-bric- Still CrucialtotheIndustryLandscape.”Passport, accessedMarch china/sectoren/creatieve-industrie/china-fashion-industry-kansenrapport.pdf china.nlambassade.org/binaries/content/assets/postenweb/c/china/zaken-doen-in- overview oftrends,opportunities,andchallenges,”accessedJanuary31,2016. com/news-news.jsp file84471.pdf Return totheU.S.,”accessedonJanuary31,2016.https://www.bcg.com/documents/ them-to-shop-abroad-0DcVRJtiT46O~b8woR7G_g.html Bloomberg TV http://www.bain.com/Images/BAIN_REPORT_Global_Luxury_2015.pdf juan-shu-pei-ming-xi-sui-inez-vinoodh/ fashiongonerogue.com/vogue-china-september-2011-cover-liu-wen-fei-fei-sun-du- Pei, MingXi&SuiHebyInesVinoodh,” lastmodified August 4.http://www. businessoffashion.com/articles/global-currents/building-vogue-china doen-in-china/sectoren/creatieve-industrie/china-fashion-industry-kansenrapport.pdf from http://china.nlambassade.org/binaries/content/assets/postenweb/c/china/zaken- Journal ofInternationalBusinessEthicsVol.3(2010),no.2,p.73. 27887323646604578401731453745400 April 4,2013,accessedNovember 30,2014.http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB100014241 大人物 . http://www.bloomberg.com/video/chinese-consumers-what-motivates- ),”107. http://eladies.sina.com.cn/qg/darenwupengliyuan/ r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 http://www.cheryinternational. The Wall StreetJournal, . 2013.http://karlgerth. http:// o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / McArdle, Megan.“DoyoustillneedthatBirkinBag?” Lau, Chester.“ReviewVacheron ConstantinChineseZodiacYear OfTheGoat(With Johnson-Woods, Toni,andVicki Karaminas.ShanghaiStreetStyle. Bristol:Intellect[u.a.], Jing Daily.“SpringFestival Spotlight–Gucci’sChina-Exclusive Year oftheHorseCollec- Hunt, Katie,andSerenaDong.“ShoppersorSmugglers?ChinaCracksdownon‘Daigou’ Vogue China.“ Vacheron-Constantin. Vacheron-Constantin.com. Unger, Brooke.“Exclusively forEverybody.” TheEconomist.com,December14,2014. Thompson, Mike.“SignalsofVirtue inChineseConsumerismandBusiness,” Sims, David.“ChinaWidens LeadasWorld’sLargestManufacturer.”March14, Nü ShenDeXinYi. Baike.Baidu.com Wei Gu,“TheFirst-LadyEffectonChina’sFashionLabels,” Zaczkiewicz, Arthur. “LVMH, RichemontTopListofBiggestFashionFirmsby World TradeOrganization.“MemberInformation:ChinaandtheWTO,”accessedMarch review-vacheron-constantin-chinese-zodiac-year-goat-specs-price/. Specs And Price).”Deployant.com week%20municipal%20government&f=false uk9nKAhVV9WMKHXseBlYQ6AEILzAD#v=onepage&q=shanghai%20fashion%20 93G&sig=sx6Iqe-EhvqCmoPyDt2AzOKTmRM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjHsqa- q=shanghai+fashion+week+municipal+government&source=bl&ots=tngsN1t- 2012. https://books.google.com/books?id=m0JH-quSGKQC&pg=PT46&lpg=PT46&d- cis-china-exclusive-year-of-the-horse-collection/#.VrDN2DYrKWZ. tion.” JingDaily china-personal-shoppers/ http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-03-03/do-you-still-want-that-birkin-bag Boom.” ron-constantin.com/en2/watches/metiers-d-art/-86073-000P-9890.html try-rests-paradoxbut-thriving-nonetheless-says-brooke# http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21635761-modern-luxury-indus- ecclar/images/20110401/31089.pdf of InternationalBusinessEthics,Vol.3(2010),no.2,pp.71-80.http://www.ceibs.edu/ IMT/2013/03/14/china-widens-lead-as-worlds-largest-manufacturer 2013, Thomasnet,ThomasPublishingCompany. living/home/news_1744c7a2e2644c87.html forecasts-analysis/lvmh-richemont-fashion-apparel-ranking-10303382/. Market Cap.”WWD.COM 29, 2016.https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/china_e.htm 6604578401731453745400 4, 2013,accessedMarch29,2016. CNN.com 瑞士顶级科技邂逅中国时尚. , January2,2014.https://jingdaily.com/spring-festival-spotlight-guc- , August 19,2014.http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/19/world/asia/ r hneo n Cie a an / ran e Chine in ot e Are Chine h , December30,2015.http://wwd.com/business-news/ . http://baike.baidu.com/subview/13089782/15750134.htm , January15,2015.http://www.deployant.com/ http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142412788732364 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ” June3,2014.http://www.vogue.com.cn/ March20,2015.http://www.vache- http://news.thomasnet.com/ Bloomberg.com, The Wall StreetJournal, April March 03,2014. Journal o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Advertising StudiesinMainlandChina The Stateofthe Archive: Research Resourcesfor spectacle. Corporations advertised theirproductswidely.Theadvertising popular consumerculture, andlaidthefoundationformodernurban were realproducts,buttheyalsoformed thebackboneofnew,urban, sought Chinesemarketsfortheirgoodsand services.Foreigncommodities Kingdom, theUnitedStates,Japan,Germany, France,ItalyandRussia– international companiesheadquarteredinother nations–e.g.,theUnited internationally regulated,Chinesetreatyport cities.Transnationaland produced consumeritemsfloodedintoextraterritorially-governed, the conditionswhereabstractthinkingmade perfectsense. society were literallymadevisibleinadvertising imagesandthusformed study. Forinstance,vernacular orpopulartheoriesaboutmodernChinese in relationtotheconditionsofthought,twoimportantcategoriesour tual historiansuniqueconditionsforconsideringthecontentofthinking environments. Advertising andtheindustriesthatproduceitgive intellec- consumer culturesshapingmodernphysical,emotional,andintellectual ephemera breakfreeoftheiroriginstobecomeanintegralelementall modern phenomenainaway thatnoothersourcecan. Advertising visibility andinvisibilitymeaninrelationtoanarchive? does thearchive have somuchpower even foraJediknight?Whatdo him. However, theauthorityofarchive isstillunchallengeable!Why exist!” Ofcourse,theJediisultimatelyproved right,sincethe forceiswith ifanitemdoesnotappearinourrecords,it be absolutelysureof: are comprehensive andtotallysecure,myyoungJedi.Onethingyoumay for –MadameJocastaisobviouslyoffended,responding:“Thearchives pleteness ofthearchives –sincehecannotfindtheplanetislooking a planetarysystemcalledKamino.WhenObi-Wan questionstheincom- archivist ofthe Archives LibraryattheJediTemple abouttheexistenceof knight Obi-Wan KenobiconsultswithMadameJocastaNu,the resident ically. Forexample,inStarWars II: Attack oftheClones , theyoungJedi constructs animaginaryworldvisuallyaswell asarealworld metaphor- fan ofStarWars, Ithinkthemostinterestingaspectofthisseriesisthatit first threedaystheboxofficetookinmorethan$50million. Asanatypical For example,inthelatenineteenthcenturythousands ofindustrially- Advertising ephemeraprovides theconditionsforthinkingabout Star Wars: TheForce Awakens hasbeenshowinginChina,wherethe Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 a a h Chen n i State ofthe Archive /Chen 1

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / reading ofadimages. archives ofadvertisements –necessarytohelpthescholarobtainaclose and imagesofadvertisements. Thismakesthearchive –especiallyonline presented visuallyforthepossibilityofelaboration,basedontexts symbol ofcivilizedurbanlife. everyday life,andthesecommodityimagescametobetheparamount industry insinuatedcommoditybrandsandbrandingtechniquesinto of the pragmaticparticularityofarchives inChina.Thedigitalresources val documents.Itisnosurprisethathistorians value “archive stories:” the creationofarchive become thekeytoourunderstandingofarchi- those wholeadthehermeneuticdiscourseand thecontextsurrounding of naturalhermeneuticpower, notsimplyataxonomicpower. Inthisway, the period.ToDerrida,archivist,guardian andinterpreterhasakind leads thesubjective deductionoftheepistémeandhistoricalapriori of tracesmaterialsfromspecifichistorical