Oceans - Geography - Oxford Bibliographies http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199...

Oceans Philip E. Steinberg

Introduction

Until the beginning of the 21st century there were few studies of the ocean, or the world’s seas, in geography. Although cultural and political ecologists who studied coastal communities considered the watery spaces in which people worked, economic and transportation geographers considered the shipping routes that people (and commodities) crossed, and political and military geographers considered the ocean surfaces across which people fought, the ocean itself was generally conceived as a space beyond the boundaries of society, a space used by society, not of society. Physical geographers, meanwhile, while developing a robust literature in coastal geomorphology, tended to leave study of the deep sea to oceanographers. In recent years, physical geographers have made significant contributions to interdisciplinary oceanographic research, primarily through the application of remote sensing and GIS expertise and through climatological research on ocean-atmosphere interactions, but the explosion of ocean-related research in geography since the 1990s has primarily been in human and environmental geography. Much of the increase in human geographic studies of the ocean is due to influences from outside the discipline, including the turn in history to studying ocean basin–defined regions, the turn in cultural studies toward understanding the ocean as a space of cultural hybridity, and, more broadly, a growing environmental awareness of the ocean as a space that is exceptionally vulnerable to (and an indicator of) environmental transformation. Furthermore, as human geographers have turned their attention to such concepts as affect, mobility, nonterrestrial materialities, nonhuman agency, heterotopic spaces of resistance, and global spaces of exchange, the ocean has been embraced as an ideal space for thinking with, and thinking through the limits of, these emergent epistemologies.

Setting Agendas for Ocean Geographies

Beginning in the late 1990s, as significant numbers of geographers turned their attention seaward, special issues of geography journals began to appear that spelled out agendas for ocean geography. Wigen and Harland-Jacobs 1999 directly engaged the rise of ocean basin studies in the discipline of history, Steinberg 1999 sought to define the scope of a new subfield that would join elements from human and physical geography, and Lambert, et al. 2006 examined numerous aspects of marine geography within the context of historical geography. Concurrent with these special issues, Steinberg 2001 appeared as the first monograph that applied a contemporary geographic perspective in an attempt to understand the sea as a historical and social space, and, a decade later, Peters 2010 proposed expanding the agenda for marine geography to incorporate some of the latest thinking in human geography.

Lambert, David, Luciana Martins, and Miles Ogborn, eds. Special Issue: Historical Geographies of the Sea. Journal of Historical Geography 32.3 (July 2006): 479–688. As elaborated on in the editors’ introduction, this special issue proposes that a seaward orientation of historical geography can shed light on three areas: new epistemological perspectives based on fluidity and betweenness; new perspectives that incorporate the imaginative, aesthetic, and sensuous geographies of the sea; and material and social geographies of individuals at sea. Articles available online for purchase or by subscription.

Peters, Kimberley. “Future Promises for Contemporary Social and Cultural Geographies of the Sea.” Geography Compass 4.9 (September 2010): 1260–1272. In addition to reviewing recent literature in ocean geography, this article suggests three agendas for future research: the ocean as a space of mobility, the ocean as a space of the mystical and sublime, and the ocean as a space of co-constitution between human and nonhuman actors. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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Steinberg, Philip E., ed. “Focus: Geography of Ocean-Space.” Professional Geographer 51.3 (1999): 366–450. This focus section presents a broad range of work in ocean geography, from physical geography and marine remote sensing to transport geography and political ecology perspectives. Articles available online for purchase or by subscription.

Steinberg, Philip E. The Social Construction of the Ocean. Cambridge Studies in International Relations 78. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Although published in a series on international relations, this book presents the first attempt by a geographer to analyze the world ocean as a global space of society, shaped through uses, regulations, and representations over five hundred years of modern history.

Wigen, Kären, and Jessica Harland-Jacobs, eds. Special Issue: Oceans Connect. Geographical Review 89.2 (April 1999). This special issue emanates from the Oceans Connect project, which sought to reframe regional studies around the ocean region. Articles reflect on the project and the meaning of regional seas, as well as presenting studies of individual regions. Articles available online for purchase or by subscription.

Literature Reviews and Bibliographies

Despite being a relatively new subdiscipline, ocean geography has already spawned a number of comprehensive literature reviews that, in addition to providing critical introductions, thoughtfully identify themes and gaps in the existing literature. The contrast between West 1989, in which human geographies of the sea are largely restricted to tourism studies, and the works that followed is striking. Psuty, et al. 2008 begins to suggest a space for integration between human and physical geography, while Steinberg 2009 presents an overview of ocean incursions into all subfields of geography. The most-recent reviews—Mentz 2009 and Peters 2010—discuss how ocean geography is overlapping with key theoretical advances both from within and beyond the discipline of geography.

Mentz, Steve. “Reading the New Thalassology.” In At the Bottom of Shakespeare’s Ocean. By Steve Mentz, 101–112. Shakespeare Now! London: Continuum, 2009. Although compiled by a literary scholar at the back of a book on the maritime aspects of Shakespeare’s plays, this bibliographic essay provides a comprehensive and exceptionally multidisciplinary review of current works in ocean studies, from a range of disciplines in the social sciences and the humanities.

Peters, Kimberley. “Future Promises for Contemporary Social and Cultural Geographies of the Sea.” Geography Compass 4.9 (September 2010): 1260–1272. The most recent, comprehensive review of geographic research on the ocean, this article discusses how a range of critical theories, especially in cultural geography, are being engaged by geographers of the sea. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

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Psuty, Norbert P., Philip E. Steinberg, and Dawn J. Wright. “Coastal and Marine Geography.” In Geography in America at the Dawn of the 21st Century. Edited by Gary L. Gaile and Cort J. Willmott, 314–325. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. As a collaboration between a coastal geomorphologist, a human geographer of the deep sea, and a deep-sea physical geographer, this review represents an unusual attempt to bridge the divides between the human and the physical, as well as the coastal and the marine, in ocean geography. Originally published in 2003.

