Student Learning & Development Compiled by Jim Lucas, Paige Sindt, Sindt, Paige Lucas, Jim by Compiled and Austin Melcher Austin and

Overview of Student Development growth andholistic development. intentional programs, and learning services experiences that promote student By understanding this research educators use can theory area, to design age, sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, andreligious beliefs. development with consideration for race, ethnicity, nationality, class, gender, groups, accounting for andidentifying commonalities and differences student in diversecan draw student to theory and from understand identify the needs of the tools needed to inform andimprove practice. and administratorsFaculty Student learning and development research and theory helps educators access categorized into the following clusters: theory exist, most student development manyWhile types of theories are students’ cognitive, affective and behavioral growth and development. development theories offer faculty and administrators key information about philosophical and methodological perspectives, student learning and framework for discussion and practice. Derived a wide rangefrom of many student learning and development theories have emerged to provide a the To developmentalunderstand challenges our students, experiences and of today’s college needs of students. administrators to design quality courses, programs, to and bestmeet services the Understanding student learning and development key is for faculty and developmenthuman appliedas in the postsecondary setting. Student learning research and related to development refers the body to of 3. 2. 1.

development often fall in this category. interaction.interpersonal Student impact, student success and Characteristics unique are to each student andhelp explain differences and how students approach learning and life. Typological Models cognitively. environment relation in to the various ways individuals develop way individuals anis emphasis think. onheredity There and examines how why and people and learn illuminates changes in the Cognitive students relate to oneself, peers, communities, and the world. examining students’ thoughts, feelings, behaviors, values, and how Psychosocial and Identity Development - Structural Development and Learning Theory

— These theories examineThese individual stylistic

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Theories that focusTheories on -

Research

Social Identity Theory Overview regress or stagnate. regress or to development cause fasttheir may too far, too individuals pushing models, developmental As many with development: schemaof the following theoriesinto body of this simplify can one summarize, but to context, theto specific speaks theory identity social specific Each privilege without arethose groups able and heterosexuals; men; class;Christians; social high ethnicities; European white, include: traditionally groups privileged States, United the In are contextual. oppression and Privilege privilege. and oppression are identity to related concepts important Two identity. people’s to inherent differences around meaning society constructs words, other In byErickson. made contribution a mediated, socially and constructed socially are one’sidentity of aspects because social thesetheories consider Scholars multi and identity, sexual genderidentity, and gender identity, racial/ethnic including: categories theoriesinto these divide often scholars therefore, develop; they how and populations at specific oftenlook and Erickson of the work from build theoriesidentity Traditional learning). transformative theories(see developmental themein common a is dilemma a of concept stage.This life thenext to move to solve must that one crisis or dilemma bya marked phase eachwith phases,eight into development divides theory Erickson’s dispositions. internal thelife across asoccurring development viewed he(1) that were theory to contributions His development. identity of concept the investigate to theresearchers first of one was 1968) 1963, (1959/1980, context. Erickson social a in identity personal their of understanding their develop individuals how explain to seek models Identity theory Eight Seven Six Stages Adulthood Five Transition Four Three Two One Stages Childhood

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span, not just during childhood, and (2) connected development to external factors rather than just than rather factors external to development (2) and connected childhood, during just span,not

5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

Synthesis Internalization: awareness new with deal to safea retreatszone to group; Immersion difference of awareness an that creates Encounter privilege or oppression of pre or Denial

: integrates identity into various aspects of life aspectsof various into : integratesidentity : student: facesidentity, adversity to related signaling awareness an shift; accept that they had only one life to lead to life one only had thatthey accept and well life their lived have they feelthat others while opportunities lost decisions and Despair vs. Integrity etc. parenting, engagement, community mentoring, work, through generations Stagnation vs. Generativity community Isolation vs. Intimacy value) what state they cannot they (e.g., whole coherenta stages into earlier from learning synthesize to are unable beliefs or internal with pressures external reconcile cannot whenindividuals occurs diffusion identity development; aspectof this based on theoriesare other many goals; life and beliefs,worldviews, values, hisher own or fining Diffusion Identity vs. Identity inferior feel they may encouragement, society; without to helpful skills develop and peers inferiority vs. Industry wrong and right of conscious become Guilt vs. Initiative newthings self priately Doubt vs. development their in early trust learn must children mistrust vs. Trust : Student seeks to immerse self in target culture and preferences interactions with that with interactions preferences and culture target in self immerse :to Student seeks - encounter: encounter: acceptance of identity and belief system belief and identity acceptance of

