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Theoretical Paper Positive : A movement to reintegrate counselling within counselling psychology? Peter J. Robertson

Content & Focus: In the UK career counselling has tended to evolve separately from the counselling psychology profession. Elsewhere, notably in North America, counselling psychology does embrace career issues. This paper explores the contested boundaries between career and therapeutic work, and identifies as a movement that transcends the divide. There is potential for positive psychology to reintegrate a career focus into counselling psychology. Conclusions: Although it does not provide a general theory of career choice and development, positive psychology has resonance with career counselling. It provides a rigorous conceptual and empirical foundation linking vocation to wellbeing. An evidence-based career counselling is beginning to emerge. Positive psychology presents a challenge to the current boundaries of the UK counselling psychology profession by demanding a holistic view of well-being that encompasses work and career. Keywords: positive psychology; career counselling; counselling psychology; identity

OME of the earliest applications of in Britain. In part, this can be explained professional psychology in the UK to by the dividing lines between the Shelp individuals facing life challenges counselling and occupational subdisciplines were focused on issues of vocational choice. of psychology, with the latter laying claim Cyril Burt pioneered this work in 1913, and to the work domain. The British Psycholog- it was developed during the interwar period ical Society’s Division of Occupational by the National Institute for Industrial Psychology lists career development as one Psychology (Peck, 2004). More than a of its areas of activity (BPS, n.d.). More generation ago, Holdsworth (1982) demon- importantly, career guidance in the UK is strated that the application of psychology to distinctive in that it developed from state issues of career choice and development was bureaucracies supporting young people in well established. Similarly, some of the the transition from to work (Peck, earliest applications of counselling in the 2004). As Jayasinghe (2001) points out, the UK were in the context of educational and UK government policy in this sector has vocational guidance (Dawis, 1968). In the been at best ambivalent, and occasionally UK, career counselling features as a context hostile to the application of career coun- for practice in textbooks on counselling and selling within education and psychotherapy (e.g. Bailey, 1997; Bimrose, settings. Counselling psychology, occupa- 2000) and in texts focused specifically on tional psychology and career guidance have counselling psychology (Nelson-Jones, 1982; emerged as three separate professional Kidd, 2003). It also merits its own specialist training structures in Britain. texts (e.g. Kidd, 2006; Nathan & Hill, 2006). This position is not universal. In some There remains a substantive divide countries, most notably in North America, the between therapeutic and career counselling professions seem comfortable with a more