Steinberg, Philip E. “Oceans.” In International Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Vol. 8. Edited by Rob Kitchin and Nigel J. Thrift, 21–26. Amsterdam and Boston: Elsevier, 2009. This review article considers the state of ocean geography in four subfields: political geography, cultural geography, environmental geography, and economic geography. It concludes with a reflection on two overarching themes in ocean geography: the ocean as a space of conflict and the ocean as a space of the imagination.

West, Niels. “Coastal and Marine Geography.” In Geography in America. Edited by Gary L. Gaile and Cort J. Willmott, 141–154. Columbus, OH: Merrill, 1989. This review article may be most useful as a historical artifact, because it reflects the state of ocean research in geography prior to the explosion of work, from geography and beyond, that began to appear shortly after the review’s publication.

A Space of Power and Connection

In the modern era, the ocean is most often encountered as a space of connection. Through sailing across its surface, power is projected; goods, ideas, and people are exchanged; and technologies and knowledges are mobilized and generated. Much of the research in this area has focused on the role of the ocean in constructing the connections of empire and, more generally, in projecting power overseas. Benton 2010, Ogborn 2008, and Steinberg 2001 all consider these themes, primarily in the modern era and from predominantly Western perspectives. The Klein and Mackenthun 2004; Lambert, et al. 2006; and Bentley, et al. 2007 edited collections expand the scope to other cultures and eras, as well as expanding the disciplinary scope beyond geography to include contributions from literary studies, history, and anthropology. In today’s world, the global shipping industry continues this project of constructing the sea as an exceptional space of connection that, in turn, is used to mobilize social power and manufacture difference. This has been analyzed in DeSombre 2006, a study of the flag-of-convenience system, and in Cowen 2010, a study of the logistics industry.

Bentley, Jerry H., Renate Bridenthal, and Kären Wigen, eds. Seascapes: Maritime Histories, Littoral Cultures, and Transoceanic Exchanges. Perspectives on the Global Past. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007. This edited book presents chapters by historians who investigate the connectivity of historic maritime regions, the labor that took place in the oceans that bind these regions, and attempts to exert or resist regional control through maritime power.

Benton, Lauren A. A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900. New York and Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010. This book examines how the legal order of European empires was achieved through partial incorporation of nonmetropolitan spaces. The sea plays an important role, both as a space that connected Europe with its semigoverned colonies and as a semigoverned space in its own right. About the Index

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Cowen, Deborah. “A Geography of Logistics: Market Authority and the Security of Supply Chains.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 100.3 (June 2010): 600–620. Cowen argues that the logistics industry, in a continuation of a process that began in earlier eras of global commerce, allows for the projection of control beyond borders, reconfiguring the meaning of territory and security on land, at sea, and in the port. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

DeSombre, Elizabeth R. Flagging Standards: Globalization and Environmental, Safety, and Labor Regulations at Sea. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006. This analysis of globalization and deregulation in the shipping industry finds that, rather than there being a “race to the bottom,” the interests of various parties construct a “race to the middle.” This complicates the role of the sea and ocean transport that prevails in globalization narratives.

Klein, Bernhard, and Gesa Mackenthun, eds. Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean. New York: Routledge, 2004. A series of studies from history and literary scholarship that illuminate the social practices and cultural meanings attributed to the sea in a variety of cultures and by a variety of peoples.

Lambert, David, Luciana Martins, and Miles Ogborn, eds. Special Issue: Historical Geographies of the Sea. Journal of Historical Geography 32.3 (July 2006): 479–688. Contributors from a range of disciplines cover a range of eras, from pre-biblical times to the Cold War, to investigate interactions with and conceptions of the sea. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Ogborn, Miles. Global Lives: Britain and the World, 1550–1800. Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography 41. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Although this book profiles the lives of a series of individuals who interact with some aspect of the British Imperial project and is not explicitly about the sea, a continual theme throughout the book is how the ocean makes these individuals’ lives “global.”

Steinberg, Philip E. The Social Construction of the Ocean. Cambridge Studies in International Relations 78. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Through a study of uses, regulations, and representations of the world ocean from 1450 through the 20th century, this book examines various ways in which the ocean has woven the world together through facilitations of mobility and projections of power.

A Space of Affect and Culture

Just as the ocean is a space that is used for connecting (and projecting power to) distant lands and just as it is a source of livelihoods for many, the ocean is also a space that carries with it meanings, and these are often held as dearly by those who spend the bulk of their lives on land as those who regularly go to sea. As such, there is a large body of literary and artistic work that engages (and reproduces) the ocean as a space of emotion and affect, a space in which and about which culture is constructed. Raban 1992 is a comprehensive reader covering a large range of (mostly) literary representations of the sea, which is also the topic of Cohen 2010. Corbin 1994 About the Index

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Peters 2012 connects this and other literature with emergent work in geography on the embodiment of space.

Cohen, Margaret. The Novel and the Sea. Translation/Transnation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010. A comprehensive overview of how the sea is used and represented in 18th- and 19th-century novels and how that reflected and influenced changing cultural attitudes toward the sea.

Corbin, Alain. The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World, 1750–1840. Translated by Jocelyn Phelps. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. This book examines how the European seaside, long avoided as a space of danger, became normalized as an essential, if always slightly marginal, space of European nations’ and cultures’ identities.