- sufficient; children must learn to learn and grow or they will be afraid to try try to be afraid theywill or grow and learn to learn must children sufficient;

lack of acknowledgement or identification with difference; no awareness awareness difference;with no identification or acknowledgement lackof — —

— infants experience mistrust when their guardian’s patterns change; change; patterns guardian’s their when experiencemistrust infants — children start to interact with other, show their imagination and and imagination their show other, with childrenstartinteract to — —

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older adults look back and reflect on their life; some despair over over despair some life; their reflectand back on older look adults children learn to walk, talk, and behave in ways that areappro- ways that behaveand in talk, walk, to childrenlearn racial identity. racial adults form lasting, enduring relationships with others and their their othersand with relationships enduring lasting, adults form

children begin to be influenced by non by beto childreninfluenced begin —

—

adults seek to define their legacy and give back to future to back give and legacy define their to seek adults

turning point at which a child becomes an adult byde- becomesadult an child a which at point turning

- bodied individuals. Oppressed individuals. bodied encounters a challenge challenge a encounters - guardian adults and and adults guardian

Chickering’s Vectors stages are preparatory for stages more later, preparatory complex tasks. are the same speeds. timeandat varying though, Overall the modelthat suggests the earlier Despite thismodel does state critique,students the vectors at that canmovealongdifferent post Although model their theory, has critiqued been afoundational bysome theorists, especially themselves toother individuals andrelate andgroups. should Thesecollege. vectorsrelate complete tohow during individuals understand development. They identified seven tasks, major which vectors,that they termed students Chickering andReisser to (1993)afoundationalrelated theory authored student - modernists, rigidandlinearin itsfor being overly approach.

(Skipper, 2005) (Skipper,

Diversity & Intercultural Development marily U.S., samples and populations. world. Also, one should note that ofmany the major developmental models are based on Western, pri- complexity ofdevelopment, suggesting auniformity and simplicity that does not inexist real the lier linear, staged models. Many scholars state that these early models do not clearly highlight the Newer pluralistic, post differences related totime orientation more readily than can they related to personal space. differences than theyare of sexuality differences. Similarly, one may be able toaccept intercultural rates for different aspects of identity. For example, one can be more accepting and tolerant of gender Modern perspectives on identity acknowledge that one can progress through these models at different may cause them toregress. identity development, pushing anindividual too fast on their acceptance and understanding of others Developmentsity and Bennett’s (1986) Model of Intercultural Development. As otherwith aspects of Two prominent theories are Chavez, Guido support others who are different. One aspect of identitysocial how is one’s personal development allows him or her tounderstand and - modern theories represent a major revision, and in some critique, cases ofear-

- DiBrito, and Mallory’s (2003) Theory ofIndividual Diver-

Multiple Identities of understanding . and environment. These filteredthrough are influences the individual ontheir based complexity A additionwasthe later influence tothis theory ofsituation contextexternal from the these separate, but interactingidentities ofselfaround the core identity. located economic status. of intersection these elementsatom The model is with byan represented aspects identity of religion,sexual anoverall such orientation family as heritage, andsocio personal sense one’sthe self individual are and Surrounding of this core characteristics. on amodel ofthis with layers muchcore likeanonion. the identityis At development the Jones (2003) and McEwen formulated ofmultiple atheory dimensions centered identity that andethnicity.one’s race also identify sexuality asLGBTQ highlight theis one’s fact mediated that development by confronted example,looking identity bythefactthat atracial is minorities complex.For who individuals. their howthese sense Byconsidering developed individuals ofidentity, they were Some ofthisbyscholars’ advanced investigation has work been of bi different contexts. multiple identities,construction the social and of how identities identity, these affect people in affected byotherand are dimensions This of identity. significance ledtothe has recent of modelstheoretical indicate that aspects intersect forms with identity of of one’s other identity Although identitythough stages, developmenthistorically of is about been in linear recent