andculturalperiods,which terms fromFoucault’sdiscourseofgenealogy, thearchive isacollection a different way thanthatusuallysharedbyotherhistorians.Toborrow as FoucaultandDerridadescribethecrucialcharacteristicofarchives in documents asproducednaturallyor“naturallycollected,”theoristssuch practices. Ratherthanemphasizingthetraditionaldefinitionofarchival by archivistsandtheoristsfromoutsideprofessionalarchive sciencesor past fewdecadesshowsthattheconcepthasbeenthoughtandrethought The “Archive”StoryinChina in thedatabasebuildingprocess. tension between over-commercialization andlessacademicparticipation pursuing academicresearch.Theunderlyingreasoncanbefoundinthe of RepublicChina,renderthesedatabasesnearlyuselesstoscholars metadata andanyin-depthanalysisofadcontent,especiallytheperiod absence ofanysystematiccollectionadimages,lackfully-annotated rather digitalcollectionswithvery limitedbibliographicinformation.The are notresearch-orienteddatabasesspecializinginadvertisements, but advertising studies.Whatallthreeshareincommonisthatmostofthem of advertising historyorothermaterials,and3)academicresourcesfor of advertisements (ormaterialsincludingadvertisements); 2)websites in China,beginningwiththeideasofarchive inthepastdecadesand advertising studiescanbecategorizedin three ways: 1)databases In orderforanadvertisement tobecomemeaningful,itmust be This shortessaywillinvestigate thestateofarchive ofadvertising A quicksurvey ofthescholarlydiscourseson“thearchive” over the to writehistory—follows inthefirstinstancefromamove inthe Western archives arecreated,drawnupon,andexperiencedby thosewhousethem Our emphasisontheneed forarchive stories—narratives abouthow Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 State ofthe Archive /Chen

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / ies, even foronlineresources.Librarianspreferusing“database”( distinct systemssoitisvery raretoseethe termarchive usedbylibrar- room, toacquiringcopiesortakingphotos.Librariesandarchives aretwo limited ways ofaccessingdocuments,fromread-onlyaccessinareading organizations arehardtoaccess. Additionally, archives offer variously residence committee.Meanwhile,thehistoricalarchives ofcitiesorpublic allowed access,butonlythecollective unit–thatis,one’semployer or generates archival documentstowhichthecitizenher/himselfisnot institutional documentsthanitistohistoricalauthenticity.Every citizen archive ismoreconnectedtopersonalidentity,bureaucraticrecordsand ties conductedbythebodyproducingthemduringsocialistperiods, cated. InChina,thearchive hasapoliticalmeaning:asresultofactivi- ment ofadvertisements inTheChinesePeriodical Press,1800-1912 asfollows: popularity inChina.Roswell SessomsBritton the DailyPress(孖刺报)inHongKong,advertising hasonlyincreasedin the Englishterm. results theywant because“archive” inChinahasadifferentmeaningthan of “archive” identify andutilizethearchives ofadvertisements inChina. an archive. Thisfurtherincreasesthedifficultyfor Westernscholarsto internal logicthan“archive,” tonameresources thatfitthedefinitionof published in1857 late Qingdynasty.Ever sincethefirstcommercialadvertisement was or “resourcecollection” – lookfor“the Advertisements inthemodernsensefirstappearedChinaduring My useofDerrida’stheoryhereistoindicatethetheoreticalcontext All archives are“figured.”Themeaningofthearchive ismorecompli- serendipity ofbureaucrats,andthecareneglectarchivistsaswell. the present,buttofateofregimes,physicalenvironment, That is,theyallhave dynamicrelationships,notjusttothepastand academy (andalsobeyondit)torecognizethatallarchives are‘‘figured.’’ 