Peters, Kimberley. “Manipulating Material Hydro-Worlds: Rethinking Human and More-Than-Human Relationality through Offshore Radio Piracy.” Environment and Planning A 44.5 (2012): 1241–1254. This article reflects on how offshore radio pirates interacted with the ocean, as a liquid, experienced space. It uses these observations to issue a call for ocean geography to account for the embodied materiality of the marine assemblage. Available online by subscription.

Raban, Jonathan, ed. The Oxford Book of the Sea. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. This is a reader with a wide range of English-language reflections on the sea, including poems, excerpts from novels, and essays, as well as a comprehensive introduction by the editor.

Yaeger, Patricia, ed. Special Section: Oceanic Studies. Proceedings of the Modern Language Association 125.3 (May 2010): 657–737. This special section of one of the premier US journals in literature and the humanities features ten articles (plus an introductory editorial essay) on a wide range of topics that reflect on the sea in culture and history. Available online by subscription.

Uses and Users of the Sea

Although the ocean is often viewed as an abstract surface, or a space beyond society, it is itself a space in which and on which individuals (and objects) perform labor. Thus, geographies of the ocean are not just geographies of how we think about the sea, but what we do at sea. The journals Marine Policy and Ocean Development & International Law cover the range of these topics, while the United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea provides a forum in which the overall framework for sorting out these various uses of the ocean is deliberated.

Marine Policy. This journal publishes articles about a wide variety of topics associated with using and governing the world’s oceans, from local-scale user conflicts to global governance issues.

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With its emphasis on the links between ocean governance and international law, this journal publishes articles that typically focus on national and international policy.

United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. In addition to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a range of other documents pertaining to governance of the world ocean can be found on this website.

SAILORS AND DOCKWORKERS

Romantic narratives of the sea as a space of escape, globalizationist narratives of the sea as a space of seamless connectivity, and even environmentalist narratives of the sea as a space of endangered nature sometimes overlook the individuals who, through their work on ships, contribute to making the sea what it is, while affecting society back on land as well. Rediker 1989 discusses how the 18th-century ship served as a model for the capitalist factory that was to emerge soon thereafter, but also for oppositional ideas for labor organization, a point that is further developed in Linebaugh and Rediker 2001. Creighton and Norling 1996 and Bolster 1997 examine the gendered and raced nature of ocean labor, respectively, while Sekula 1995, Sekula and Burch 2010, Borovnik 2005, and Terry 2009 examine the lives of contemporary maritime workers as well as their (usually invisible) contribution to the global economy. The website of the International Maritime Organization provides general information about international agreements regulating the shipping industry.

Bolster, W. Jeffrey. Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997. Through a study of African American sailors in the 18th and 19th centuries, this book explores the relative opportunities available to freed African Americans on ships. This study is used to explore, more generally, the role of race in the shipping industry.

Borovnik, Maria. “Seafarers’ ‘Maritime Culture’ and the ‘I-Kiribati Way of Life’: The Formation of Flexible Identities?” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 26.2 (July 2005): 132–150. This article compares and contrasts the identities of I-Kiribati crews on Japanese-owned fishing vessels with those on German-owned merchant vessels, examining how identity is forged amidst encounters with sailors of different nationalities, with people in distant ports, and with the ocean that binds them together. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Creighton, Margaret S., and Lisa Norling, eds. Iron Men, Wooden Women: Gender and Seafaring in the Atlantic World, 1700–1920. Gender Relations in the American Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. This edited collection explores the gendered identity of women and men involved in the Maritime Atlantic, both on ship and at home. Several chapters consider related issues of race, ethnicity, and sexuality.

International Maritime Organization. The International Maritime Organization is the United Nations agency responsible for the safety and security of shipping and the prevention of marine pollution by ships.

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Linebaugh, Peter, and Marcus Rediker. The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic. Boston: Beacon, 2001. This book, focusing on the links that maritime labor builds across space, class, and nation, reveals the role that the maritime working class has played in presenting alternatives to capitalist industrialization. Reprinted as recently as 2007 (London: Verso).

Rediker, Marcus. Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989. This book focuses on the ship as a prototypical capitalist workspace, where displaced people are gathered together as components of a production machine. The story of the violence that was exercised to construct the ship is coupled with that of resistance by pirates, merchant sailors, and others.

Sekula, Allan. Fish Story. Düsseldorf: Richter, 1995. This book integrates photographs and essays to construct a labor-centered narrative of the contemporary maritime transport industry, shedding light on the role of maritime transport (and those who make maritime transport happen) in globalization.

Sekula, Allan, and Noël Burch, dirs. The Forgotten Space. DVD. Amsterdam: Doc.Eye Film, 2010. This documentary film features interviews and footage from the global maritime transport industry to reveal its many hidden spaces: the hidden container port, the hidden commodity within the shipping container, and the hidden labor that goes into constructing and transporting the commodity.

Terry, William C. “Working on the Water: On Legal Space and Seafarer Protection in the Cruise Industry.” Economic Geography 85.4 (October 2009): 463–482. One of the few geographic studies of the condition of laborers in the modern maritime industry, this article focuses on how the spaces across and in which these laborers work influence their legal status. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

SHIPS AND NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

Laborers on ships achieve things because they work with objects and knowledges that are the result of past labors, a point that is explored through studies that integrate research on ships and navigational instruments with the extensive literature on the geography of science. Law 1986 studies the role of the ship in constructing Early Modern Portuguese knowledge (and thereby Portuguese power), and Law 2002 follows with comparisons with other studies of how objects mobilize knowledge. Other works in this genre in a maritime context include Sorrenson 1996, a study of the ship as a scientific instrument; Steinberg 2006, a study of 17th-century popular navigational manuals; and Steinberg 2009, a study of representations of the ocean on world maps.