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and multi and

- racial racial - Cognitive Development Theory simple A way to understand following the theory is by thinking of as it four following paths instead: Some individuals fail to progress through the nine steps of development. They might take one of the commitment. The levels and their steps are listed below: general,In researchers present the nine steps threein general levels: dualism, relativism and categorical understanding of knowledge toa more relative understanding. stepsnine associated with this development; during these steps, students move from more simplistic, Perry is (1968) considered afoundational theorist related tocognitive development. He highlighted development to specific ages or rates. theories suggest that all individuals progress through these stages, but they do not link the development a as series of levels or stages, with higher orders stages based on those before them. These relate toknowledge construction. Like identity development, most earlier cognitive theories view world around them. They do notdetail how intelligent people are but rather how people develop and Cognitive structural theories provide details about how students view, experience andreason with the 3. 2. 1.

4. 3. 2. 1. 3. 2. 1.    concept and worldview; identity defined and modified on based lived experiences integrate and experience with their professional studies into a unified self Level three: commitment    professors as resources to help guide inquiry one’sthat personal values, experiences and perceptions frame truth and understanding; Level two:relativism    recall offacts; uncertainty anerroris answer; information should bepresented directly; evaluation focuses on memorization and Level one:dualism

integrate and grapple with diverse perspectives lifein Commitment Relativism Multiplicity Dualism Retreat Escape Temporizing Step 9 Step 8 Step 7 value based decisions Step 6 notbut right or wrong; question of one’s context in life: values, Step 5 rightsome and wrong areas may still exist Step 4 the topic (the right answer yet has to bediscovered) Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 — — — — — — — — — — — —

Commitments made topersonal causes with understanding an for diversity Affirmation of self responsibility and in the world Values emerge from commitments made;ability toapply context to making knowledge iscontextual; choices can be better or worse basedon context, the knowledge is uncertain, ideas and have equal value; no one has “the answer”; information right is or wrong; uncertainty is caused byan error authority in Development of one’s role or worldview within the context of world the all information is right or wrong; uncertainty caused is by lack ofknowledge on all information is right or wrong

— avoiding commitment and staying relativismin return to dualism for safety or simplicity something is right or wrong, and the experts are right —

knowledge is subjective, and some evidence better is than other evidence — — knowledge becomes subjective, allvalues andopinions are equal — knowledge basedis onexperience and perspective, and one must learn to

delaying change in position by staying atalower step — knowledge astruth or(right wrong); teachers as experts with definitive knowledge understood the in context of the situation; understanding

— students recognize and value diverse opinions; students begin to

—

rather than nine identity, actions, etc.

— - steps:

Women’s Ways of Knowing tend tobehave through these stagesof similar cognitive development,Gilligan’s shows research men that the contributionGenerally, of these scholarsalthough that, both is womenprogress men and Belinky al.identified et perspectives thattohow five relate womenviewthe world: multiple and aspectsidentity development in cooperation,not of isolation. scholars toresearch roles central must makeandgender of aspects andconsider gender in themean thedoes sample), studymen.As notsuch, theories about newer suggest is that Scholars such point as out Laker study Jason that a men justbecause is (e.g., donemenare on the sample does tothe not intersection attend the development. ofmaleidentity ontheir consistedwork of malestudents, was work his gender Current researchers are also stating critiquing sample Perry that, thoughforPerry’s even the differently than males. because Gilligandetermined that understand females value relationships and with others to this based onmales were theory asstandard orsample. the This is distinction important Theseperspective. scholars’ focused work onfemales whereas theof majority works previous andClinchy, (1986) Goldberger, Tarule define development from soughtto agendered Building researchers such Perry, as fromand critiquing Gilligan (1982/1993) andBelinky,    

5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Resolves uncertainty with personal judgment personal with Resolvesuncertainty account differencesinto individual take to evaluation Wants instructor the with Seeksrapport others with ideas exchange Seeksto

processs knowledge isand is the of constructed knower part the knowledgecreation five:Level construction what worksvs. foroneselfpersonal authority experience through females, is empathetic, andcare subjective, more rational, analytical decision knowing isprocedural often and associated involvesmales, objective, with various opinions;able toformulate newideas beingandoriginalthought; four:Level knowing than information. remembering truth and comes is fromtheself; gut important internaltounderstandingmore is subjectivism two: Level individual ownideas; togenerate lacks truthheld byauthorities is knowledge two: received Level forces one: silence Level impersonally (procedurally) impersonally