1930 patentmedicineadvertisements hadbeguntolosethelead. revolution, andadegree of uniformityandsystemgraduallyentered.By classification. Advertising agenciesbegan todevelop some years afterthe doctors andgeneralists,philterspatentmedicine, becamethelargest remained amétierofbargaining…Medicaladvertising, covering quack oil, tobacco,liquorandpatentmedicinecompanies. Advertising rateslong businesses, theshippingandinsurancecompanies atfirst,andlaterthe the mainstaysofdailyadvertising columnswere thelargeforeign profits didsolicitadvertisements butgotmodestreturns. For years, The earliernewspaperswhich,likethe in China.Whenscholars–especiallythoseoutsideofChina archive” (literally“ 香港船头货价纸 ( 资源库 ), termswhichutilizeanentirelydifferent Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 档案 , aChinese-languagesupplementof ” inChinese),theycan’tfindthe Shun Pao, were designedtoearn ( State ofthe Archive /Chen 白瑞华 ) describedthedevelop- 3

数据库 the 2

) o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / obvious mistakes:Forexample,theThreeCastlesCigarette( “category (trademarkorad)”and“producer.”Buttherearealsosome cal products.”Mostoftheentriesincludeinformation“name,” cal products,”“folk“commercialservices”and“mechani- “food, cigarettesandwine,”“medicine,”“dailynecessitieschemi- web browsing. Ads aresortedintocategories like“textilesandclothes,” The databasecollected635JPEGimagesataresolutionsufficientfor using thisresource. Kodak adisincludedinthedatabase.Sousershouldbecarefulwhen rized asfollows. Three kindsoftheonlineresourcesadvertisements stress thatperiod,aswell. of historyadvertising inChina,andthatiswhythisessaywillmainly for thesereasonsthattheRepublicanperiodisusualfocusofstudies collections, sotherewas notraditionofcollectingthemuntil recently.Itis ephemeral materialslikeadvertisements weren’t theobjective ofthese be foundinthedatabasesofRepublican-era(1912-1949)materials. Also, – areembeddedintothe webpage frame,andthePDFfilesmustbe full-text searches,since PDFsofthetexts–ratherthantextsthemselves they arebilledasfull-text databases,theirsearchcapabilitiesonly well knownfortheirsignificantacademic andhistorical value. Although of periodicalspublishedbetween 1911and1949.These twodatabasesare covers around10,000,000piecesof writinginover 25,000different kinds icals between 1833and1911inChina;theChineseperiodicaldatabase approximately 280,000articlespublishedin 302 Chinese-languageperiod- were produced bytheShanghaiLibrary.TheLateQingDatabasecovers the latenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentieth century.Bothof them to 1937,duringthe“Golden Age” ofthefirsthalftwentieth century. public libraryinNanjing,thecapitalofRepublicChinafrom1927 1. Databasesofadvertisementsormaterialsincluding 刊全文数据库) 文数据库) andChinesePeriodicalFull-textDatabase(1911-1949) (民国时期期 is mis-labeledasEmbassyCigarette( The onlineresourcesrelatedtoadvertising researchedcanbecatego- That’s whytherichesthistoricalresourcesofadvertisements oftencan These twomajordatabasescontainhistorical documentspublishedin Late QingDynastyPeriodicalFull-textDatabase(1833-1911) (晚清期刊全 The onlydatabasenamedforitsadvertisements was createdbya Website: http://www2.jslib.org.cn/was5/web/lsbindex.htm “Old Trademarks andOld Advertisements” Database Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 使馆牌香烟) State ofthe Archive /Chen , andonecontemporary “老商標老廣告”數據庫 大炮台 support ) ad 4

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / articles aboutadvertisements. scholars stillcanfindalotofusefulfilescontainingadvertisements or ian. Mostimportantly,notallsearchresultsincludePDFfiles.Even so, and eitheradownloadlinktothePDFfileorrequestforlibrar- name,” “year, volume,page,”“indexnumber”and“microfilmnumber,” information, suchas“catalogingnumber,”“title,”“author,”periodical author, year, full-textetc.,theygetresultswithonlylimitedcataloging downloaded toviewthem.Whenuserssearchusingthekeywordsoftitle, Figure 1.1 Figure 1. Mainpageofdatabase Ad forHuameielectricdevice Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 