Law, John. “On the Methods of Long-Distance Control: Vessels, Navigation, and the Portuguese Route to India.” In Power, Action, and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? Edited by John Law, 234–263. Sociological Review Monograph 32. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986. An exploration of the way in which the Portuguese carrack made long-distance domination possible through its integration of the control of documents, devices, and people in a machine that mobilized accumulated knowledge across maritime space. About the Index

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Law, John. “Objects and Spaces.” Theory, Culture, & Society 19.5–6 (December 2002): 91–105. This article revisits Law 1986, considering the example of the Portuguese carrack as a mobile object of knowledge and power in light of other space-creating objects.

Sorrenson, Richard. “The Ship as a Scientific Instrument in the Eighteenth Century.” In Special Issue: Science in the Field. Osiris 11 (1996): 221–236. This article contends that ships should be viewed not merely as vessels but as instruments for gathering and transmitting scientific knowledge, and that in the eighteenth century the ship was the key instrument for the science of geography. Available online by subscription.

Steinberg, Philip E. “Calculating Similitude and Difference: John Seller and the ‘Placing’ of English Subjects in a Global Community of Nations.” Social & Cultural Geography 7.5 (October 2006): 687–707. An examination of the works of John Seller, a late-17th-century author of atlases, navigational manuals, and popular geography texts, that focuses on the ways in which the production of navigational knowledge was used to enable and legitimize the projection of power. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Steinberg, Philip E. “Sovereignty, Territory, and the Mapping of Mobility: A View from the Outside.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99.3 (2009): 467–495. Through an analysis of representations of the ocean on 591 printed world maps from 1500 to 1800, this article examines how cartographic representations of spaces of mobility beyond state boundaries were used historically to legitimize the territory and authority of the modern state. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

SCIENCE AND SCIENTISTS

As a space that is difficult to access, let alone understand, the oceans have attracted extensive scientific research, often organized in large national or multinational expeditions. Historians and anthropologists of science, as well as geographers, thus have turned their attention to ocean research. The history of deep sea research is studied in Rozwadowski 2008, tidology in Reidy 2008, marine microbiology in Helmreich 2009, and reef science in Bischof 2010. All these works connect the practice of ocean science with the geographic literatures on the spaces of science and on how the history of geography as a spatial science has been linked with national missions of exploration and empire.

Bischof, Bärbel G. “Negotiating Uncertainty: Framing Attitudes, Prioritizing Issues, and Finding Consensus in the Coral Reef Environment Management ‘Crisis.’” Ocean & Coastal Management 53.10 (October 2010): 597–614. This article presents data from a study of the research spaces and institutional linkages among coral reef scientists to reflect on the ways in which scientists construct normative conceptualizations of “healthy” and “endangered” reefs. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Helmreich, Stefan. Alien Ocean: Anthropological Voyages in Microbial Seas. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009. This book presents findings from research on marine microbiologists, with a focus on the ways in which they construct the ocean and its About the Index

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Reidy, Michael S. Tides of History: Ocean Science and Her Majesty’s Navy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008. This historical work shows how the study of tides compelled scientists to recognize the ocean as a local space, as a space with its own processes, and as a space that reflects other, celestial, relations and processes.

Rozwadowski, Helen M. Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration of the Deep Sea. Cambridge, MA, and London: Belknap, 2008. This book elaborates on how research on the deep sea in the 19th and 20th centuries was simultaneously a scientific, popular, commercial, and military enterprise.

PIRATES AND PIRACY

The dividing line between, on the one hand, the pirate and, on the other hand, the soldier, the sailor, the merchant, the criminal, or even the scientist is not always clear. Perhaps for this reason, pirates, during the 17th-century “golden age” and today, play a significant role in structuring the governance of ocean-space. Pennell 2001 and Cordingly 2006 present general overviews focusing on the golden age, while Burg 1995; Klausmann, et al. 1997; and Rediker 2004 focus on pirates as sexual, gender identity, and class transgressors, respectively, suggesting more generally the ocean’s potential as a space of radical reordering, a theme that is advanced in Kuhn 2010. The suppression of this potential is chronicled in Thomson 1996, while its annihilation in the contemporary context is advocated in Kraska 2011.

Burg, Barry R. Sodomy and the Pirate Tradition: English Sea Rovers in the Seventeenth-Century Caribbean. Rev. ed. New York: New York University Press, 1995. In this book, the ocean and, in particular, the pirate ship, are celebrated as historic venues for male homosexuality. Originally published in 1984.

Cordingly, David. Under the Black Flag: The Romance and the Reality of Life among the Pirates. New York: Random House, 2006. One of many books on the history of piracy by this author, the former head of exhibitions at the United Kingdom’s National Maritime Museum. This book connects the academic, historical literature on piracy with popular interest.

Klausmann, Ulrike, Marion Meinzerin, and Gabriel Kuhn. Women Pirates and the Politics of the Jolly Roger. Translated by Tyler Austin and Nicholas Levis. Montreal and New York: Black Rose, 1997. This polemical book consists of two essays. The first chronicles and celebrates the lives of women pirates, while the second argues for the inherent radicalism of the pirate enterprise.