26 Counselling Psychology Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, September 2015 Positive psychology: A movement to reintegrate career counselling fluid boundary between career and thera- ‘Career intervention is simply a form of psycho- peutic counselling. In Canada, involvement in logical intervention designed to affect voca- career development is a defining role for tionally related feelings, attitudes, cognitions, counselling psychologists (Lalande, 2004). In and behaviours. Thus, it is a form of the US, counselling psychology’s deep roots in psychotherapy and should be viewed as a career development establishes its identity as method of behaviour change and tied to clearly distinct from that of clinical psychology psychotherapy theory.’ (Rounds & Tinsley, (Neimeyer et al., 2011). The Society for Voca- 1984, pp.138–139) tional Psychology is a subsystem of the Amer- ican Psychological Association Division 17: It has been suggested that career issues raised Society of Counseling Psychology. The term by clients are perceived to be of lower status ‘vocational psychology’ encompasses career by therapeutic counsellors, who avoid counselling and the psychology of career dealing with them (e.g. Spengler, Blustein & choice and development. It features promi- Strohmer, 1990). The converse suggestion is nently in American counselling psychology that career counsellors prefer brief contact texts (e.g. Brown & Lent, 2008), and vocation- with clients and avoid more personal or ally themed articles are commonly found in emotional issues (e.g. Burlew, 1996). Yet the Journal of Counseling Psychology and Coun- there is evidence that the concerns raised by selling Psychology Quarterly. career counselling clients encompass Career counselling has drawn on a diverse personal issues and heightened , range of theoretical approaches derived from and are broadly similar to the presenting counselling psychology, including person concerns in general counselling (e.g. Niles, centred and psychodynamic approaches Anderson & Cover, 2000; Fouad et al., 2006). (Kidd, 2006), (Patton & Problems from career and personal domains McMahon, 1999), motivational interviewing of life overlap and interact with reciprocal (Young & Stoltz, 2013), cognitive behavioural effects (e.g. Hinkelman & Luzzo, 2007; Lenz counselling (Sheward & Branch, 2012), and et al., 2010). Zunker (2008) stresses that wider interpretive movements including post- mental problems are pervasive and modernism (Savickas, 1993) and construc- affect every domain of life, and that work is tivism (Reid, 2006). central to identity and biography. Numerous This paper begins by exploring the rela- case studies demonstrate the entanglement tionship between career counselling and of career with other life issues, together with counselling psychology, before arguing that narratives describing how counselling the positive psychology movement has the resolved them (e.g. Burlew, 1996; Lenz et al., potential to erode the boundary between 2010; Pope, Cheng & Leong, 1998). them. An outline is provided of the concepts The arguments need not be accepted from positive psychology that shed light on uncritically. Case study accounts are anec- the potential of career as an arena to build dotal. Also, the debate is one-sided, with most enduring wellbeing. The emerging evidence of the contributions coming from vocational base is briefly discussed, and finally, a social psychologists arguing for the integration of justice perspective is introduced. career and therapeutic counselling. Nonethe- less the case is persuasively made that in spite Exploring the split between career of entanglement between career and and therapeutic counselling personal/therapeutic issues there remains a Even within the counselling psychology split in practice. For Hackett (1993) this is a profession in the US, career counsellors false dichotomy; for Blustein (2006) an arte- complain at a divide between the vocational fact of language. Richardson (1996) attributes and the therapeutic, with some protesting the divide to three ‘false splits’ within the their equivalence: discipline of psychology:

Counselling Psychology Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, September 2015 27 Peter J. Robertson

■ A split between the normal and the example of the new realisation of the rele- pathological. vance of positive psychology to careers is a ■ A split between the vocational and other special issue of the Journal of Career Assessment aspects of self and identity. (edited by Walsh, 2008). Here we can find ■ A split between the public and the cogent arguments for taking a wellbeing private domains. focus, and an argument that vocational psychology already contains within it a valu- Introducing positive psychology at the able health-related body of knowledge: intersection of career counselling and counselling psychology ‘Although a scant literature has specifically Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) addressed the relevance of SWB [subjective describe positive psychology as a move- wellbeing] for career theory and practice, ment that seeks to redress the imbalance particularly within an assessment context, created by a dominant pathology-oriented a vast vocational psychology literature has approach to the discipline of psychology. dealt with highly related constructs of work As such it directly addresses the first of values, work adjustment, and job satisfac- Richardson’s splits. The focus of positive tion.’ (Hartung & Taber, 2008) psychologists is promotion of wellbeing for the whole population, which is conceptu- Application of counselling psychology for alised as on a mental health continuum mainstream populations in work or rather than divided between clinical and educational settings requires culturally non-clinical groups (Huppert, 2004). It appropriate models, so some clinical-style also addresses the second and third splits. psychotherapies may offer an uncomfortable Rather than focus on experiences of fit. Positive psychology is not symptom personal distress, often expressed in the focused, and the promotion of healthy func- private domain, it focuses attention on tioning is applicable to the whole popula- healthy functioning in all areas of life, and tion, so it seems to offer something of value this must include the work domain, where here. Some non-clinical applications are much of our lives are acted out in public. made more acceptable by labelling them as It could be argued that by transcending ‘’. It has been persuasively argued the false splits identified by Richardson, that positive psychology and coaching are positive psychology may go some way natural partners, with the former providing a towards dissolving the boundary between robust theoretical and empirical foundation career and therapeutic practice. to underpin the latter (Boniwell et al., 2014; Positive psychology has great resonance Linley & Harrington, 2007). Recently in the with career counselling. Eggerth (2008), UK, the brand ‘career coaching’ has Robitscheck and Woodson (2006) and frequently replaced career counselling or Savickas (2008) all argue that vocational guidance, and Yates (2012) has argued that psychology has always been focused on positive psychology and career coaching are strengths or positive functioning, effectively comfortable bedfellows. contributing to positive psychology before it was even invented. Vocational psychology is Positive psychology’s contribution: an area of enquiry that has focused not on Wellbeing concepts that link to work symptoms and dysfunction, but on and careers promoting effective functioning in the work The definition and measurement of well- (and education) domain, a contribution being is a contested area (for a thorough explicitly acknowledged by Linley (2006) in discussion see Forgeard et al., 2011). his discussion of the positive psychology Nonetheless, positive psychologists have agenda in counselling psychology. The best introduced useful wellbeing concepts and