State ofthe Archive /Chen o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 2. guished featureisallimages arescannedfromtheoriginaldocuments icals, Shenbao,ShuntianTimes , andthehistoryofCCP. Themostdistin- Papers isasearchplatformincludingmultipledatabases ofbooks,period- geography,” “astronomy”and“medicine.”The DatabaseofDachengOld “politics,” “military,”“agriculture,”“transportation,” “historyand into twenty-one subjectareas,including“philosophy,”“economics,” more than2,200,000articlesfrom7,000journals, andarecategorized the databasedeveloped bytheShanghaiLibrary.Thisdatabasecontains libraries. TheDachengOldPeriodical Full-textDatabaseissimilarto Data Technology Company, andarewidelyavailable atmany public Figure 4 Figure 3 Database ofDachengOldPapers(大成故纸堆) These twodatabaseswere developed byBeijingShangpinDacheng Dacheng OldPeriodicalFull-textDatabase . Itemof“ . “ Searchresultsfor“ 奴痛：河內博覽會廣告文 開幕廣告 广告 ” havingarequestlink ” inthetwodatabases ” includingadownloadlink Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 State ofthe Archive /Chen (大成老旧刊全文数据库）and o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 5 files canbedownloaded. databases, “full-text”heremeansthatfull-textsearchesaresupported,and so theresolutionisadequateforpublishing.LikeShanghaiLibrary the Green Apple Company( number oftimesbydifferent commercialcompanies.Threecompani es, China period,Shenbaohasbeendigitizedanddeveloped asadatabase Figure 6 ogy ResearchCenter（ As oneofthemostimportantnewspapersduring theRepublicof Shenbao Database(申报) . Searchingfor“advertisement ( . Cross-searchengine 爱如生 青苹果 ）and Hytung( 广告 Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 ), BeijingEruditionDigital Technol- )” intheDachengdatabase State ofthe Archive /Chen 瀚堂 ) have releasedShenbao o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 7 ments. “Advertisements” isaseparatecategoryinthisdatabase. for Windows, thefulltextofreportsandmostfromadvertise- Erudition isthemostuseful,sinceitprovidesstand-aloneversion databases. Forresearchpurposes,theShenbao Figure 8 . Thefull-textsearchpage . Browserofdatabaseandtextsarepresentedalongsideimageoforiginal Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 State ofthe Archive /Chen Databasedeveloped by o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Excel spreadsheetformat. business onbothacity- andnation-widescale,canbeexportedin ment. Thisdatabaseprovides annualstatisticalreportsoftheadvertising tising istheStatistical Database ofChineseEconomicandSocialDevelop- content. Another sub-databasehelpfulforstudiesofcontemporaryadver- both alistofsearchresults,aswell asagraphicstatisticalanalysisoftheir 2. Websites ofadvertisinghistoryorothermaterials example, ifrunningageneralsearchfor CAJ formats,CNKIhasadditionalfunction of analysisreferences.For papers inChinese.Inadditiontoproviding papers inbothPDFand searches inEnglish.Thisisalsothemostpopular databaseofacademic Masters ThesesFull-textDatabase. All itemsareinChinesebutsupport Database, theChinaDoctoralDissertationsFull-text Database,andthe 3. Academic resourcesonadvertisingstudies Figure 9 advertising signs tion includesmorethan5,000items,printedadvertisements, wooden sor inthe Art SchoolatNorthwestern University. Thismuseum’scollec- Museum ofChina,foundedin2000Shenyang byZhaoChen,aprofes- individuals involved intheadvertising industry. well asbriefintroductionstoChineseadvertising historyandsignificant ads andphotosofwoodadvertisements aredisplayed onthewebsite as Advertising MuseumofChina CNKI providesaccesstotheChina Academic JournalsFull-text China KnowledgeResourceIntegratedDatabase(CNKI)(中国知网资源库) This isawebsite ofaChineseadvertisement museum,the Advertising Website: http://www.admuseum.cn . Mainpageofwebsite for Advertising MuseumofChina 5 andresearchdocuments.Some