Kraska, James. Contemporary Maritime Piracy: International Law, Strategy, and Diplomacy at Sea. Contemporary Military, Strategic, and Security Issues. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011. The author, a US Navy expert on the Law of the Sea, documents the rise of piracy in the 21st century, particularly in the western Indian Ocean, and argues for a robust response.

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Expanding on his essay in Klausmann, et al. 1997, Kuhn points to the golden age of piracy as a time when the rhythms and logics of capitalism were being actively challenged from outside the system.

Pennell, C. R., ed. Bandits at Sea: A Pirates Reader. New York: New York University Press, 2001. A comprehensive reader that presents articles from a wide range of scholars on the cultural, economic, and political histories of piracy and on their implications for commerce and culture in the world today.

Rediker, Marcus B. Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age. Boston: Beacon, 2004. This book celebrates the golden age’s pirate ship as a multinational, relatively egalitarian enterprise that challenged the norms of capitalism and proletarianization that were coalescing during the same era.

Thomson, Janice E. Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns: State-Building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe. Studies in International History and Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996. This book documents how the abolition of privateering and the suppression of piracy were the key moments at which the state achieved the monopoly on the legitimate use of violence that it had long sought.

FISHERS, FISHERIES, AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Fisheries are key to the sustenance of millions of coastal people, and the harvesting of living marine resources reproduces and reflects a host of attitudes toward the ocean as a space of labor and community. Additionally, as a mobile, transnational resource, ocean fisheries present unique regulatory challenges that link up with broader concerns for the health of the marine environment and coastal and marine management and planning issues. General information on the global fishing industry, as well as texts of treaties and agreements, can be found on the website of the Food and Agriculture Organization.

Food and Agriculture Organization: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department The Food and Agriculture Organization is the UN agency devoted to conducting research on the state of the world’s fisheries and facilitating agreements to steward the world’s fish stocks.

The Perspectives of Fishers and Fishing Communities

Whether working coastal waters on day outings or the deep seas on extended voyages, and whether operating in one’s own small vessel or as a laborer on a large, corporate-owned ship, fishers interact with the sea on a daily basis and, in the process, develop unique spatial perspectives. These perspectives, in turn, influence fishers’ attitudes and positions concerning the social relations of the fishing industry, resource governance, and conflicts with other users of ocean-space. St. Martin 2001 and St. Martin and Hall-Arber 2008 document the spatial knowledges of fishing communities, focusing on how mapping these knowledges through GIS can be used to integrate them into community resource management. Trist 1999, Hapke 2001, and Campbell 2007 are illustrative of the literature in marine political ecology that examines how fishing communities around the world perceive of coastal and marine spaces and how these perceptions affect views toward conservationist or regulatory initiatives. St. Martin 2007 examines the social organization of laborers in the fishing industry.

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This article examines that different scales at which discourse is articulated regarding Costa Rican sea turtle conservation, and how these discourses are taken up and implemented in practice.

Hapke, Holly, M. “Gender, Work, and Household Survival in South Indian Fishing Communities.” Professional Geographer 53.3 (August 2001): 313–331. This article documents how the fishery system extends beyond the sea to the coast, where household economies that link fishers with local fish markets incorporate a range of gender relations as well as uses of and perspectives on the sea. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

St. Martin, Kevin. “Making Space for Community Resource Management in Fisheries.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 91.1 (March 2001): 122–142. This article challenges the idea that fishers view the sea as an undifferentiated arena for harvesting resources, instead documenting the complex notions of property and place held by New England fishing communities, which form a basis for community resource management. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

St. Martin, Kevin. “The Difference That Class Makes: Neoliberalization and Non-capitalism in the Fishing Industry of New England.” Antipode 39.3 (June 2007): 527–549. Through a study of the economic organization of New England fishers, this article argues that the fishing industry is organized as a noncapitalist industry within capitalism.

St. Martin, Kevin, and Madeleine Hall-Arber. “The Missing Layer: Geo-technologies, Communities, and Implications for Marine Spatial Planning.” Marine Policy 32.5 (September 2008): 779–786. Revisiting some of the themes from St. Martin 2001, the authors examine how GIS can be used to apply local marine spatial knowledge to Marine Spatial Planning. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Trist, Carolyn. “Recreating Ocean Space: Recreational Consumption and Representation of the Caribbean Marine Environment.” Professional Geographer 51.3 (August 1999): 376–387. Through a study of marine tourism on St. Lucia, this article investigates conflicts between uses of coastal spaces by those engaged in tourism, recreational fishing, and subsistence fishing, and how the different parties’ actions are reflected in different views of marine space. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Environmental Challenges and Regulatory Response

As a space whose resources cross borders, the ocean is a classic example of a “commons” whose bounty requires some degree of extramarket regulation. A general overview of this problem is provided in DeSombre and Barkin 2011. DeSombre 2000, Mansfield 2004, and Steinberg 2008 examine some of the driving forces behind marine environmental conservation in the US context, while Nichols 1999, Bear and Eden 2008, and Gray 2010 examine the global application of regulatory mechanisms, including marine protected areas, marine spatial planning, integrated coastal management, and eco-labeling campaigns. Campbell, et al. 2009 challenges the ecological assumptions underlying all these initiatives. Similar problems in identifying the degree of marine pollution, its sources, and potential regulatory solutions are covered in the Marine Pollution Bulletin. About the Index

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Bear, Christopher, and Sally Eden. “Making Space for Fish: The Regional, Network, and Fluid Spaces of Fisheries Certification.” Social & Cultural Geography 9.5 (2008): 487–504. Through an investigation of the Marine Stewardship Council’s eco-labeling campaign, the authors detail how the regulation of ocean-space requires both the affirmation and the transcendence of spatial containers.