Interpersonal

— —

women opinion have novoice or external andsubject to are Looking atinformationcontext; discerning in between — —

knowledge is has uncertain;theirown everyone truth; Knowing andobjectiveaspects;subjective combines

- making; connectedknowing, often associated with —

knowledge comes fromoutside authorities; and women behave

   

Resolves uncertainty by logic research and bylogic Resolvesuncertainty evaluation practical and fair Wants instructor bythe beto Wants challenged others with debateideas Seeksto - neutral. In words, other having menin - based with anunderstanding Impersonal interpersonally (connected) interpersonally

:

Transformative Learning Key concepts inherentto this work: making common tendsome steps: tofollow investigatedMezirow majorchanges in adults foundshifts qualitative and that in meaning presented (Mezirow, below 2000, p.22): the context ofAgraphic learningtheory. ofthis transformative byKeganis as work adapted (1990,and cognition.2000) the was first Mezirow oneof scholars in todiscuss this concept transformativetherefore, are experiences those that students forms propel tonew of identity It as momentsdescribed is leadingto transformative development; these that Erickson new understandings. worldviews, being.The andwaysshifts individual of theirframeofreference tobeopen a personhas thinking in shiftednewideas, ways their about something thatto leads it does not has moreor mean the learned newinformation. person Transformation means that shifts in theirperspective qualitativelyways. Transformative different learningis not additive; toabodylearning refers of that literature investigates the processindividual bywhich Often, educatorsexperiencea learningactivity discussor as transformative. Transformative 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

   Integrationof etc. ofknowing, newwaysbeing, thinking, Competence building andconfidence period andTrial error foraction(whatPreparation to doI needtolearn takeaction) Planning should foraction(what I do) Exploration of newoptions Recognition ordeficiencyincurrent status of discontent Critical assessment Self Somethingdisorients happens individual confuses the or that

- making sense values, waysnew experiences, or of of being Reframing narratives Critical reflection exists; athletes better example,menare than women Narratives reflection

— —

unexamined stories the about the howthingsway or world are process of rejecting or rewriting or personalrejecting process of narratives as ameans of

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process of examining and interrogating internal andprocess external of interrogating examining and

Kegan’s Orders of Consciousness aspect of one’s andPut haveobject. identity.simply subject weare one’s identity aspects subject of that the self are Kegan, transformationFor occurs (development happens) whenaperson abletotake is desires distinctiveness. for inclusion and complexity, withstagesimportance representing the between these varying the competing proposed He experiences. that series peopleprogress through of stagesincreased of Kegan (1994) onthe focused of personal evolutionhow individuals totheir relate 5: Inter 5: Stage Institutional 4: Stage Interpersonal 3: Stage Imperial 2: Stage Impulsive 1: Stage Incorporative 0: Stage

- institutional Stage institutional — and make themobject and make

identity. personal one’sselfor diminish doesnot authority external an to that yielding understands One ease. with views opposite totally considered be and whatmight hold skillfully identities betweendifferent move fluidly can one’sself,that one in confident so is one and examined, so hasbeen one’slife understood, well so is Here identity level. theoretical reachthis individuals Few systems transforming Post theto self. be external still may Authority worldview. and goals, values, their terms of in life ownershiptheir full take to of beginning only theyare Finally, roles. multiple these with come that conventions social and ries bounda- understanding trouble have Theymay etc. friend, worker, parent,as a identities,and roles one’smultiple bejuggle ableto not might Atstage,this one plex ways. com- in identity integrated their fully not have still they others;however, with relationships their over ownership taken have stage,this people In at all. if later, or 30s their until stage this reach not do adults many suggests that work Kegan’s self students reach about helping researchers talk many Although and identity, Authorship, person. as a them what defines is the relationship because partner a without becannot who theand student dating with see You often this relationships. their in value they their Similarly, find may angry. or lonely feel them make or themselves feelbad about them make People thesame ways. in back them does love not theylove someone why understand or recognize stagethis cannot Studentsat influence. major are a opinions external and pressure peer thus and importance, primary othersof are with relationships stage, this In them. with deal be at whenyou will students college of most stagewhere is stage, this this and stagnate at Manyindividuals ality mutu- and relationships Interpersonal desires Needs,interests, perceptions Impulsesand Reflexes Subject -

modern thinking and selfand thinking modern

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unknown, uncontrollable, internal, unexampled, internal, and unknown, uncontrollable,