28 Counselling Psychology Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, September 2015 Positive psychology: A movement to reintegrate career counselling not been slow to link these ideas to work and szentmihalyi as a source of wellbeing both careers. They have not sought to provide a during the activity and in its influence on coherent theoretical explanation of career the rest of the life-space. From this view- choice and development, but the key impli- point, work does have an important role in cation of their ideas is that the building of a generating happiness: healthy engagement with work and career is a crucial element of sustainable wellbeing. Work can be prime time for flow because, As their contributions are extensive, the unlike leisure, it builds many of the conditions following selection can give only a flavour of of flow into itself. There are usually clear goals the literature. and rules of performance. There is frequent feedback about how well or poorly we are doing. Work usually encourages concentration and Eudaimonia is a subtle concept, repre- minimises distraction, and in many cases it senting a type of wellbeing encompassing matches the difficulties to your talents and personally meaningful or pro-social activity, even your strengths. As a result, people often and fulfilling one’s true nature. It is invoked feel more engaged at work than they do at as a contrast to hedonia (happiness, home. (Seligman, 2002, p.175) pleasure, positive ). A strong case can be made for the importance of eudai- Dik and Hanson (2008) provide the most monia for wellbeing in general (Deci & thorough discussion linking interests, Ryan, 2008) and at work (Straume & careers and wellbeing. They suggest interests Vittersø, 2012). Work may provide engaging motivate people to approach new objects, activity and opportunities for personal situations and activities. This is a necessary growth more often than it provides the precursor to developing knowledge and experience of pleasure. Eudaimonia… achieving goals. Transient affective interest is in itself a kind of (hedonic) wellbeing, but by ‘…produces a fuller, more stable and enduring promoting repeated encounters it facilitates type of happiness than that obtained when one’s the development of lasting attachment and goals are more directly hedonistic. Among these patterns of behaviour, thus it can lead on to enduring positive outcomes are a sense of more enduring and eudaimonic forms of meaning, subjective vitality, higher quality rela- wellbeing arising from interests as a stable tionships and better physical health indicators, disposition. especially with respect to symptoms related to stress…’ (Ryan, Huta & Deci, 2008, p.163) A calling Not content with concepts of flow and Flow interest, some positive psychologists have Occupational interests have long been a turned to the more colourful notion of focus of career counselling, and continue seeking a ‘calling’ in life. This term origi- to be taken seriously (e.g. Savickas & nally described a religiously motivated Spokane, 1999). And they remain a reason- choice to join the clergy, or other spiritu- ably good predictor of job satisfaction and ally driven work. It represents a prescrip- willingness to persist in a line of work. This tion to find destiny, or a strong sense of focus seems apt when viewed in the light of meaning and purpose through work. A the positive psychologists’ concept of calling is contrasted with a job (for ‘flow’. The term is used by Csikszentmihalyi money), or a vocation (for advancement). (2002) to describe the experience of being Examples include Steger and Dik (2009) absorbed in an activity to an extent that all and Harzer and Rich (2012). This has been sense of time is lost and self-consciousness recommended as an approach to ‘career is no longer present. This is seen by Csik- coaching’ by Biswas-Diener and Dean

Counselling Psychology Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, September 2015 29 Peter J. Robertson