Campbell, Lisa M., Noella J. Gray, Elliott L. Hazen, and Janna M. Shackeroff. “Beyond Baselines: Rethinking Priorities for Ocean Conservation.” Ecology and Society 14.1 (2009). This article critiques the concept of “shifting baselines” that itself is a critique of the science behind regulatory strategies, arguing for a more dynamic conception of marine ecology.

DeSombre, Elizabeth R. Domestic Sources of International Environmental Policy: Industry, Environmentalists, and U.S. Power. American and Comparative Environmental Policy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000. Examining the United States specifically, but addressing larger issues in international environmental governance, DeSombre uses examples from fisheries conservation and environmental species protection to query the intersection between domestic politics and international environmental initiatives.

DeSombre, Elizabeth R., and J. Samuel Barkin. Fish. Cambridge, UK, and Malden, MA: Polity, 2011. A comprehensive review of the challenges facing the governance of fishery resources and the efforts that have been undertaken to achieve sustainable management.

Gray, Noella J. “Sea Change: Exploring the International Effort to Promote Marine Protected Areas.” Conservation & Society 8.4 (October–December 2010): 331–338. This article examines how the drive for marine protected areas frequently comes from large nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) rather than local communities. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Mansfield, Becky. “Rules of Privatization: Contradictions in Neoliberal Regulation of North Pacific Fisheries.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94.3 (2004): 565–584. Through an investigation of efforts by the United States to regulate the North Pacific fishery in the context of global competition, this article challenges the simplistic one-to-one correspondence between neoliberalization and privatization that prevails in the geographic literature.

Marine Pollution Bulletin. Marine Pollution Bulletin contains articles on the science of marine pollution as well as discussions of policy options for regulating or eliminating contaminants that may affect water quality and the ocean’s potential as an environment for fisheries and other uses.

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Nichols, Karen. “Coming to Terms with ‘Integrated Coastal Management’: Problems of Meaning and Method in a New Arena of Resource Regulation.” Professional Geographer 51.3 (1999): 388–399. Through a study of coral reef protection in Sri Lanka, this article links the rise of marine protected areas with efforts to open coastal zones to global capital investment. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Steinberg, Philip E. “It’s So Easy Being Green: Overuse, Underexposure, and the Marine Environmentalist Consensus.” Geography Compass 2.6 (November 2008): 2080–2096. This article situates the rise of marine environmentalism, especially in the United States, with the way in which the rise of ocean uses is being paired with decreased ocean experiences.

Regional Seas

While inland dwellers typically imagine the ocean as a vast expanse, those who live on coasts and islands experience the ocean as a regional space. Different ocean basins have come to have unique regional characters, in part due to differences in physical geography and in part due to differences in the cultural systems of each region’s littoral societies. Mack 2011 presents a comprehensive comparative ethnography of the world’s “saltwater people,” while Lewis and Wigen 1999 compares the connections that have emerged within specific ocean basins.

Lewis, Martin W., and Kären Wigen. “A Maritime Response to the Crisis in Area Studies.” Geographical Review 89.2 (April 1999): 161–168. In this article, the authors reflect on their experiences leading the Oceans Connect project. They discuss some of the different findings regarding ocean regions, as well as the academic cultures that have emerged for the study of each region. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Mack, John. The Sea: A Cultural History. London: Reaktion, 2011. A comparative anthropology of the ways in which cultures around the world conceive and use their regional seas.

THE ATLANTIC OCEAN

Since the 1970s, a growing number of scholars—especially historians—of the Atlantic region have abandoned their national frameworks for an integrated perspective that emphasizes cross-Atlantic connections. Armitage and Braddick 2009 and Greene and Morgan 2009 are edited collections reflecting much of the work in this area, while in Bailyn 2005, one of the early proponents of Atlantic history reflects on what it has become. The contributions in Ogborn 2005 suggest some of the ways in which the perspective of Atlantic studies can be applied by geographers. Somewhat distinct from this community of historians, scholars of cultural studies have looked to the Atlantic as a space of postcolonial hybridity and diaspora identities, and Gilroy 1993 is a seminal work here. The journal Atlantic Studies brings together materials with diverse disciplinary foci.

Armitage, David, and Michael J. Braddick, eds. The British Atlantic World, 1500–1800. 2d ed. Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. About the Index

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Atlantic Studies. Founded in 2004, this journal brings together work, primarily by historians and literary scholars, that considers linkages and differences across the Atlantic region.

Bailyn, Bernard. Atlantic History: Concepts and Contours. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005. One of the early promoters of Atlantic history discusses the subdiscipline’s origins and reflects on some of the turns that it has taken over six decades.

Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. This book set a new course for cultural studies, by arguing for the central role of the Atlantic as a space of connection in building the identity of the African diaspora, from the Middle Passage through contemporary migrations of peoples and ideas. Reprinted as recently as 2002.

Greene, Jack P., and Philip D. Morgan, eds. Atlantic History: A Critical Appraisal. Reinterpreting History. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. An edited volume containing contributions by many of the key scholars in Atlantic history.

Ogborn, Miles, ed. Special Section: Atlantic Geographies. Social & Cultural Geography 6.3 (2005): 379–454. Geographers—primarily historical geographers—reflect on and advance the project of Atlantic studies within the discipline. Articles available online for purchase or by subscription.