— known, controllable, external, understood,known, controllable,external, andan

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desires Needs,interests, perceptions Impulsesand Reflexes Nothing Object ideology and identity, Authorship, ality mutu- and relationships Interpersonal

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authorship, authorship,

In general, learning is characterized by a change in behavior due to external stimuli and internal processing (thinking). Learning can occur in three major areas:

1. Cognitive learning—knowledge recall and associated intellectual skills including comprehending information, organizing ideas, analyzing and synthesizing data, applying knowledge, choosing among alternatives, evaluating ideas, etc. 2. Affective learning—application and understanding of , attitudes, appreciations and values including awareness, interest, attention , concern, responsibility, caring, enjoyment, respect, support, etc. 3. Psychomotor learning—physical ability associated with the use of fine motor skills (use of tools and instruments) and gross motor skills ( and athletics) as defined by coordination, dexterity, grace, speed, manipulation, strength, etc.

Traditionally, one associates learning with only the cognitive realm; however, newer approaches to education have expanded the definition of traditional learning to incorporate a more holistic view. Hence, learning is a difficult concept to define. One can best understand the term when contrasting this new learning paradigm with the predominant teaching paradigm.

Teaching Paradigm Learning Paradigm

 Teacher as expert who provides facts  Teacher as facilitator who guides inquiry

 Focus on facts, statistics, dates  Focus on meanings, understandings and ap- plication of information  Knowledge is concrete, based on logical  Knowledge is subjective and requires under- analysis standing of circumstances

 Tests, quizzes and essays to measure knowl-  Essays and projects to measure understanding edge and understanding and application of knowledge  Focus on competition or being the best  Focus on collaborative learning

 Focused on a discipline or field of study  Focused on drawing understanding from many relevant fields

Another way to understand learning is to associate it with related terms like intelligence, development Ideas about Learning Learning about Ideas and learning styles.

 Intelligence—disciplines a person has a natural ability for; areas of high skill for an individual  Development—biological and emotional process during which individuals increase their capacity to learn and understand; maturation  Learning—changes in understanding on various levels; as an individual develops they can learn at new levels (taxonomies), especially in those areas for which they have high intelligence  Learning styles—preferred ways of learning, regardless of developmental level or discipline studied Learning Styles developmentally determined characteristic that makes a particular teaching method more or less less or more the external environment. method detailed below. Learning styles refer tohow we prefer tothink, learn and solve problems and perceive teaching learningA style is part ofone’s cognitive style. learningA incorporatestyle avariety of human factors particular a makes Each layer can focus on how heor accumulates, she stores, processes and uses information over time. that and use information. Hence, anindividual’s cognitive has style layers,many similar toanonion. learning in thecognitive realm. Cognition refers to the abilityto store, manipulate, memorize, recall characteristic While learning encompasses many facets of human development, learning styles usually deal with determined effective. developmentally being used to help define it. general In though, wecan definea Many different definitions exist for theterm “learning styles,” and over instruments 30 are currently Cognitive Physiological Social Emotional Environmental

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psychological

external ); related to Also important as to the source ofthese attributes (e.g. internal or attitude Issues dealing with one’s motivation, persistence, responsibility and messy, formal, informal, etc.) Also deals with the physical environment for studying (clean, Preferences for noise, temperature, lighting, etc. while studying moreA traditional understanding of learning styles (global) or left Preferences based on how our brain functions, either right either visual, auditory or tactile (kinetic) Preferences based on how our bodyprefers to takein information, Also issues relating topersonality (introversion and extraversion) Preferences for working alone, in small groups, in large etc. groups,