samplesoftheprinted (中国广告博物馆) Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 "广告," State ofthe Archive /Chen theresearchercanget o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / Figure 10 in China. use thetooltogetageneral senseofscholarlystudiesonadvertisements ing inarticlesincluding thosewrittenaboutadvertisements. Readers can also providesthestatisticalanalysisofrelationship ofcompaniesappear- Beside providingelectronicbooksthatwere excludedfromCNKI,Duxiu video clipsonallsubjectsdatingfromtheearly 1930stothepresent. than 4.3millionbooks,aswell asjournalarticles,conference papersand Figure 11 Similar toCNKI,Duxiuisaone-site,full-text searchplatformtomore Duxiu (读秀中文学术搜索) . Graphofcross-referencesamong20papersusingkeyword . Graphofstatisticalanalysisbibliographicinformation Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 State ofthe Archive /Chen “广告”

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / digitized, notallareaccessible online.Forexample,ShengjingShibao good enoughtobedigitized. Meanwhile,ofthenewspaperswhich are its preservation statusin order todecidewhetherthosemicrofilmsare each andevery rollofmicrofilm to determinethequalityofmicrofilmand of themhave beendigitized,whichrequirestheresearcher tobrowse Library. Eachlibraryhasabout10years’ worthofnewspapersbutnone preserved asmicrofilmattheShanghaiLibraryand the Peking University Figure 12 films orphotocopies.IncaseofCCAA, archives toaccessanewspaper’s physicalmaterialsintheformofmicro- have beendigitized, whichmeanstheresearchermuststillvisitthose First, notallnewspaperspublishedduringthe ModernChinaperiod val resourcesisnotasconvenient forresearchersasonemightsuppose. However, intermsofChinesenewspaperadvertisements, accesstoarchi- at libraries,archival organizations,researchinstitutesandcompanies. materials, likenewspaperadvertisements, hasbeenaroutineprocess per advertisements, forexample,even digitizing andarchivinghistorical collecting, digitizingandannotatingtheserecords.Inthecaseofnewspa- become visibleonceresearchersgettheirhandsdirtywiththerealityof they alsoreveal someinvisiblestoriesbehindthearchives, whichonly This isthevisiblestorywe findinaninvestigation ofthesearchives. But many databasesvery difficulttouseforacademicresearchpurposes. analysis ofadcontent–especiallythattheRepublicanperiodrender systemic collectionofadimages,fully-annotatedmetadataanddeeper tions withvery limitedbibliographicinformation.Theabsenceofany oriented databasesspecializinginadvertisements butratherdigitalcollec- of advertising studiesinMainlandChina.Mostofthemarenotresearch- Stories behindthearchives The archives listedherearesometypicalexamplesthattellthestory . Graphanalyzingthestatisticalrelationshipof“ Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 Hankou Times( 广告 State ofthe Archive /Chen ” andrelatedtermsinthedatabase 汉口中西报 ) are has

o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / same time,Dagongbao annotated allthecontentsofnewspapersincludingadvertisements. At the there arealreadyseveral databasesofShenbao,nonethemhasfully wasted time,laborandmoney.Shenbaodatabaseisagoodcase:while as quicklypossible.However, italsocausesduplication ofeffortand tion, ascompaniesaremainlyinterestedinrecovering theirinvestment the end.Understandably,resultofcommercializationislessinnova- invest indigitalprojects,astheyresultacommercialized databaseat ful. BesidestheChinesegovernment, onlycommercialcompaniescan national orprovincialgovernment –butonlyafewofthemaresuccess- way forresearcherstodevelop adigitalprojectistowingrantfromthe projects aregenerallydirectedbyresearchers,usuallythebestandfastest between thepower ofcommerceandacademics.Whileresearch-oriented research withoutpermission. the textsofadvertisements arepartlytranscribed,butcan’tbeusedfor Database ofBeijingEruditionDigitalTechnology