THE INDIAN OCEAN

Inspired in particular by Braudel 1972–1973 (cited under the Mediterranean Sea) and the concept of a relatively small sea emerging as a rich network of trading routes and civilizational achievements, scholars of and from India, Arabia, East Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australia have produced a large number of studies of this region, many of which emphasize the cultural exchange brought about by economic integration. Chaudhuri 1985 presents one of the earliest and most comprehensive such studies, followed by Pearson 2007, which emphasizes maritime life in particular, and Bose 2009, which examines intersections between preexisting linkages in the Indian Ocean with those imposed on the space by the British Raj. Journal of the Indian Ocean Region presents a different perspective on regional connections, emphasizing contemporary issues of security and policy.

Bose, Sugata. A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. Grounded in the substantial literature on the Indian Ocean as a space of connection and empire building, this book uses this history as a context for understanding the imposition of British power in the region in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Chaudhuri, Kirti N. Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985. About the Index

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Journal of the Indian Ocean Region. Founded in 2005, this journal adopts a wide definition of the Indian Ocean to include Australia and a perspective derived largely from security studies and geopolitical analysis.

Pearson, Michael N. The Indian Ocean. Seas in History. London: Routledge, 2007. This book distinguishes itself from others on the Indian Ocean region by maintaining a focus on the ocean in its center, on its physical attributes, and on the lives and perspectives of those who for thousands of years have interacted with its waters to bind the region together.

THE PACIFIC OCEAN

In light of Japan and then China emerging as significant players in the global political economy, a number of authors, including those in Dirlik 1998 and Wilson and Dirlik 1995, consider the role of the “Pacific” in the imaginary of the various peoples who surround the region. A somewhat different perspective, informed more by anthropology, cultural studies, and literature than political economy, is found in studies of and by Pacific islanders. Examples of this scholarship can be found in DeLoughrey 2007 and Hau’ofa 2008.

DeLoughrey, Elizabeth M. Routes and Roots: Navigating Caribbean and Pacific Island Literatures. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007. Through a comparative perspective of Caribbean and Pacific island literatures, this book examines how peoples of the two regions construct their identities through the routes that cross the ocean, as well as in the rootedness of seemingly isolated islands.

Dirlik, Arif, ed. What Is in a Rim? Critical Perspectives on the Pacific Region Idea. 2d ed. Pacific Formations. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998. Responding to the rise of the Pacific Rim as a region of trade and commerce, the contributors to this volume examine the various origins, manifestations, and subregional variations of the Pacific region idea.

Hau’ofa, Epeli. We Are the Ocean: Selected Works. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008. This is a collection of essays and literary works by the Tongan-Fijian scholar who was on the forefront of the effort by Pacific islanders to challenge the Western idea that the ocean is separate from, and subservient to, land.

Wilson, Rob, and Arif Dirlik, eds. Asia/Pacific as Space of Cultural Production. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995. Covering ground similar to Dirlik 1998, this edited volume originated in a special issue of the cultural studies journal boundary 2.

THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

From its position as the object of study by classical scholars to its contemporary place as a contested border zone between Europe and its “other,” the Mediterranean has long attracted the attention of scholars interested in the ways in which ocean regions foster difference About the Index

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Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. 2d ed. 2 vols. Translated by Siân Reynolds. New York: Harper & Row, 1972–1973. Originally published in French in 1966, this book not only launched the modern discipline of Mediterranean studies, it also initiated the geographically informed school of longue durée historical analysis. Reprinted as recently as 2000 (London: Folio Society).

Chambers, Iain. Mediterranean Crossings: The Politics of an Interrupted Modernity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008. This book argues for conceptualizing the Mediterranean as a postcolonial space of crossings, unified through processes that reproduce difference among its various societies, even as these processes bring about societies’ transformations.

Giaccaria, Paolo, and Claudio Minca. “The Mediterranean Alternative.” Progress in Human Geography 35.3 (June 2011): 345–365. Expanding in large part on the perspectives of Chambers 2008 and Matvejević 1999, as well as non-English-language material, this article argues for a geographic engagement with the cultural-studies literature on the Mediterranean. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Matvejević, Predrag. Mediterranean: A Cultural Landscape. Translated by Michael Henry Heim. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. A wide-ranging journey through the cultures and spaces of the Mediterranean, this book combines environmental and cultural history with travel narrative to provide an evocatively rich picture of the region.

THE CARIBBEAN SEA

As an ocean region whose population is descended mostly from ancestors who arrived there after journeys across other oceans (but to work the land), the sea has a complex role in Caribbean identities. Some of the most sophisticated investigations of this can be found in Caribbean works of fiction, theater, poetry, and essays, including Walcott 1986, Walcott 1990, and Glissant 1997. These and other literary works from the region are analyzed in DeLoughrey 2007.

DeLoughrey, Elizabeth M. Routes and Roots: Navigating Caribbean and Pacific Island Literatures. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007. This book provides an added dimension to studies of Caribbean island literature by comparing and contrasting it with literary works emanating from Pacific islands.

Glissant, Édouard. Poetics of Relation. Translated by Betsy Wing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997. The author uses a Caribbean perspective to argue for a creole identity in which the connections beyond islands—to other islands as well as to the mainland Americas—construct hybrid and dynamic cultural and political associations.

Walcott, Derek. Collected Poems, 1948–1984. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1986.

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Walcott, Derek. Omeros. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1990. In this Nobel Prize–winning epic poem, the history of Walcott’s native St. Lucia is told through a reworking of Homer’s maritime travels, constructing an image of the island, in time and space, that is threaded among maritime travels in a cascading series of seas.