- brained (analytic)

learning styles as a biological and and biological a as styles learning

- brain

Personality & Learning Styles Based on these four areas, individual MBTI scales have meaning relationin learning to styles: learning in the following ways: Hence, personality is amajor defining factor for anindividual’s learning Personalitystyle. affects have noted that the MBTI incorporates all the domains that define alearning style its into design. even , they have onlyjust started to lookat useits in relationship learning. to Researches While researchers have long used MBTI the to understand human behavior, teamwork, work andstyle Today, theMBTI is the most common and widely used measure for personality . - Over years 50 ago, Katherine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, developed theMyers Briggs TypeBriggs Indicator (MBTI) toexplain human behavior basedon ’s theory ofpersonality. Judging Thinking Sensing Extroversion 4. 3. 2. 1. charge; seek closure andorganization ability; plan in advance; like tobein Like formal structures; value depend- lenge and debate critique new ideas; learn through chal- Want objective answers; value logic; experiences; trust material presented prefer clear directions; value practical Like facts and figures; can memorize; ing joy discussion; dislike reading and writ- others;with backgrounduse noise; en- Enjoy action; physical activity; study

cognitive The preference for certain learning tools and techniques over others (physiological, (social, emotional). The ability, desire andmotivation to seek environments that are beneficial tolearning environmental). The preferences individuals have for learning situations and settings (social, The way individuals process information and form ideas (cognitive

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psychological).

Value reading;Value prefer to study alone; enjoy like tofeel appreciated; enjoy personal re- Need topersonally relate to information; Value imaginationValue andcreativity; create lationships with others; value harmony Like informal situations; value change; flexible and spontaneous; open tonew own directions; like theories; prefer to lectures; dislike public speaking -

ideas andideas information psychological). think think independently Introversion Perceiving

Intuition Feeling

Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory learning style. combination an of individual’s preference for perception and processing defines specific the individuals tend to favor one two or andstages may someskip stages altogether. The The best learning, Kolb theorizes, involves usethe all of stages four of the cycle; however, most way ofdealing with the information (processing). According to theLSI theory, individuals prefer oneway oftaking in information (perception) and one characteristics. Kolb created thefour phase grid from bipolar two scales: perception and processing. Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) describes four phases or learning, each defined byunique Learning by doing; taking risks; influenc- taking bydoing; Learning ing people and events through action through events peopleand ing Preference for doing Active Experimentation Active AE

Experimentation Experience solvers; technical solvers; problem theories; ideas & Converging people - Accommodating Concrete on; intuitive; on; Active

Learning by experience; relating to people; to relating byexperience; Learning - intellectual thought; systematic planning systematic thought; intellectual based; organized based; Logical analysis of facts; action based on based on facts; of action analysis Logical

being sensitive to people and issues and people sensitive to being

—

Abstract Conceptualization Abstract practical; practical;

— Concrete Experience Concrete - Perception Processing based hands

AC CE

and lectures and reading ideas; abstract Assimilating diversity on focusing listening; brainstorming; Diverging

— Conceptualization

— observing; observing;

Careful observation; attention to mean- to attention observation; Careful ings; viewing issues from different per- issues from viewing ings; Observation logical; logical; Reflective

Abstract

Reflective Observation Reflective

for thinking Preference

RO

Body, Brain and Learning Styles on Kolb’s model). Terms associated with these cognitive Brain function refers to how individuals prefer toorganize and process information (the other scale scales on Kolb’s model. Terms associated with these preferences are detailed below: Physiology refers to how individuals prefer toaccumulate or perceive information, which is one of the brain function (cognitive As mentioned earlier, human biology plays arole in how we learn. Researchers have linked both Definition Terminology learners Tactile (kinetic) Auditory learners Visual learners

- ) and physiology tolearning preferences.                  learners; detailed learners analytic learners; structured Left

Like working with objects, etc.tools, toretraceAble or reenact steps taken Enjoy role Learning doing by or touching Like having white noise or radio onwhile studying to Able memorize facts through reading andreciting Enjoy , lectures, verbal directions, media with sound, etc. Learn hearing by Like having TV onwhile studying Have avisual memory, can see things theirin mind etc. Enjoy visual aides, videos, reading, demonstrations, displays, models, Learn seeing by - Like structure andorder classrooms Enjoy formal, traditional ships Prefer impersonal relation- parts able tobreak problems into experimentation through observation and Prefer logical analysis brained; field independent;

- playing, experiments, games, interaction, etc.