ResearchCenter, where wants tousesuchinformationintheirresearch, An exceptionisShenbao their titleanddate–whichbecomesanobstacleforanyresearcherwho news. Thusitisraretofindanyinformationaboutadvertisements beside Another reasonisthatadvertisements are notconsideredasimportant building databasesofadvertisements don’tgive alotofattentiontoads. due tothehighcostofannotatingimagesadvertisements, companies institution’s specificlocations,likeoncampusorinsidethelibrary. Also has purchasedthedatabaseareonlyallowed tousethedatabaseat charge highaccessfees;even userswithaffiliationtoaninstitutionthat Technology ResearchCenterandHytungrespectively, allthreedatabases has beendigitizedbyGreen Apple Company,BeijingEruditionDigital repeatedly butuseraccessislimitedbyhighfees. Although Shenbao in thelibrary.Secondly,someimportantnewspapershaven beendigitized been digitizedbutsincethereisnoonlineaccess,readerscanonlyuseit theory asthe“pictorial turn”byW. J. T. Mitchellin1992.Visual elements spectacle of(post)modern society,assymbolizedandsummarizedin extensive anddiverse visualculture, have beenconsideredasasignificant realizing thepower ofimages. Images,moregenerally,anincreasingly journals, booksandotherprintedmaterials. Scholarsareincreasingly embedded withinadvertisements publishedonposters,newspapers, But inrecentdecades,thetrendistolookdown tothelevel ofimages From ImagetoText resources. ment isthebaneofresearchersinterestedin utilizingadvertising-related been digitizedandbuiltasdatabasesatall.Such unbalanceddevelop- Another storythatinformstheshapeofarchives isthetension Investigating thearchives ofadvertisements in Chinaisnoteasywork. （ 大公报 ）and ShengjingShibao Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 State ofthe Archive /Chen ( 盛京时报 ) haven’t o n oa e fro htt // fca e /center a ia acific/ er ective / 3. of “imageontheleftandhistoryright”( Shi Zhai–findingthatthere was analliancebetween theChinesetradition Pingyuan focusesonthepictorialsinlateQingDynasty–especiallyDian have becomethefocusofstudiesonModernChina.Forexample,Chen embodied mediaofads(newspapers,posters,magazines,calendars) andthe in advertisements (trademark,icon,feature, photoandcolor) 5. In ancientChina,storeshungawoodenboardwith signorsymbolinfrontasa 4. See Marie-ClaireBergère,TheGolden Age oftheChineseBourgeoisie1911–1937. 2. Burton, Antoinette, eds. 1. Barlow, Tani. 2012.“Advertising Ephemeraandthe Angel ofHistory,”positions:asia Notes important astexts. should beregardedasindependentobjectsofhistoricalstudyjust of adimages–arefulfilledanddecidedbylanguage.Nonetheless, historical narrative –thatis,language.Themeaningsofads –especially elaborating theimageswithinsystemoflinguisticsymbolsusedfor images speakormakemeaningful,thefirststepisdescribingand icon andvernacular society inModernChina.However, inordertomake parallel connectionamongadvertisement ephemera,theModernGirl nationality. WhileTani Barlow’sarticlesreveal and elaborateuponthe visual myth-makingprocessandtheenhancementofpoliticalidentity China; KarlGerthprofoundlyinvestigates therelationshipbetween the photos, amodernvisualtechnologyandform,shapetheimageofModern ments. ChristianHenriotaddressesthequestionofhowphotographyand hai, forexample,throughChinesewomen’smagazinesandadvertise- the crucialissueof“visualmodernity”inChinesecities:modernShang- process thatisrecognizedasEnlightenment.BarbaraMittlerapproaches influence of“imagenarrative,” whichemergedfromthemodernization 白瑞华著，王海译。2011。中国报纸（1800-1912）。广州：暨南大学出版社。 Durham: DukeUniversity Press,2006. means ofcommunicatingwhatkindsgoodswere soldthere. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2007. critique, 20:111-158. Archive Stories:Facts,Fictions,andtheWritingofHistory. Asia PacificPerspectives∙Fall/Winter2015-16 State ofthe Archive /Chen 左图右史 ) andthewestern