THE ARCTIC OCEAN

Although historically receiving less attention than other ocean regions, the intersection of climate change, new opportunities for resource extraction, and the assertion of rights and identities by indigenous peoples is attracting the attention of scholars to the Arctic. In particular, geographers and others are seeking to understand how the region’s unique blend of land, water, and ice is leading metropolitan administrators, settlers, corporate interests, and indigenous residents to forge new identities and political institutions. Craciun 2010 approaches these questions through an analysis of early European imaginaries of the space, while Craciun 2009 and Dittmer, et al. 2011 take a more contemporary perspective. Shadian 2010 focuses specifically on how this is expressed through indigenous sovereignty movements.

Craciun, Adriana. “The Scramble for the Arctic.” Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 11.1 (March 2009): 103–114. This article proposes that the linkages and crossings, both within and outside the state system, that characterize the Arctic as a frozen maritime region may form a foundation for a planetary consciousness that avoids the pitfalls of cosmopolitanism. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Craciun, Adriana. “The Frozen Ocean.” Proceedings of the Modern Language Association 125.3 (May 2010): 693–702. Through an analysis of European exploration of the Arctic, this article discusses how the Arctic—and the underlying concept of a frozen ocean—confounds the cosmological division between land and water that has underpinned territorialization and imperial domination. Available online by subscription.

Dittmer, Jason, Sami Moisio, Alan Ingram, and Klaus Dodds. “Have You Heard the One about the Disappearing Ice? Recasting Arctic Geopolitics.” Political Geography 30.4 (May 2011): 202–214. This article analyzes current debates regarding the future of the Arctic and the incorporation of the ocean as an essential space that are occurring amidst climate change and melting ice caps. The authors focus on how narratives of the Arctic region’s potential tack between a masculinist ideal of frontier conquest and a feminist ideal of cooperation. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Polar Geography. Founded in 1900, this journal publishes articles both in physical and human geography, covering topics from throughout the Arctic and Antarctic regions, including many that cover changing maritime conditions, uses of the sea (and sea ice), and policy debates.

Shadian, Jessica. “From States to Polities: Reconceptualizing Sovereignty through Inuit Governance.” European Journal of International Relations 16.3 (September 2010): 485–510. Through an analysis of the policies and proclamations of the Inuit Circumpolar Council, this article suggests that the empowerment of indigenous peoples in the region is challenging both the ideal of the singular, territorial state and that of mutually exclusive national About the Index

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The Sea in Theory

While there is a growing body of scholarship concerning the sea as a space of society, geographers—and other scholars—have also been thinking with the sea, using the sea as a metaphor, or meme, for approaching a world of fluidities and depths. Key literature here includes conceptualization of the ship in Foucault 1986 and Casarino 2002, ruminations on the sea in Deleuze and Guatarri 1988, and a study on the differentiation between land and sea in Schmitt 2003. Critical reflections on the ways in which these thinkers use the sea (and their legacies in state practice) can be found in Connery 1996, Connery 2001, and Legg 2011, while Blum 2010 broadly addresses the problems that arise when scholars reduce the ocean to a metaphor.

Blum, Hester. “The Prospect of Oceanic Studies.” Proceedings of the Modern Language Association 125.3 (May 2010): 670–677. This article critiques aspects of the “oceanic turn” in cultural and literary studies, charging that by reducing the sea to a metaphor of connection and fluidity the actual lives and experiences of those who engage the sea as a space of life and work are obscured. Available online by subscription.

Casarino, Cesare. Modernity at Sea: Melville, Marx, Conrad in Crisis. Theory out of Bounds. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002. Expanding on the concept of the ship as heterotopia, posited in Foucault 1986, this book analyzes representations of the ship in 19th-century literature, suggesting that it was used to represent both the apogee and the antithesis of modernity.

Connery, Christopher L. “The Oceanic Feeling and the Regional Imaginary.” In Global/Local: Cultural Production and the Transnational Imaginary. Edited by Rob Wilson and Wimal Dissanayake, 284–311. Asia-Pacific. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996. In this chapter, the Western perspective on the ocean as an elemental frontier that marks both the limit of the state and an opportunity for state expansion is traced from Hegelian thought to the policy statements (and practices) of George Kennan.

Connery, Christopher L. “Ideologies of Land and Sea: Alfred Thayer Mahan, Carl Schmitt, and the Shaping of Global Myth Elements.” boundary 2 28.2 (Summer 2001): 173–201. In a follow-up to Connery 1996, this article traces the idea of an oppositional binary between land and sea, and how late-19th- and 20th-century geopolitical thinkers used that idealized binary as a justification for militarization in support of conquest. Available online by subscription.

Deleuze, Gilles, and Félix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Translated by Brian Massumi. London: Athlone, 1988. Chapter 14 (pp. 474–500), in which the ocean is discussed as the “smooth space par excellence,” has established a perspective used by many others who have attempted to use the sea as a tool for thinking through the dialectical rhythms of society.

Foucault, Michel. “Of Other Spaces.” Diacritics 16.1 (Spring 1986): 22–27. This article contains a brief discussion on the boat as heterotopia, which has spawned a number of studies (including Casarino 2002) About the Index

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Legg, Stephen, ed. Spatiality, Sovereignty, and Carl Schmitt: Geographies of the Nomos. Interventions. London and New York: Routledge, 2011. Several chapters in this book discuss the land–sea distinction that lies at the heart of Schmitt 2003.

Schmitt, Carl. The Nomos of the Earth in the International Law of the Jus Publicum Europaeum. Translated by G. L. Ulmen. New York: Telos, 2003. Originally published in 1950, this classic work of geopolitical theory begins with an explicit distinction between land and sea, and the distinction is maintained throughout the book to explain many of the behaviors of the modern state.

LAST MODIFIED: 02/26/2013

DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780199874002-0052

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