- psychological processes are detailed below:

     picture learners low structured learners; big field sensitive; global learners; Right

Enjoys externalEnjoys stimuli tively Enjoy working collabora- Prefer discussion oriented situations Excel atsocial and value Prefer human interaction - brained; field dependent;

Multiple Intelligences regardless of the subject). Despite this distinction, the twotheories overlap. at music (her intelligence), but can she have a learningsocial style (she enjoys learning in a group, defines howan individual learnsbest any knowledge or skill. otherIn words, a student can be adept Gardner, theory his indicates anaptitude for certain areas knowledge on and skill. Learning styles this At point, itis important todistinguish between learning styles and intelligence. According to degree. Hence, Gardner believes that allindividuals are intelligent, only differentin ways. (1991). Gardner has identified eight “intelligences,” which he feels that we all possess to some The Theory of Multiple Intelligences has been furthered bythework ofHoward Gardner andothers Existential Naturalistic Mathematical Logical Linguistic Intrapersonal Interpersonal Musical Bodily Visual - - - Spatial Kinesthetic

Enjoy experiments, logic puzzles, mysteries, etc. Understand meaning and of use numbers; can see patterns and concepts; Disciplines: writing, history, journalism, English, languages Understand meaning and of use words; Enjoy writing andreading Disciplines: research, psychology, writing Enjoy independent learning, diaries, reading, etc. Understand and knowledgeable oftheir ownneeds, feelings and ideas; Disciplines: teaching, psychology, worksocial values in others; Enjoy group activities, discussion, writing, etc. Understand and interact well with others; Notice emotions, feelings and Disciplines: music, performance, theatre Sensitive to sound, rhythm and beats; Enjoy anything dealing with sound Disciplines: athletics, physical therapy, theatre, surgery playing, acting, using tools andequipment Aware ofbody and its movement; Learn through touching, doing, role Disciplines: geography, art, advertising, graphic design, architecture imagery, drawings, graphics, charts, maps, videos, models, etc. Think termsin of thephysical environment; aware of and relate tovisual Disciplines: community service, religious service, human rights of life, happiness, grief, etc. Think termsin of human relations tocosmic forces; questions the meaning Disciplines: agriculture, natural resources, natural sciences outdoorstion the in natural environment Think termsin natural andsystems environment; the Learn from interac- Disciplines: engineering, researchmath,

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs recommendations hehad for helping promote personal growth include: Maslow believed that society often hinders individuals from achieving self about finding afriend or spouse. higher level needs. For example, a starving person needs to find food before heor can worry she human He placed basic devised a hierarchy ofneeds that he identified as key motivators tohuman behavior.         growth, creativity, and achievement of one’s dreams. assuch acareer, , club, cause, etc. This needs relates toone’s need for personal Self and worthless. confident and valuable. Left unmet, these needs can cause aperson to feel weak, inferior, helpless Esteem needs desire toescape loneliness and alienation. Social needs during emergencies or other periods ofdisorganization and disorientation. Safety needs These needs are strongest because without them, onecould die. Physiological needs

— - pain, pain, suffering, inequality, etc.) Help peopleidentify higher order issuesneeding to be addressed thein world (e.g. injustice, Help peopleappreciate life, nature and thegood that exists Help ensure that basic needs (physiological, safety, social) are met Help peopleidentify their ideal career andsoul mate Help peoplerecognize how tomakegood decisions (critical thinking) Help peopleidentify their aptitudes, limitations and potential Encourage people totranscend cultural conditioning and become global citizens Encourage people tobe aware oftheir needs and honest about their desires actualization needs needs at the top. Only when individuals achieve their basic needs can they move on to Needs Higher Order — — — — animalistic

need forand toprovide love, affection and belonging. This need relates to one’s common need amongchildren who are insecure. Adults tend to feel this need need for stable, firm self

— biological needs such as oxygen, food,water, warthm/coolness, shelter, etc. —

— ongoing need defined as a commitment to something beyond one’s self needs required for survival at the bottom of list the and higher level

Physiological Actualization - respect and respect from others tofeel satisfied, self

Esteem Safety Social Self -

- actualization. Some

- — Bloom’s Taxonomy below relates primarily the tocognitive aspects of this theory Bloom's work can also be applied to affective (attitudinal) and psychomotor (skills) learning. The chart incorporate multiple levels ofunderstanding, not just remembering.basic for higher levels oflearning andunderstanding. Also, goodassignments and evaluations should to higher levels of mental ability. The theory states that as students develop, they are more prepared The taxonomy has six levels ofcognitive complexity, starting with lower as the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT). cognitive learning known as Bloom’s Taxonomy. This modelwas updated 2001in is and now known 1956, In Bloom a and team ofeducational psychologists developed arubric for understanding High Low