(2007). Hirschi (2011) points to consider- career satisfaction are strongly correlated able ambiguity in the notion of a calling. It with life satisfaction (Erdogan et al., 2012). is not clear if this meaning arises from They argue that there is a strong case for internal reflection or from an external work-related interventions to enhance job summons. It is also unclear if a calling satisfaction with a view to improving health. necessarily involves pro-social work. Evidence from positive psychology in vocational settings is not for the most part Strengths directly related to counselling interventions. As a reaction against psychiatric diagnostic They point to the great potential of work and classification, Peterson and Seligman career arenas for developing enduring well- (2004) have sought to categorise what is being (e.g. Rath & Harter, 2010), but do not right with people. They have produced a demonstrate that a counselling focused on listing of character strengths, and devel- these concerns will be effective. McLeod’s oped assessment tools to identify them in (2010) systematic review of the effectiveness individuals. In a career counselling setting, of workplace counselling found good the focus on positive strengths may boost evidence for the effectiveness of stress- self-esteem, reduce resistance to change related interventions, but only modest and motivate action; successful choices will evidence of the positive impact of coun- tend to involve capitalising on available selling on work-related attitudes and the strengths and resources (Yates, 2013). meaning of work. Unlike the employee assis- Strength assessments do not provide unam- tance programmes highlighted by McLeod, biguous prescriptions as to choice of occu- career counselling will tend not to have pation, but they can form the starting point stress as their prime goal. for conversations around personal and As Hughes and Gration (2009) demon- professional growth. For a discussion on the strate, the evidence base for the effective- application of strength assessment in work ness of career-related interventions has related contexts, see Linley and Harrington strengthened considerably in recent years. (2006, 2007). There is positive evidence of impact, though often with small effect sizes, or Evidence-based counselling for career short-term attitudinal change emerging and work concerns as a route most clearly (Whiston, Sexton & Lasoff, to promoting wellbeing 1998; Whiston, Brecheisen & Stephens, In addition to its valuable conceptual 2003). From a positive psychology perspec- contributions, positive psychology adopts tive, there remains a problem in that the rigorous empirical methods and draws on career counselling evidence uses a diverse the full research base of psychology, range of approaches, including educational including work psychology; it brings an and employment measures, but constructs evidence base to the table. Space precludes of psychological wellbeing are not a review of this extensive material, so one commonly used as the outcome criteria of example is provided here to illustrate the choice. One authoritative review of this point: Job satisfaction is a component of life literature suggests a promising start, but satisfaction, an important wellbeing more focused effort is needed: construct. Faragher, Cass and Cooper (2005) conducted a meta-analysis of 485 ‘Hence, we encourage researchers to include studies exploring the relationship between measures of psychological distress and life job satisfaction and health. They found satisfaction in outcome studies. Although clear correlations between job satisfaction our experiences tend to support the view that and positive health, particularly mental vocational counselling can affect the psycho- health. Indeed, both job satisfaction and logical, physical and financial wellbeing of