Evaluate Analyze Apply Understand Remember Create Level

             

places and major ideas Recall ofdates, events, information Observation recall and of ings illuminate new understand- Organize datain ways that greater whole together to understand a Bringing disparate elements patterns or ways ideasPut together in new Critiquing and judging dence Make choices based on evi- meanings Recognition of hidden organize parts Ability to see patterns and knowledge Solve problems using new situations concepts and theories in Use information, methods, newinto contexts Translation of information and inference Interpretation, prediction andtion meaning Understanding of informa-

Definition

     

- level cognition and moving

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Challenge and Support development to stagnate. regressor Toomuch toolittletolerate. or ofeitherchallengeandsupport students’ may cause The then goal is optimal amount disequilibrium tofindthe dissonanceastudent or of can into self thentoo much anddevelop students supportandmaygrow is enabled failto provided, are functionbe a of of the provided.Similartoproviding toolittle amount support challenge, if educators) support. canprovide The amountstudent is a ofconsidered to challenge canface To help inthe balancechallenge environment, student affairs (and professionals other because andtodo theyfeeltoosafe secure so. If toolittlechallengeis students posed, environmental stagnate and not then mayalso develop environment, then students will typically: If students tofacethe notready challenge,or are if tothrive. inorder before students ways tointeract with havetofindthey theirenvironment that didnot different have newdevelop ways tolive tothe and be.Similar disorientating byMezirow, dilemma proposed manner in connects which to thehim with her student the or stimuli cause campus that which necessitates process aresponse. This is termed factors influencing student. Environmental stimuli the createsdisequilibrium forthe student, The second factor, andthe tochallengeandsupport, onerelated environmental was the through his internalreflection. her or first dispositions is andmaturation; internal student might tobeready the findit possible behaviors Related this ideaofreadiness. hediscussed theory, certain the Students cannot exhibit One ofSanford’s contributions major was theand support. the fieldof concept in challenge environment and the environment played arole in how individuals develop. the advanced ideathatstudents’He humanwas toone’s development.related development Sanford (1967)of the was first one scholarstoconsider the hadon influencecollege that     -

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References & Resources change. for teaching of challenge W. (2006).The E. Taylor, & J. Mezirow In theory. transformation of concepts Core adult: an like think to Learning J. (2000). Mezirow, Aconstructive transforms? “form” What (2000). R. Kegan, Transformative Baxter & P.M. King, Wolf M. E., Wilson, In Consciousness. of Orders Kegan’s (2005) V.L. Guthrie, & P.G., Love, Holistic Wolf M. E., Wilson, In orientations. Twomoral J. (2005) Attanucci, & C. Gilligan, The cognitive moralization: and stages Moral (2005) L. Kohlberg, identities. adult Constructing (1999). M.B. Magolda, Baxter Wolf M. E., Wilson, In vectors. seven (2005)The Reisser, A. W.& L. Chickering, M. Wilson, In Sexuality. & Race,Gender, Class, Understanding for Framework A Conceptual (2005) L. Webber, Development Cognitive & Psychosocial A. (1984). D. Kolb, education. higher for theory A developmental involvement: Student A. (1984/1999). Astin, collegestudents. of typology empirical An A. (1993). Astin, CollegeImpact & Typology Wolf M. E., Wilson, In Practice. to Theory Translating of Dilemmas the M.L.(2005) Upcraft, Wolf M. E., Wilson, In idea. essential statusan and of evolution The development: Student (2005) C. Strange, (2005). T. L. Skipper, (1967). N. Sanford, CA: Francisco, San research. of decade third a students: affects How college (2005). P. Terenzini, & E. Pascarella, Assoc. & (Eds.) Jr., B. D. Woodard, S.R., Komives, In theory. of uses and nature (2003).The M.K. McEwen, (1993).C. Gilligan, college: in development Student K.Renn,A. (2010). & D., L. F.M.,Patton, Guido, S., D. Forney, N. J., Evans, W. (2006). D. Strommer, Peters,& B., L., B. C. Erickson,

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