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individuals, additional systematic research seek to achieve happiness through intensely is needed to verify our perspective.’ motivating work may be unhelpful in a world (Whiston & Rahardja, 2008, p.457) where individuals make difficult trade-offs between multiple personal, career, family It seems that positive psychology demon- and economic objectives. strates strong links between wellbeing and Fortunately, the more recent counselling work, and that an evidence base linking psychology literature seeks to explicitly career counselling to wellbeing outcomes is address issues of social justice issues: Fouad beginning to emerge. (2006) represents a vocationally focused example from the US. The global economic Social justice and counselling downturn following the banking crisis has for work and careers sharpened these concerns, prompting Real world career choices are shaped by British psychologists to consider the implica- individual factors such as health, educa- tions of austerity (BPS, 2014). Cutts (2013) tional qualifications, family responsibilities clearly demonstrates that these are also and social networks. There are also struc- contemporary concerns for British coun- tural factors which tend to be neglected in selling psychologists. psychological perspectives, such as geog- raphy, labour market characteristics, socio- Conclusion economic status, gender and ethnic The absence of discussion of career coun- inequality (Roberts, 2005). These factors are selling in the UK counselling psychology liter- harder to ignore when dealing with career ature is striking. It is not inevitable. The concerns than in therapeutic work identity and boundaries of British counselling (Richardson, 1996). This is particularly psychology are constructed in an evolving clear when dealing with unemployment. professional discourse: they are not fixed, but Whilst work may be stressful, on balance contested (e.g. Goldstein, 2009; Helmsley, unemployment represents a greater threat 2013; James, 2013; Pugh & Coyle, 2000). to mental wellbeing (Paul & Moser, 2009; Whilst concerns about the close relationship Waddell & Burton, 2006). Unemployment is with clinical psychology have been a preoccu- a status which tends to deprive people of pation (e.g. Kinderman, 2009; Turpin, 2009), access to psycho-social factors that promote the boundary with vocational psychology wellbeing (Warr, 2007). Work may provide remains largely ignored. This is in stark access to them, but only if the job and work- contrast to the position in North America, place are of good quality, which is not neces- where career counselling has been firmly sarily the case with entry level occupations. inside the tent from the start, notwithstanding One function of career counselling is to some debate. promote access to sustainable good quality Linley (2006) sees positive psychology as work opportunities. an integrative force in counselling psychology. A therapeutic perspective that focuses on Positive psychology may contribute to a reinte- managing the symptom manifestations of gration, to the extent that it can transcend health issues risks a politically naive neglect Richardson’s splits between the pathological of their social causes. Positive psychology and the non-pathological, between the voca- also tends towards an individualistic perspec- tional and the personal, and between the tive, and occasionally adopts an evangelical private and the public. Positive psychology tone in some of its popular texts addressing demands a conception of wellbeing that is issues of personal development (e.g. holistic, relevant to both mainstream and Seligman, 2002; Diener & Biswas-Diener, clinical populations, and incorporates 2008; Biswas-Diener & Dean, 2007). The engaging and meaningful work, a public insistence that people pursue a calling and domain activity, as a central pillar of health.

Counselling Psychology Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, September 2015 31 Peter J. Robertson

Eggerth (2008) claims that applying posi- brings to the table and work through its impli- tive psychology to career counselling is like cations. Moller (2011) provocatively suggests taking coals to Newcastle: it is already focused that: ‘…British counselling psychology is on promoting positive functioning. Whilst disappointingly insular in outlook’ (p.8). positive psychology may enrich career coun- Both positive psychology and career coun- selling with useful concepts and evidence, it selling present opportunities to prove this does not offer an integrative framework for accusation wrong. understanding career issues. Some positive The arguments presented in this paper psychologists show little awareness of the raise practical issues as to how to manage complexity of the factors affecting career professional activity around the vocational development, and a failure to engage with boundary. Some have suggested that thera- the powerful socio-economic forces that peutic counselling should extend to include shape and constrain career choices. career issues, or conversely career coun- Voices in American counselling selling could extend to address some quite psychology argue strongly that promoting limited therapeutic needs (DeLucia et al., healthy adjustment to work and career is 1989; Chopra, 2009). Blustein (1987) advo- essentially the same thing as promoting cates vocational and therapeutic counselling mental wellbeing. If the emerging evidence being delivered in parallel. Richardson base for the impact of career counselling on (2012) proposes an integrated counselling wellbeing grows more persuasive, then it may for relationships and work. Whatever view is problematise the boundaries of the coun- taken, it is essential that the boundaries of selling psychology profession as they are practice map on to the boundaries of currently constructed in the UK. If the competence and are robustly reflected in promotion of positive wellbeing is to be a goal professional training structures (Niles & of counselling psychologists, then it would Pate, 1989). make little sense to exclude the life challenge of choosing and building healthy lifestyles in About the Author the public worlds of work and study. Coun- Dr Pete Robertson is a Chartered Psycholo- selling psychologists face a choice in gist. He has worked in careers guidance embracing positive psychology: whether to since 1987, practising in Hertfordshire and adopt a neutered version of the movement by London. Since 2001 he has taught at Edin- selecting elements that can be incorporated burgh Napier University, where he currently in therapeutic practice in healthcare settings leads the career guidance programme. without threatening professional identity, or as scientist-practitioners to consider the full Correspondence range of concepts and empirical evidence it E-mail: [email protected].

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